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Volcanoes and OtherVolcanoes and Other
Igneous ActivityIgneous Activity
Chapter 5
NOT all Volcanic Eruptions are the SameNOT all Volcanic Eruptions are the Same
NOT all Volcanic EruptionsNOT all Volcanic Eruptions
are the Sameare the Same
• Three factors determine the
“violence” or explosiveness of a
volcanic eruption:
1. Composition of the magma
2. Temperature of the magma
3. Dissolved gases in the magma
ViscosityViscosity
• These three factors control the viscosity
of a given magma.
• Which in turn controls the nature of an
eruption.
• Viscosity is a measure of a material’s
resistance to flow.
– Higher viscosity materials flow with great
difficulty.
Factors Affecting ViscosityFactors Affecting Viscosity
1. Temperature – Hotter magmas are less
viscous.
2. Composition – Silica (SiO2) content
– Higher silica content = more SiO4
chains/structures = higher viscosity
• felsic lava – rhyolite
– Lower silica content = fewer SiO4
chains/structures = lower viscosity or more
fluid like behavior
• mafic lava – basalt
3. Dissolved Gases
• The violence of an eruption is related to
how easily gases escape from magma.
– Gas content affects magma mobility.
– Volatiles migrate upward and accumulate
near the top of the magma chamber.
enriching the upper portion of the magma
chamber with dissolved gases.
– Gases expand within a magma as it nears
the Earth’s surface due to decreasing
pressure.
– Escaping gases provide the force to propel
molten rock from the volcanic vent.
Factors Affecting ViscosityFactors Affecting Viscosity
3. Dissolved Gases
– Very fluid basaltic
magmas allow the
gases to migrate
upwards and escape
the vent with relative
ease.
– Produces lava
fountains extending
hundreds of meters
in height.
Factors Affecting ViscosityFactors Affecting Viscosity
3. Dissolved Gases
– Highly siliceous magmas
undergo magmatic
differentiation leaving the
upper portion of the magma
chamber enriched in silica
and dissolved gases.
– The volcano summit begins
to inflate and bulge months
to years prior to eruption.
– As the magma migrates up
the vent, the gases collect
into tiny bubbles.
– The mixture is transformed
into a gas jet containing tiny
magma fragments that are
explosively ejected.
– Produces plumes of a hot
ash-laden gases called
eruption columns that
extends thousands of meters
into the atmosphere.
Factors Affecting ViscosityFactors Affecting Viscosity
The Nature of VolcanicThe Nature of Volcanic
EruptionsEruptions
• In Summary:
– Fluid basaltic lavas generally produce quiet
eruptions.
• Basaltic flow rates between 30-1000 ft/hour.
• Traveling up to 90 miles (150 km) from the vent.
– Highly viscous lavas (rhyolite or andesite)
produce more explosive eruptions.
• Rhyolitic lava are much slower.
• Seldom travel more than a few kilometers from
their vents.
Materials ExtrudedMaterials Extruded
from Volcanoesfrom Volcanoes
1. Lava Flows
2. Volatiles
3. Pyroclastic Material
Lava FlowsLava Flows
Pahoehoe Lava Flow inPahoehoe Lava Flow in
Hawaii VolcanoesHawaii Volcanoes
National ParkNational Park
• Types of Basaltic Flows:
• Pahoehoe lava
resembles a
twisted or ropey
texture.
PahoehoePahoehoe
Lava FlowLava Flow
in Hawaiiin Hawaii
VolcanoesVolcanoes
NationalNational
ParkPark
PahoehoePahoehoe lava flows canlava flows can containcontain lavalava
tubestubes, cave-like tunnels that were, cave-like tunnels that were
horizontal conduits for lava.horizontal conduits for lava.
Lava Tube in HawaiiLava Tube in Hawaii
Volcanoes National ParkVolcanoes National Park
Lava FlowsLava Flows
– Pahoehoe flows are hotter, richer in gases, and
travel faster than aa flows.
– Basaltic lavas can begin as pahoehoe flows and
become aa flows.
• Types of Basaltic Flows:
• Aa lava has a rough,
jagged blocky texture.
– Cool and thick with gases
escaping forming
numerous voids and
sharp spines.
• Types of Basaltic Flows:
– Pillow lavas – lava that formed
underwater.
Lava FlowsLava Flows
• Occur along oceanic ridges.
• Lava cools quickly forming
an outer skin.
• Lava advances by breaking
through the outer rind.
• Forms elongated structures
resembling pillows.
Pillow Basalts, Olympic National Park,
Washington
• Magmas contain varying amounts of
dissolved gases held in the molten rock
under confining pressure.
