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Understanding Research
and Research Process
M S Ahluwalia

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Research Methods in Psychology

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Understanding Research and Research Process >> Contents
Contents
1. What is Research?
2. What is Good Research?
3. Why we do Research?
4. How we do Research – The Context
5. How we do Research – The Process
10

Psychology Super-NotesPsychoTech Services Psychology Learners 11
Assessment of Personality >> Introduction
1. What is Research?
Research
• The word research comprises of two parts, re and search:
− dictionary defines ‘Re-’ as a prefix meaning again, anew or over again and the ‘search’ as a verb,
meaning to examine closely and carefully, to test and try, or to probe.
− Together they form a noun describing a careful, systematic, patient study and investigation in
some field of knowledge, undertaken to establish facts or principles (Grinnell 1993).
• The simplest meaning of research is to search for facts, answers to research question and solution
for the problem.
Scientific Research
• Research is scientific when it uses the principles and practices of the scientific method.
• The use of experimental methods ensures nature of research is scientific. These methods involve
successful control and manipulation of variables associated with the research.
• A systematic and objective attempt to provide answers to certain questions.
• The purpose of scientific research is to discover and develop an organised body of knowledge
• In psychological research, rigorous scientific norms and statistical methods are applied in
collection, organisation, description and analysis of the data.
• Quantification of psychological facts ensures that the nature of research remains scientific.

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1.1. Definitions of Research
Scientific research may be defined as the
• systematic and empirical analysis and
recording of controlled observation,
• which may lead to the development of theories,
concepts, generalisations and principles,
• resulting in prediction and control of those
activities that may have some cause-effect
relationship.

Psychology Super-NotesPsychoTech Services Psychology Learners 13
Assessment of Personality >> Introduction
1.1. Definitions of Research
Research
Refers to the systematic method consisting of enunciating the problem, formulating a
hypothesis, collecting the facts or data, analysing the facts and reaching certain
conclusions either in the form of solution(s) towards the concerned problem or in
certain generalisations for some theoretical formulation.
Encyclopaedia of Social Science
• Research is “the manipulation of, generalising to extend, connect or verify
knowledge…” Manipulation incorporates experimentation adopted for the purpose of
arriving at generalisation.
Kerlinger (1973)
• Research is a “systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of
hypothetical propositions about the presumed relationship amongst various
phenomena.”
Burns (1994)
• Research is ‘a systematic investigation to find answers to a problem’.
Theory
A theory, such as a theory of motivation, or development, or learning, helps us to
organise new information into a coherent body, a set of related ideas that explain
events that have occurred and predict events that may happen.

Psychology Super-NotesPsychoTech Services Psychology Learners
Understanding Research and Research Process >> Contents
Contents
1. What is Research?
2. What is Good Research?
3. Why we do Research?
4. How we do Research – The Context
5. How we do Research – The Process
14

Psychology Super-NotesPsychoTech Services Psychology Learners 15
Assessment of Personality >> Introduction
2. What is Good Research? (1/2)
Purpose of research should be clearly definedClear Purpose
Common concepts that are used should be operationally definedConcept Definitions
Research procedure should be precisely planned, focused and
appropriately described in order to enable other researchers to do research
for further advancement
Codified Procedure
Research design should be carefully planned to generate results to
maintained objectivity.
Planned Design
Validity and reliability of data should be examined carefullyReliable and Valid
• Data analysis should be adequate for revealing significance of results
• Method of analysis employed should be appropriate
Proper Analysis
The research report should be as much as possible frank enough to gauge
effects of the findings.
Honest Report
Criteria of a good research

Psychology Super-NotesPsychoTech Services Psychology Learners 16
Assessment of Personality >> Introduction
2. What is Good Research? (2/2)
Research is structured according to a set of rules and follows certain steps in
specified sequence. Systematic research invites creative thinking, and avoids use of
guessing and intuition for arriving at the conclusion.
Systematic
Any conclusion drawn is based upon hardcore evidence gathered from information
collected from real life experiences and observations. This provides a basis for
external ability to research results.
Empirical
Research involves precise observation and accurate description. Researcher selects
reliable and valid instruments for collection of data and uses statistical measures
for accurate description of the results obtained. Whatever is concluded on the basis
of research can be verified by researcher and others.
Valid and Verifiable
Research is guided by the rules of reasoning, and logical processes of induction
(general to specific) and deduction (specific to general). Logical reasoning makes
research feasible and more meaningful in the context of decision making.
Logical
These are very helpful in accurate prediction regarding the variables under study.
Based on the research, researcher makes generalisations regarding the whole
population. Thus, research goes beyond immediate situations, objects or groups
being investigated by formulating a generalisation or theory about these factors.
Develops Theories and
Principles
Designs, procedures and results of scientific research should be replicable and
transmittable. Enables any person other than the researcher to assess their validity.
Any researcher may use or transmit the results obtained by another researcher.
Replicable and
Transmittable
Qualities of a good research