– Consists mainly of:
• water vapor and carbon dioxide
– Lesser amounts of:
• nitrogen, sulfur dioxide, chlorine, hydrogen,
argon
– Contribute significantly the planet’s
atmosphere (natural air pollution).
– Rise into the atmosphere and may reside
there for years potentially impacting climate.
Dissolved Gases (Volatiles)Dissolved Gases (Volatiles)
Volcanoes and ClimateVolcanoes and Climate
• Explosive eruptions emit huge quantities
of gases and fine-grained debris into the
atmosphere which
• Filter out and reflect a portion of the
incoming solar radiation.
• This can cause cooling on a global scale.
• Examples of volcanism affecting climate:
• Mount Tambora, Indonesia – 1815
• Krakatau, Indonesia – 1883
• Mount Pinatubo, Philippines – 1991
• Ash and Dust – Fine, glassy fragments
compose tuffs and welded tuffs.
• Pumice – Porous rock from “frothy” lava
or rhyolitic composition.
• Scoria – Vesicular rock of typically
basaltic composition.
• Cinders – Glassy vesicular fragments 4 -
32 mm.
Pyroclastic Materials –
“Fire Fragments”
• Lapilli – pyroclastic fragments 2-64 mm in size.
• Particles larger than lapilli:
Pyroclastic Materials –
“Fire Fragments”
• Blocks – pyroclasts more
than 64 mm in diameter
ejected in the solid state
(rock torn from the vent
wall).
• Bombs – ejected blob of
hot lava streamlined
during flight (more than
64 mm in diameter).
Bomb is approximately 10 cm long
Anatomy of VolcanoesAnatomy of Volcanoes
Anatomy of VolcanoesAnatomy of Volcanoes
• General Features
– Magma chamber is connected to the surface by
a conduit or pipe that terminates at a surface
vent.
Anatomy of VolcanoesAnatomy of Volcanoes
• General Features
– Opening at the summit of a volcano:
• Crater – steep-walled, circular depression at the
summit, generally less than 1 km diameter.
– Produced by explosive excavation of rock during eruptions.
• Caldera – a summit depression typically greater than
1 km diameter.
– Produced by collapse following a massive eruption.
Anatomy of VolcanoesAnatomy of Volcanoes
• General Features
– Mature volcanoes develop fissures along the
flanks and base producing parasitic cones and
fumaroles (emit only gases and smoke).
Types of Volcanoes andTypes of Volcanoes and
Their CharacteristicsTheir Characteristics
Insert Plate Tectonic
Boundary Features
Animation #66
Plate Tectonics and Igneous ActivityPlate Tectonics and Igneous Activity
• Global distribution of igneous activity is not random.
• Most volcanoes are located within or near ocean
basins or along continental margins.
• Each type of plate tectonic boundary produces a
specific type of igneous activity.
Plate Tectonics andPlate Tectonics and
Igneous ActivityIgneous Activity
• Basaltic igneous activity is common in
both oceanic and continental settings.
• Granitic igneous activity is rarely found
in the oceans.
Not all Volcanoes are the SameNot all Volcanoes are the Same
• Factors determining the size
and shape of volcanoes:
1. Volume of lava erupted
2. Viscosity of lava:
• Composition of the magma
• Temperature of the magma
• Dissolved gases in the magma
Shield VolcanoesShield Volcanoes
• Broad, slightly domed-shaped.
• Composed primarily of basaltic lava.
• Generally cover large areas.
• Produced by mild eruptions of large volumes of
lava.
Mauna LoaMauna Loa
Shield VolcanoesShield Volcanoes
• Most grow up from the seafloor to form islands or sea
mounts.
• From ocean floor to summit, Mauna Loa is over 6 miles
high (higher than Mt. Everest [~32,000 feet]).
• Large steep-walled calderas occupy the summit.
• Mature volcanoes erupt lava from the summit and rift
zones that develop along the slopes (flank).
Cinder
Cones -
Haleakala
Maui
• During late stages, shield
volcanoes produce clusters of
cinder cones in summit area.
Shield Volcanoes
and Plate TectonicsPlate Tectonics
• Shield volcanoes are a product
of intra-plate volcanism in
oceanic crust.
– Activity within a tectonic plate.
– Associated with plumes of heat
upwelling in the mantle – mantle
plume.
– Form localized volcanic regions
in the overriding plate called a
hot spot.
– Produces basaltic magmas
creating:
• Shield volcanoes
• Volcanic chains and seamounts
Volcanism on aVolcanism on a
Tectonic PlateTectonic Plate
Moving over aMoving over a
Hot SpotHot Spot
Produces ShieldProduces Shield
VolcanoesVolcanoes
(basaltic) and(basaltic) and
Volcanic IslandVolcanic Island
and Seamountand Seamount
ChainsChains
Global distribution of flood basalt provinces (black) and associated hot-
spots (red dots). Red dashed lines are hot spot tracks, which appear as lines
of volcanic structures on the ocean floor. The Keweenawan and Siberian
Traps formed in failed continental rifts where the crust had been greatly
thinned. Whether there is a connection between the Columbia River basalts
and the Yellowstone hot spot is still a matter of ongoing research.