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Understanding Research and Research Process >> Contents
Contents
1. What is Research?
2. What is Good Research?
3. Why we do Research?
4. How we do Research – The Context
5. How we do Research – The Process
17

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Assessment of Personality >> Introduction
3. Why we do Research? (1/2)
Purpose of Research
To discover answers to questions using scientific procedures
Main Aim of Research
To find out the truth which is hidden, which has not been discovered as yet.
Objectives of Research
Different types of Research are conducted to meet different objectives as explained below:
Exploratory
Research
• To explore a
phenomenon, i.e.,
• to gain
familiarity with a
phenomenon, or
• to achieve new
insights into a
phenomenon
Descriptive
Research
• To describe a
phenomenon, i.e.,
to portray
accurately the
characteristics of
a particular
individual,
situation or group.
Diagnostic
Research
• To diagnose a
phenomenon i.e.,
to determine the
frequency with
which something
occurs or with
which it is
associated with
something else
Experimental/
Hypothesis-Testing
Research
• To conduct an
experiment to test
a hypothesis of a
causal relationship
between variables

Psychology Super-NotesPsychoTech Services Psychology Learners 19
Assessment of Personality >> Introduction
3. Why we do Research? (2/2)
Importance of Research in Psychology
• Research is an important source of guidelines for solving different problems related to
business, individual, profession, government and society.
• Psychologists have found research studies to be very helpful in gauging human and animal
behaviour. Empirical and theoretical researches in psychology are taking place in various fields,
such as learning, motivation, perception, concept learning and memory and so on.
• Psychological Research has led to notable progress in a number of fields such as organisational
behaviour, applied aspects of human being, medical sciences and education.
• Practical gains of psychological research include discoveries such as:
− improved methods of treating psychologically disordered people,
− better designs of vehicles to make them easier and safer to use, and
− new ways of enhancing the performance and happiness of workers.
• It is a kind of formal training which enables one to understand the new developments in one’s
field in a better way.
• Even if one never does any scientific research, mastering information on psychological research
is useful. It improves critical thinking skills – it teaches how to ask the right questions about
behaviour and how to evaluate the answers.

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Understanding Research and Research Process >> Contents
Contents
1. What is Research?
2. What is Good Research?
3. Why we do Research?
4. How we do Research – The Context
5. How we do Research – The Process
20

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Assessment of Personality >> Introduction
4. How we do Research – The Context
• Empirical investigation in any field requires the use of the scientific method to observe, measure,
and experiment.
• Psychological research of a topic can be divided into two major phases that usually occur in
sequence, and underline the context for the specific research:
Getting an Idea /
Context of Discovery
• In this phase, observation, belief, general
knowledge, information etc. lead to a new
or a different way of thinking about a
phenomenon.
• Psychologists use scientific theories,
testable hypothesis, and creative
paradigms to unravel the mysteries of mind
and behaviour.
• External and internal biases can distort the
findings.
Testing the Idea /
Context of Justification
• In this phase, ideas are tested and either
disconfirmed or proven and results are
prepared for communicating to others
• Scientific Method is used to get accurate
data and reliable evidence for generating
valid conclusions. It is a general set of
procedures for gathering and interpreting
evidence in ways that limit errors and yield
dependable conclusions. It demands special
attitudes and values in researchers.
• Psychologist must maintain objectivity by
various safeguards to generate reliable
results - that can be repeated in similar
conditions by independent investigators.