Cinder Cone VolcanoesCinder Cone Volcanoes
Sunset Crater – a Cinder ConeSunset Crater – a Cinder Cone
near Flagstaff, Arizonanear Flagstaff, Arizona • Built from ejected lava
fragments – pyroclastic
cinders or clinkers (glassy
vesicular fragments).
• Fragments range in size
from ash to bombs,
primarily lapilli.
• Product of gas-rich basaltic
magma (scoria).
• Steep slope angle.
• Rather small size.
• Frequently occur in groups.
Parasitic Cinder Cones, Mauna Kea, Hawaii
Late-Stage Cinder
Cones, Mauna Kea
Summit, Hawaii
Cinder Cone Volcanoes and
Plate TectonicsPlate Tectonics
• Cinder cone volcanoes are the product of late-
stage volcanism in various tectonic
environments.
– Basaltic magmas:
• Associated with hot spot volcanism in oceanic crust:
– Shield Volcano Flanks and Calderas
• Associated with hot spot volcanism in continental crust:
– Flanks of Calderas
• Associated with subduction zones between oceanic-oceanic
crust and oceanic-continental crust:
– Stratovolcano Flanks and Calderas
• Large, classic-shaped volcano (1000’s of feet high &
several miles wide at base).
• Composed of interbedded lava flows and layers of
pyroclastic debris.
• Primarily andesitic in composition with lesser basaltic
and rhyolitic lavas.
Composite or StratovolcanoesComposite or Stratovolcanoes
• Explosive eruptions that eject huge quantities of
pyroclastic material.
• Most are located adjacent to the Pacific Ocean
(e.g., Fujiyama, Mt. St. Helens).
Composite or StratovolcanoesComposite or Stratovolcanoes
Mt. St. HelensMt. St. Helens
Mt. St.Mt. St.
HelensHelens
19801980
EruptionEruption
Mt. St. Helens FollowingMt. St. Helens Following
the 1980 Eruptionthe 1980 Eruption
• Stratovolcanoes erupt
violently…
– Often produce a nueé
ardente (glowing
avalanche):
• Fiery pyroclastic flow
made of hot gases
infused with ash,
pumice, and other
debris.
• Felsic and intermediate
magmas.
• Material ejected at high
velocities.
Pyroclastic FlowsPyroclastic Flows
NueNueé Ardente on Mt. St. Helensé Ardente on Mt. St. Helens
• Nueé ardente (glowing
avalanche):
– Forms from the collapse
(overcome by gravity) of tall
eruption columns.
– Moves down the slopes of a
volcano at speeds up to 200 km
(125 miles) per hour.
– Traveling up to more than 60
miles from the vent.
– Ground-hugging portion is rich
in particular matter suspended
by jets of buoyant gases (nearly
frictionless).
Pyroclastic FlowsPyroclastic Flows
• Stratovolcanoes may produce lahars, or
volcanic mudflows:
– Mixture of volcanic debris and water.
– Moves rapidly down slope (30 kph or more)
following stream valleys.
– Triggered when large volumes of ice and
snow melt during an eruption.
– Also generated when heavy rainfall saturates
weathered volcanic deposits.
– Highly destructive.
LaharsLahars
Lahar from Mt. St. Helens -- On March 18, 1980, an explosive eruption on Mt. St.
Helens generated a 14-kilometer-high eruption plume. Melted snow from the
eruption produced the dark-colored lahar seen in this photo. Part of the lahar flowed
into Spirit Lake (lower left). However, most of the lahar flowed into the North Fork
of the Toutle River valley (right), eventually reaching the Cowlitz River, 80
kilometers downstream. Courtesy of Thomas J. Casadevall, USGS.
The snow-covered peaks of the Cascade volcanoes in
Washington, Oregon, and northern California pose a clear
threat to surrounding towns and villages. Past events
suggest that a catastrophic lahar could lie in the future of
Mt. Rainier, the largest of the Cascade volcanoes. The
4,000 m high summit of Mt. Rainier contains the largest
system of alpine glaciers in the Cascade Range. The
periodic melting of glacier ice from Mt. Rainier has
generated at least 50 major lahars over the past 10,000
years. The largest of these mudflow deposits, one of the
world's largest, is the ~5700-year-old Osceola lahar,
shown in the adjacent map (green) (courtesy of USGS). The
Osceola lahar traveled down the White River, over 112 km
from its source. It then spread out at its mouth to cover an
area of over 300 square kilometers along the shoreline of
Puget Sound. The recent geologic history of Mt. Rainier
demonstrates that a major mudflow descends down the
White River once every 600 years. The younger 500-year-
old Electron lahar (see map – yellow) was also generated
from Mt. Rainier. It flowed 56 kilometers down the
Puyallup River to within 15 kilometers of Tacoma,
Washington. More than 300,000 people now live in the
area covered by these extensive lahars! Unlike floods,
such catastrophic mudflows can occur with little or no
warning. Some volcanologists have predicted that Mt.