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Assessment of Personality >> Introduction
4.1. Role of Theories, Hypotheses and Paradigms
Role of Theories
in Research
• Psychological theories, in
general, attempt to
understand how brain,
mind, behaviour, and
environment function and
how they may be related.
• Particular theories focus on
a more specific aspect of
this broad conception,
using a body of interrelated
principles to explain or
predict some psychological
phenomenon.
• The value of a theory is
often measured in terms of
the new ideas, or
hypotheses, that can be
derived from it and
tested.
Role of Hypotheses
in Research
• A hypothesis is a tentative
and testable explanation
of the relationship
between two or more
events or variables.
• A variable is any factor that
changes, or varies, in size
or quality. Example: mood
may be a variable, since
people’s moods may vary
from one situation to
another. Test performance
is another variable, since a
person’s score may vary
from one test to the next.
Role of Paradigm
in Research
• Using the correct paradigm
helps us to understand
complex processes
• A paradigm is a model of
the functions and
interrelationships of a
process, a “way of thinking”
about the world and how to
study it.
• Entire field of knowledge,
including psychology, can
change directions when
new paradigm challenges
existing ones. When
paradigms shift, revolutions
of knowledge usually follow
(Kuhn, 1970).
22

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Assessment of Personality >> Introduction
4.1. Assumptions and Ordeal of Proof
Assumptions
Researchers begin with certain assumptions:
1. Determinism: all events (physical, mental and behavioural) result from specific causal factors.
2. Behaviour and mental processes follow set patterns of relationships that can be discovered and
revealed through research.
Ordeal of Proof
• Before a new theory, hypothesis, or paradigm makes a difference in science, it has to undergo an
“ordeal of proof.”
• Most often this happens when researchers publish (i.e. make public) their findings, and other
scholars investigate whether they find the same patterns in their own data.
• This process of publication and communication moves scientific research into the public eye,
where ideas are tested and proven.
23

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Assessment of Personality >> Introduction
4.1. Research Biases
• The ideas and beliefs of an individual are often linked with certain biases because they are
influenced by the individual’s opinions or values.
• While doing research, it is important to remain objective and free from any such biases.
• External influences such as one’s culture or the media can influence people to accept a particular
world view. A variety of biases have been found to distort people’s impressions of collected data.
24
Personal Bias
• Personal beliefs,
attributes, or past
experiences that distort
estimation or
evaluation processes
Observer Bias
• When some events are
taken as meaningful
by some and not by
others.
• Considering the
researchers are raised
in certain cultures and
societies - they are
exposed to certain
gender role
expectations.
• These background
factors can affect the
way researchers
observe and interpret
events in their lives.
Expectancy Bias
• Researchers often
expect certain
outcomes. This affects
observations of
behaviour by causing
reactions to the events
being observed.
• Unfortunately, if one is
not alert to the
possibility of
expectancy bias,
observed events may
seem “discovered”
instead of created by
the observer’s
expectations.
Placebo Bias
• When people strongly
want to believe a
treatment is successful.
• For example, many
people claim to feel
better after taking a
placebo (like sugar pill)
• When outcome
involves a subjective
judgment, that is, how
a person feels or
whether pain has
reduced, the desire for
a drug or therapeutic
method to work may
be enough to achieve
the desired result.

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Assessment of Personality >> Introduction
4.2. Scientific Attitudes and Values Associated
with Research Process
Science is not a set of rules but rather a process of asking, observing, explaining, testing, and
retesting explanations of reality.
25
• Scientists are motivated by a curiosity about the unknown and
the uncertain
Curiosity
• Since truth may be disguised, the scientific method demands a
critical and sceptical attitude towards any conclusion until it has
been duplicated repeatedly by independent investigations
Critical and Sceptical
Attitude
• All data and methods must eventually be open for public
verifiability and domain.
• Other researchers must have the opportunity to review the data
and conclusions and then attempt to replicate the results.
No secrecy

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Assessment of Personality >> Introduction
4.2. Objectivity Safeguards in Research Process
26
Procedural Safeguards
• Include keeping complete records of observations
and data analyses in a form that other
researchers can understand and evaluate
• Scientific reports have a similar form of
communicating ideas to the entire scientific
community opening them to criticism.
Standardisation
• Using uniform, consistent procedures in all phases
of data collection. All subjects should receive the
same instructions and be treated in the same way.
This ensures that they will have the same basic
experience.
Operationalisation
• Standardising the meaning of concepts
• An operational definition of a concept defines that
concept in terms of how it is measured or what
operations produce it.
Avoiding Bias
• Bias from external influences, personal beliefs,
observers’ perspectives, and human expectations
can all distort data.
• Researchers use various control procedures to
avoid such biases and test hypotheses in ways that
are fair and error-free.
Objectivity
Safeguards
Measures to ensure objectivity
of research

Psychology Super-NotesPsychoTech Services Psychology Learners
Understanding Research and Research Process >> Contents
Contents
1. What is Research?
2. What is Good Research?
3. Why we do Research?
4. How we do Research – The Context
5. How we do Research – The Process
27