Rainier will be the site of the next Cascade eruption.
Therefore, the volcano is monitored closely, with the hope
that we can warn the local population before the next lahar
strikes.
Lahars atLahars at
Mt. RainerMt. Rainer
Eruptive Frequency of
Cascade Range
Stratovolcanoes
• Stratovolcanoes are the product of subduction
zone igneous activity along oceanic-oceanic and
oceanic-continental convergent plate
boundaries.
– Occur in conjunction with deep oceanic trenches.
– Descending plate causes partial melting (wet
melting) of the mantle.
• A volcanic island arc if in the ocean – evolves
from early-stage mantle-derived basalts to
mature andesites and rhyolites.
• A continental volcanic arc if along a continental
margin – primarily andesites and rhyolites lesser
basalts.
Stratovolcanoes and
Plate TectonicsPlate Tectonics
IgneousIgneous
ActivityActivity
AlongAlong
SubductionSubduction
ZonesZones
• Associated with the Pacific Ocean
Basin margin is known as the “Ring
of Fire”.
Stratovolcanoes and
Plate TectonicsPlate Tectonics
• Most of the
world’s
explosive
volcanoes are
found here.
Size Comparison of theSize Comparison of the
Three Types of VolcanoesThree Types of Volcanoes
• Large collapse depressions with approximate circular diameter.
• Steep-walled depressions at the summit.
• Size generally exceeds 1 km in diameter.
• Formed by the eruption of large volumes of magma from a shallow
underground magma reservoir.
• Results in loss of structural support for the overlying rock.
• Leading to collapse of the ground and formation of a large depression.
CalderasCalderas
Form by one of the following processes:
1. Collapse of the summit of a large composite volcano
following the eruption of silica-rich pryroclastic
eruption (Crater Lake).
CalderasCalderas
Crater Lake Caldera, Oregon (6 miles diameter)Crater Lake Caldera, Oregon (6 miles diameter)
2. Collapse of the top of a shield volcano caused
by subterranean drainage from the central
magma chamber to rift zone – flank
eruptions (Mauna Loa).
CalderasCalderas
3. Collapse of large
area, independent
of any preexisting
volcanic
structures, caused
by discharge of
colossal volumes
of silica-rich
pyroclastics along
ring fractures
(Yellowstone).
CalderasCalderas
Image courtesy of the United States Geological Survey.
YellowstoneYellowstone
CalderaCaldera
Calderas and Plate TectonicsPlate Tectonics
– Form localized
volcanic regions in the
overriding plate called
a hot spot.
– Produces granitic
magmas creating:
• Calderas
• Calderas are a product of intra-plate
volcanism in continental crust.
– Activity within a tectonic plate.
– Associated with plumes of heat upwelling in the
mantle – mantle plume.
Yellowstone
Valles
Long Valley
Large Calderas in the U.S.Large Calderas in the U.S.
• Long Valley, CaliforniaLong Valley, California
• Yellowstone, WyomingYellowstone, Wyoming
• Valles, New MexicoValles, New Mexico
Long Valley CalderaLong Valley Caldera
• Located in eastern
California.
• Caldera is elliptical in
shape.
• Approximately 10 X 20
miles across.
• Last volcanic activity
~550-600 years ago at
Inyo Craters.
• Huge eruption 730,000
years ago ejected about
600 km3
of material.
Long ValleyLong Valley
Caldera,Caldera,
Looking fromLooking from
SW to NESW to NE
Inside the LongInside the Long
Valley CalderaValley Caldera
Ash Deposits from LongAsh Deposits from Long
Valley Eruption, 730,000Valley Eruption, 730,000
years ago.years ago.
Potential Thickness ofPotential Thickness of
Tephra from Eruption of lessTephra from Eruption of less
than 1 kmthan 1 km33
of Magma.of Magma.
Fissure Eruptions
and Lava Plateaus
• Huge volumes of volcanic
material are extruded from
fractures in the crust called
fissures.
• Fluid basaltic lava extrude
via fissure eruptions (flood
basalts) building up a thick
lava plateau.