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Understanding Research and Research Process >> How we do Research – The Process
5. How we do Research – The Process
28
Research is a process through which new knowledge is discovered.
• It follows a sequence of steps.
• The exact sequence and steps vary somewhat with the type of research.
− The steps vary slightly by whether a study involves a quantitative or a
qualitative approach and data.
• If the researcher follows the steps of the research process while
conducting research, the research can be expected to progress smoothly
1
Identify the Problem
2
Formulate Hypothesis
3
Identify the Variables
4
Formulate a Research Design
5
Construct Devices
6
Select Sample
7
Collect Data
8
Analyse and Interpret Data
9
Draw Conclusions
10
Report Findings

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Understanding Research and Research Process >> How we do Research – The Process
5.1. Identify the Problem
29
Steps to identify the research problem
Step 1:
Ask Question/Identify Need
• …arising from curiosity, which
needs an answer.
• This research question sets
the direction of study.
• In Psychology, studies answer
following kinds of questions:
• What events cause or
determine a given behaviour
or response?
• What is the nature of
behaviour or action (i.e., its
structure) and how it is
linked with other actions and
behaviours?
• What are the relationships of
internal psychological
processes with behavioural
phenomenon?
Step 2:
Identify factors to examine
• …to answer the question.
• Factors might range from
simple (ex: child’s age or
socioeconomic status), to
complicated measures (ex:
effects of domestic violence
on teenage behaviour)
• Other examples include
degree of violence in
programs, emotional arousal,
facial expression, family
communication patterns etc.
1
Identify the Problem
2
Formulate Hypothesis
3
Identify the Variables
4
Formulate a Research Design
5
Construct Devices
6
Select Sample
7
Collect Data
8
Analyse and Interpret Data
9
Draw Conclusions
10
Report Findings

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Understanding Research and Research Process >> How we do Research – The Process
5.1. Identify the Problem: Formulation
30
Steps in formulating the Research Problem
Purpose of formulating a Research Problem
• The main function of formulating a research problem is to decide what
you want to find out about.
Factors to be considered while choosing a Research Problem
• Has it been investigated before?
• Will it contribute to the understanding of your question?
• Is it available for investigation?
• Does it lead to another question?
• Do you have necessary resources such as funds, time, expertise and
knowledge available at your disposal?
• Are there any gaps in your knowledge of relevant disciplines, such as
statistics required for analysis?
Step 1
Understand the problem
Step 2
Rephrase the problem into
meaningful terms
1
Identify the Problem
2
Formulate Hypothesis
3
Identify the Variables
4
Formulate a Research Design
5
Construct Devices
6
Select Sample
7
Collect Data
8
Analyse and Interpret Data
9
Draw Conclusions
10
Report Findings

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Understanding Research and Research Process >> How we do Research – The Process
5.1. Identify the Problem: Literature Review (1/2)
31
1
Identify the Problem
2
Formulate Hypothesis
3
Identify the Variables
4
Formulate a Research Design
5
Construct Devices
6
Select Sample
7
Collect Data
8
Analyse and Interpret Data
9
Draw Conclusions
10
Report Findings
• Literature: A body of prior work related to a research problem.
• Scientific research includes a review of the relevant literature.
Advantages of Literature Review
• Eliminates chance of duplication: Researcher gains knowledge about
what has already been done.
• Provides guidance and suggestions for further research: Researcher
gains knowledge of gaps in current research – literature review helps him
to identify a good solvable problem
Sources of Literature Review
• Different sources of literature review include journals, books, abstracts,
indexes and periodicals.
• Computer search engine PsycINFO helps to explore the technical
literature. It contains abstracts of articles from most journals publishing
psychological research. If an abstract is useful, entire articles can be
accessed for additional information.

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Understanding Research and Research Process >> How we do Research – The Process
5.1. Identify the Problem: Literature Review (2/2)
32
1
Identify the Problem
2
Formulate Hypothesis
3
Identify the Variables
4
Formulate a Research Design
5
Construct Devices
6
Select Sample
7
Collect Data
8
Analyse and Interpret Data
9
Draw Conclusions
10
Report Findings
Purpose of Literature Review
• Tells us which variables have been found to be conceptually and
practically important and unimportant in the related field. Thus it helps in
discovering and selecting variables relevant for the given study.
• Provides an estimate of the previous work and an opportunity for the
meaningful extension of the previous work.
• Helps in systemising the expanding and growing body of knowledge. This
facilitates in drawing useful conclusions regarding the variables under
study and applying them meaningfully in research.
• Helps in redefining the variables and determining the meanings and
relationships among them so that the researcher can build up a case as
well as a context for further investigation that has merit and applicability.