• e.g., Columbia River
Plateau (nearly 1 mile
thick of flood basalts).
Flood Basalts and Plate TectonicsPlate Tectonics
• Flood basalts are a product of
intra-plate volcanism in
continental crust.
– Activity within a tectonic plate.
– Associated with plumes of heat
upwelling in the mantle –
mantle plume.
– Form localized volcanic regions
in the overriding plate called a
hot spot.
– Produces basaltic magmas
creating:
• Flood basalts in continental
environments (Columbia
Plateau).
Global distribution of flood basalt provinces (black) and associated hot-
spots (red dots). Red dashed lines are hot spot tracks, which appear as lines
of volcanic structures on the ocean floor. The Keweenawan and Siberian
Traps formed in failed continental rifts where the crust had been greatly
thinned. Whether there is a connection between the Columbia River basalts
and the Yellowstone hot spot is still a matter of ongoing research.
• Spreading Centers
– The greatest volume
of volcanic rock is
produced along the
oceanic ridge system.
– Continental or oceanic
rifting.
– Results in partial
melting of mantle
(decompression
melting).
– Large quantities of
basaltic magma are
produced.
Lava DomesLava Domes
• Most are associated with composite cones that
produce explosive eruptions of silica- and gas-rich
lavas.
• Typify late stages if mature, chiefly andesitic
cones.
Lava Dome on Mt. St. HelensLava Dome on Mt. St. Helens
• Bulbous mass
of congealed
lava.
• Form in the
summit crater.
Climbing Mount St. Helens
Climbing Mount St. Helens
Climbing Mount St. Helens
Volcanic PipesVolcanic Pipes
• Most volcanic pipes are conduits that connect a magma chamber
to the surface.
• Pipes may extend in a tube-like manner to depth exceeding 200
km (rare).
• Enables ultramafic rocks from the mantle to reach the surface
that have undergone very little alteration.
• Diamond-bearing kimberlite dikes.
Volcanic NecksVolcanic Necks
• Erosion of the outer flanks of the
volcanic cone leave behind the more-
resistant neck.
Shiprock, NMShiprock, NM
– A Volcanic– A Volcanic
NeckNeck
• Form as igneous rocks cool at or near the surface.
• Shrinkage fractures formed by tensional forces that
cracks the rock as it contracts during cooling.
• Produces elongated, pillar-like columns.
• Common is lava flows and sills.
Columnar JointsColumnar Joints
Plutonic Igneous ActivityPlutonic Igneous Activity
Plutonic Igneous Bodieslutonic Igneous Bodies
• Most magma is emplaced at depth in the
Earth.
• An underground igneous body, once
cooled and solidified, is called a pluton.
Classification of Plutons
2. Orientation with
respect to the host
(surrounding) rock:
– Discordant – cuts
across existing
structures or rock
units.
– Concordant –
parallel to existing
structures of rock
units.
• Classification of Plutons:
1. Shape
• Tabular (sheetlike)
• Massive
3. Size
Types of Intrusive Igneous Features
• Dike – a tabular, discordant pluton where
magma has injected into fractures.
– Pathways that fed ancient lava flows.
– Occur in clusters – radiating around neck.
VerticalVertical
Dike NearDike Near
Granby,Granby,
ColoradoColorado
• Sill – a tabular, concordant pluton where magma
has injected along sedimentary bedding surfaces.
– Occur in shallow environments less force required to move
overlying rock layers.
– Frequently cut across layers and resume concordant nature at a
higher level.
Types of Intrusive Igneous Features
A Sill in the Salt River Canyon,A Sill in the Salt River Canyon,
ArizonaArizona
• Laccolith
– Similar to a sill (near-surface environment).
– Lens or mushroom-shaped mass.
– Generated by accumulation of more viscous
magma.
Types of Intrusive Igneous Features
– Arches
overlying
strata
upward.
• Two Types of Plutons (based on size)
– Batholiths
• Largest intrusive body.
• Surface exposure of 100+
square
kilometers.
Types of Intrusive Igneous Features
• Frequently
form the
cores of
mountains.
• Two Types of Plutons (based on size)
– Stocks
• Smaller
• Surface exposure less than 100 square
kilometers.
Types of Intrusive Igneous Features
• Batholiths consist of
large numbers of
distinct plutons
(including stocks) that
were intruded over
millions of years.
Batholiths of WesternBatholiths of Western
North AmericaNorth America
The Sierra Nevada Batholith exposed inThe Sierra Nevada Batholith exposed in
Yosemite Natl. ParkYosemite Natl. Park

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محاضره جيو نضري الخامسه

  • 1. Volcanoes and OtherVolcanoes and Other Igneous ActivityIgneous Activity Chapter 5
  • 2. NOT all Volcanic Eruptions are the SameNOT all Volcanic Eruptions are the Same
  • 3. NOT all Volcanic EruptionsNOT all Volcanic Eruptions are the Sameare the Same • Three factors determine the “violence” or explosiveness of a volcanic eruption: 1. Composition of the magma 2. Temperature of the magma 3. Dissolved gases in the magma
  • 4. ViscosityViscosity • These three factors control the viscosity of a given magma. • Which in turn controls the nature of an eruption. • Viscosity is a measure of a material’s resistance to flow. – Higher viscosity materials flow with great difficulty.
  • 5. Factors Affecting ViscosityFactors Affecting Viscosity 1. Temperature – Hotter magmas are less viscous. 2. Composition – Silica (SiO2) content – Higher silica content = more SiO4 chains/structures = higher viscosity • felsic lava – rhyolite – Lower silica content = fewer SiO4 chains/structures = lower viscosity or more fluid like behavior • mafic lava – basalt
  • 6. 3. Dissolved Gases • The violence of an eruption is related to how easily gases escape from magma. – Gas content affects magma mobility. – Volatiles migrate upward and accumulate near the top of the magma chamber. enriching the upper portion of the magma chamber with dissolved gases. – Gases expand within a magma as it nears the Earth’s surface due to decreasing pressure. – Escaping gases provide the force to propel molten rock from the volcanic vent. Factors Affecting ViscosityFactors Affecting Viscosity
  • 7. 3. Dissolved Gases – Very fluid basaltic magmas allow the gases to migrate upwards and escape the vent with relative ease. – Produces lava fountains extending hundreds of meters in height. Factors Affecting ViscosityFactors Affecting Viscosity
  • 8. 3. Dissolved Gases – Highly siliceous magmas undergo magmatic differentiation leaving the upper portion of the magma chamber enriched in silica and dissolved gases. – The volcano summit begins to inflate and bulge months to years prior to eruption. – As the magma migrates up the vent, the gases collect into tiny bubbles. – The mixture is transformed into a gas jet containing tiny magma fragments that are explosively ejected. – Produces plumes of a hot ash-laden gases called eruption columns that extends thousands of meters into the atmosphere. Factors Affecting ViscosityFactors Affecting Viscosity
  • 9. The Nature of VolcanicThe Nature of Volcanic EruptionsEruptions • In Summary: – Fluid basaltic lavas generally produce quiet eruptions. • Basaltic flow rates between 30-1000 ft/hour. • Traveling up to 90 miles (150 km) from the vent. – Highly viscous lavas (rhyolite or andesite) produce more explosive eruptions. • Rhyolitic lava are much slower. • Seldom travel more than a few kilometers from their vents.
  • 10. Materials ExtrudedMaterials Extruded from Volcanoesfrom Volcanoes 1. Lava Flows 2. Volatiles 3. Pyroclastic Material
  • 11. Lava FlowsLava Flows Pahoehoe Lava Flow inPahoehoe Lava Flow in Hawaii VolcanoesHawaii Volcanoes National ParkNational Park • Types of Basaltic Flows: • Pahoehoe lava resembles a twisted or ropey texture.
  • 12. PahoehoePahoehoe Lava FlowLava Flow in Hawaiiin Hawaii VolcanoesVolcanoes NationalNational ParkPark
  • 13. PahoehoePahoehoe lava flows canlava flows can containcontain lavalava tubestubes, cave-like tunnels that were, cave-like tunnels that were horizontal conduits for lava.horizontal conduits for lava. Lava Tube in HawaiiLava Tube in Hawaii Volcanoes National ParkVolcanoes National Park
  • 14. Lava FlowsLava Flows – Pahoehoe flows are hotter, richer in gases, and travel faster than aa flows. – Basaltic lavas can begin as pahoehoe flows and become aa flows. • Types of Basaltic Flows: • Aa lava has a rough, jagged blocky texture. – Cool and thick with gases escaping forming numerous voids and sharp spines.