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Understanding Research and Research Process >> How we do Research – The Process
5.2. Formulate Hypotheses
33
• A Hypothesis is a kind of suggested answer to the problem
• It may be defined as a testable statement showing a relationship
between variables under study.
• It is stated in the form of a declarative sentence.
• Example: you are interested to know the effect of reward on retention.
From analysis of past research you found that the two variables are
positively related. To convert this idea into a testable statement, you
develop the hypothesis: Those who are rewarded shall require lesser
number of trials to retain the lesson than those who are not rewarded.
• It plays a key role in formulating and guiding any study
• The hypotheses could be arrived at using deductive theory, or simply
based on previous research findings, or could be completely new
based on personal observations and experiences. From a careful
examination of relevant theory and previous findings, the psychologist
may state one or more prepositions whose validity could be tested.
• For unbiased research, hypothesis is formulated before data–gathering
begins, never after the data are collected.
1
Identify the Problem
2
Formulate Hypothesis
3
Identify the Variables
4
Formulate a Research Design
5
Construct Devices
6
Select Sample
7
Collect Data
8
Analyse and Interpret Data
9
Draw Conclusions
10
Report Findings

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Understanding Research and Research Process >> How we do Research – The Process
5.3. Identify the Variables
34
• Variables: those characteristics which are manipulated, controlled and/or
observed by the experimenter.
• Three sets of variables are recognised at the beginning of research:
Operational Definition of a Variable
• Make a variable clear, precise and easy to communicate by specifying
the actual operations that define a given variable.
• Important for measurement of complex psychological variables
• Verbal, behavioural and psychological measures of variables help to
specify the operations and may allow quantification.
1
Identify the Problem
2
Formulate Hypothesis
3
Identify the Variables
4
Formulate a Research Design
5
Construct Devices
6
Select Sample
7
Collect Data
8
Analyse and Interpret Data
9
Draw Conclusions
10
Report Findings
Dependent Variable
• Variable about which
the prediction is made
on the basis of the
experiment.
• It is the characteristic
or condition that
changes as the
researcher changes
the independent
variables.
Independent Variable
• It is the condition or
characteristic which is
manipulated or
selected to find out its
relationship to some
observed
phenomena.
Extraneous Variable
• An uncontrolled
variable that may
affect the dependent
variable.
• This effect is
unwanted so the
experimenter tries to
control it as far as
practicable.

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Understanding Research and Research Process >> How we do Research – The Process
5.4. Formulate a Research Design (1/2)
35
• Research design is the blueprint of procedures adopted for testing the
relationship between dependent and independent variables.
• The function of a research design is to explain how a researcher will find
answers to the research questions. The research design sets out the logic
of the inquiry.
• There are several kinds of experimental designs.
Criteria for selection of a particular Research Design
• Purpose of the research
• Types of variables to be controlled and manipulated, and
• Conditions under which the experiment is to be conducted
Purpose of Experimental Design
To help the researcher in manipulating the independent variables freely
and to provide maximum control of the extraneous variables so that it may
be said with all certainty that the experimental change is due to only the
manipulation of the experimental variable.
1
Identify the Problem
2
Formulate Hypothesis
3
Identify the Variables
4
Formulate a Research Design
5
Construct Devices
6
Select Sample
7
Collect Data
8
Analyse and Interpret Data
9
Draw Conclusions
10
Report Findings

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Understanding Research and Research Process >> How we do Research – The Process
5.4. Formulate a Research Design (2/2)
36
Components of a Research Design
• Logistical arrangements
• Measurement procedures
• Sampling strategy
• Frame of analysis
• Time frame of Research
Importance of Research Design
• An appropriate research design is crucial in enabling the researcher to
arrive at valid findings, comparisons and conclusions.
• A faulty design may result in misleading findings.
• Empirical investigation is primarily evaluated in light of the adopted
research design.
While selecting a research design it is important to ensure it is valid, workable
and manageable.
1
Identify the Problem
2
Formulate Hypothesis
3
Identify the Variables
4
Formulate a Research Design
5
Construct Devices
6
Select Sample
7
Collect Data
8
Analyse and Interpret Data
9
Draw Conclusions
10
Report Findings