  • 15. • Types of Basaltic Flows: – Pillow lavas – lava that formed underwater. Lava FlowsLava Flows • Occur along oceanic ridges. • Lava cools quickly forming an outer skin. • Lava advances by breaking through the outer rind. • Forms elongated structures resembling pillows. Pillow Basalts, Olympic National Park, Washington
  • 16. • Magmas contain varying amounts of dissolved gases held in the molten rock under confining pressure. – Consists mainly of: • water vapor and carbon dioxide – Lesser amounts of: • nitrogen, sulfur dioxide, chlorine, hydrogen, argon – Contribute significantly the planet’s atmosphere (natural air pollution). – Rise into the atmosphere and may reside there for years potentially impacting climate. Dissolved Gases (Volatiles)Dissolved Gases (Volatiles)
  • 17. Volcanoes and ClimateVolcanoes and Climate • Explosive eruptions emit huge quantities of gases and fine-grained debris into the atmosphere which • Filter out and reflect a portion of the incoming solar radiation. • This can cause cooling on a global scale. • Examples of volcanism affecting climate: • Mount Tambora, Indonesia – 1815 • Krakatau, Indonesia – 1883 • Mount Pinatubo, Philippines – 1991
  • 18. • Ash and Dust – Fine, glassy fragments compose tuffs and welded tuffs. • Pumice – Porous rock from “frothy” lava or rhyolitic composition. • Scoria – Vesicular rock of typically basaltic composition. • Cinders – Glassy vesicular fragments 4 - 32 mm. Pyroclastic Materials – “Fire Fragments”
  • 19. • Lapilli – pyroclastic fragments 2-64 mm in size. • Particles larger than lapilli: Pyroclastic Materials – “Fire Fragments” • Blocks – pyroclasts more than 64 mm in diameter ejected in the solid state (rock torn from the vent wall). • Bombs – ejected blob of hot lava streamlined during flight (more than 64 mm in diameter). Bomb is approximately 10 cm long
  • 21. Anatomy of VolcanoesAnatomy of Volcanoes • General Features – Magma chamber is connected to the surface by a conduit or pipe that terminates at a surface vent.
  • 22. Anatomy of VolcanoesAnatomy of Volcanoes • General Features – Opening at the summit of a volcano: • Crater – steep-walled, circular depression at the summit, generally less than 1 km diameter. – Produced by explosive excavation of rock during eruptions. • Caldera – a summit depression typically greater than 1 km diameter. – Produced by collapse following a massive eruption.
  • 23. Anatomy of VolcanoesAnatomy of Volcanoes • General Features – Mature volcanoes develop fissures along the flanks and base producing parasitic cones and fumaroles (emit only gases and smoke).
  • 24. Types of Volcanoes andTypes of Volcanoes and Their CharacteristicsTheir Characteristics
  • 25. Insert Plate Tectonic Boundary Features Animation #66 Plate Tectonics and Igneous ActivityPlate Tectonics and Igneous Activity • Global distribution of igneous activity is not random. • Most volcanoes are located within or near ocean basins or along continental margins. • Each type of plate tectonic boundary produces a specific type of igneous activity.
  • 26. Plate Tectonics andPlate Tectonics and Igneous ActivityIgneous Activity • Basaltic igneous activity is common in both oceanic and continental settings. • Granitic igneous activity is rarely found in the oceans.
  • 27. Not all Volcanoes are the SameNot all Volcanoes are the Same • Factors determining the size and shape of volcanoes: 1. Volume of lava erupted 2. Viscosity of lava: • Composition of the magma • Temperature of the magma • Dissolved gases in the magma
  • 28. Shield VolcanoesShield Volcanoes • Broad, slightly domed-shaped. • Composed primarily of basaltic lava. • Generally cover large areas. • Produced by mild eruptions of large volumes of lava. Mauna LoaMauna Loa
  • 29. Shield VolcanoesShield Volcanoes • Most grow up from the seafloor to form islands or sea mounts. • From ocean floor to summit, Mauna Loa is over 6 miles high (higher than Mt. Everest [~32,000 feet]). • Large steep-walled calderas occupy the summit. • Mature volcanoes erupt lava from the summit and rift zones that develop along the slopes (flank).
  • 30. Cinder Cones - Haleakala Maui • During late stages, shield volcanoes produce clusters of cinder cones in summit area.
  • 31. Shield Volcanoes and Plate TectonicsPlate Tectonics • Shield volcanoes are a product of intra-plate volcanism in oceanic crust. – Activity within a tectonic plate. – Associated with plumes of heat upwelling in the mantle – mantle plume. – Form localized volcanic regions in the overriding plate called a hot spot. – Produces basaltic magmas creating: • Shield volcanoes • Volcanic chains and seamounts
  • 32. Volcanism on aVolcanism on a Tectonic PlateTectonic Plate Moving over aMoving over a Hot SpotHot Spot Produces ShieldProduces Shield VolcanoesVolcanoes (basaltic) and(basaltic) and Volcanic IslandVolcanic Island and Seamountand Seamount ChainsChains
  • 33. Global distribution of flood basalt provinces (black) and associated hot- spots (red dots). Red dashed lines are hot spot tracks, which appear as lines of volcanic structures on the ocean floor. The Keweenawan and Siberian Traps formed in failed continental rifts where the crust had been greatly thinned. Whether there is a connection between the Columbia River basalts and the Yellowstone hot spot is still a matter of ongoing research.