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Understanding Research and Research Process >> How we do Research – The Process
5.5. Construct Devices
37
• The next step is to construct or choose appropriate tools of research
for scientific observation and measurement.
• ‘Tools of research’ are ways through which data is collected by asking
people for information rather than observing them
• Questionnaire and interview schedule are the most common tools
developed for psychological research.
• Researcher may have to develop appropriate tools before undertaking
the study, if readymade tools are not available
1
Identify the Problem
2
Formulate Hypothesis
3
Identify the Variables
4
Formulate a Research Design
5
Construct Devices
6
Select Sample
7
Collect Data
8
Analyse and Interpret Data
9
Draw Conclusions
10
Report Findings

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Understanding Research and Research Process >> How we do Research – The Process
5.6. Select Sample
38
• Researcher also needs to decide about the participants of the study.
• Usually a small sample is drawn which represents the population.
• The participants could belong to any of the demographic groups such as
children, adolescents, college students, teachers, managers, clinical
patients or any group of the individual in whom/where the
phenomenon under investigation is prevalent.
1
Identify the Problem
2
Formulate Hypothesis
3
Identify the Variables
4
Formulate a Research Design
5
Construct Devices
6
Select Sample
7
Collect Data
8
Analyse and Interpret Data
9
Draw Conclusions
10
Report Findings

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Understanding Research and Research Process >> How we do Research – The Process
5.7. Collect Data
39
• Researcher chooses the method of data collection depending on the
nature of research problem
• Examples of data collection methods include observation, experiment,
case study, and survey
• Researcher also decides how the tools should be administered to collect
data – whether individually or in a group.
• In data collection phase, researcher must recruit staff, assign work to
them, look for ways to increase response rate and pay for training of staff
etc. Effect of each of these must be evaluated in terms of cost, accuracy,
reliability and validity.
1
Identify the Problem
2
Formulate Hypothesis
3
Identify the Variables
4
Formulate a Research Design
5
Construct Devices
6
Select Sample
7
Collect Data
8
Analyse and Interpret Data
9
Draw Conclusions
10
Report Findings

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Understanding Research and Research Process >> How we do Research – The Process
5.8. Analyse and Interpret Data
40
• The data collected are analysed with the help of various quantitative /
statistical and qualitative techniques .
• Careful scrutiny of the data is a critical aspect of scientific method.
Purpose of Analysis
• To make sense of data
• See what they tell about the problem
• To test null hypothesis so that alternative hypothesis may be (dis)proven.
• Draw conclusions accordingly.
Types of Analysis
Depending upon the nature of data and purpose of the experiment, either a
parametric or a non-parametric statistic is chosen for statistical analysis.
1
Identify the Problem
2
Formulate Hypothesis
3
Identify the Variables
4
Formulate a Research Design
5
Construct Devices
6
Select Sample
7
Collect Data
8
Analyse and Interpret Data
9
Draw Conclusions
10
Report Findings
Univariate Analysis
• Researcher deals
with a single
characteristic of
interest
Bivariate Analysis
• Researcher deals
with two
characteristics of
interest
Multivariate Analysis
• Researcher deals
with more then two
characteristics of
interest

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Understanding Research and Research Process >> How we do Research – The Process
5.9. Draw Conclusions
41
• The investigator draws some conclusions by analysing the results
• The investigator makes a statement about the research problem which
he could not make without conducting his research
• Researcher generalises the conclusion to the whole population.
• During this phase, hypotheses are accepted or rejected
• The conclusions of the study are related to the theory or research
findings from which the hypotheses originally came
• Depending on the new findings the original theory may have to be
modified
1
Identify the Problem
2
Formulate Hypothesis
3
Identify the Variables
4
Formulate a Research Design
5
Construct Devices
6
Select Sample
7
Collect Data
8
Analyse and Interpret Data
9
Draw Conclusions
10
Report Findings

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Understanding Research and Research Process >> How we do Research – The Process
5.10. Report Findings
42
• The last step for the researcher in most of the research studies is to
prepare and publish the report
• The researcher documents the entire process of his or her research
clearly in the report
• The report covers:
− what was done
− what was discovered
− what conclusion has been drawn from findings.
Importance of Reporting
• It helps the reader to understand the study and apply/use it for various
purposes
• It allows others to replicate the study.
• The publication of study in scientific journals or books and in public
domain makes the work available for wider dissemination.
1
Identify the Problem
2
Formulate Hypothesis
3
Identify the Variables
4
Formulate a Research Design
5
Construct Devices
6
Select Sample
7
Collect Data
8
Analyse and Interpret Data
9
Draw Conclusions
10
Report Findings

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