  • 34. Cinder Cone VolcanoesCinder Cone Volcanoes Sunset Crater – a Cinder ConeSunset Crater – a Cinder Cone near Flagstaff, Arizonanear Flagstaff, Arizona • Built from ejected lava fragments – pyroclastic cinders or clinkers (glassy vesicular fragments). • Fragments range in size from ash to bombs, primarily lapilli. • Product of gas-rich basaltic magma (scoria). • Steep slope angle. • Rather small size. • Frequently occur in groups.
  • 35. Parasitic Cinder Cones, Mauna Kea, Hawaii
  • 36. Late-Stage Cinder Cones, Mauna Kea Summit, Hawaii
  • 37. Cinder Cone Volcanoes and Plate TectonicsPlate Tectonics • Cinder cone volcanoes are the product of late- stage volcanism in various tectonic environments. – Basaltic magmas: • Associated with hot spot volcanism in oceanic crust: – Shield Volcano Flanks and Calderas • Associated with hot spot volcanism in continental crust: – Flanks of Calderas • Associated with subduction zones between oceanic-oceanic crust and oceanic-continental crust: – Stratovolcano Flanks and Calderas
  • 38. • Large, classic-shaped volcano (1000’s of feet high & several miles wide at base). • Composed of interbedded lava flows and layers of pyroclastic debris. • Primarily andesitic in composition with lesser basaltic and rhyolitic lavas. Composite or StratovolcanoesComposite or Stratovolcanoes
  • 39. • Explosive eruptions that eject huge quantities of pyroclastic material. • Most are located adjacent to the Pacific Ocean (e.g., Fujiyama, Mt. St. Helens). Composite or StratovolcanoesComposite or Stratovolcanoes Mt. St. HelensMt. St. Helens
  • 41. Mt. St. Helens FollowingMt. St. Helens Following the 1980 Eruptionthe 1980 Eruption
  • 42. • Stratovolcanoes erupt violently… – Often produce a nueé ardente (glowing avalanche): • Fiery pyroclastic flow made of hot gases infused with ash, pumice, and other debris. • Felsic and intermediate magmas. • Material ejected at high velocities. Pyroclastic FlowsPyroclastic Flows NueNueé Ardente on Mt. St. Helensé Ardente on Mt. St. Helens
  • 43. • Nueé ardente (glowing avalanche): – Forms from the collapse (overcome by gravity) of tall eruption columns. – Moves down the slopes of a volcano at speeds up to 200 km (125 miles) per hour. – Traveling up to more than 60 miles from the vent. – Ground-hugging portion is rich in particular matter suspended by jets of buoyant gases (nearly frictionless). Pyroclastic FlowsPyroclastic Flows
  • 44. • Stratovolcanoes may produce lahars, or volcanic mudflows: – Mixture of volcanic debris and water. – Moves rapidly down slope (30 kph or more) following stream valleys. – Triggered when large volumes of ice and snow melt during an eruption. – Also generated when heavy rainfall saturates weathered volcanic deposits. – Highly destructive. LaharsLahars
  • 45. Lahar from Mt. St. Helens -- On March 18, 1980, an explosive eruption on Mt. St. Helens generated a 14-kilometer-high eruption plume. Melted snow from the eruption produced the dark-colored lahar seen in this photo. Part of the lahar flowed into Spirit Lake (lower left). However, most of the lahar flowed into the North Fork of the Toutle River valley (right), eventually reaching the Cowlitz River, 80 kilometers downstream. Courtesy of Thomas J. Casadevall, USGS.
  • 46. The snow-covered peaks of the Cascade volcanoes in Washington, Oregon, and northern California pose a clear threat to surrounding towns and villages. Past events suggest that a catastrophic lahar could lie in the future of Mt. Rainier, the largest of the Cascade volcanoes. The 4,000 m high summit of Mt. Rainier contains the largest system of alpine glaciers in the Cascade Range. The periodic melting of glacier ice from Mt. Rainier has generated at least 50 major lahars over the past 10,000 years. The largest of these mudflow deposits, one of the world's largest, is the ~5700-year-old Osceola lahar, shown in the adjacent map (green) (courtesy of USGS). The Osceola lahar traveled down the White River, over 112 km from its source. It then spread out at its mouth to cover an area of over 300 square kilometers along the shoreline of Puget Sound. The recent geologic history of Mt. Rainier demonstrates that a major mudflow descends down the White River once every 600 years. The younger 500-year- old Electron lahar (see map – yellow) was also generated from Mt. Rainier. It flowed 56 kilometers down the Puyallup River to within 15 kilometers of Tacoma, Washington. More than 300,000 people now live in the area covered by these extensive lahars! Unlike floods, such catastrophic mudflows can occur with little or no warning. Some volcanologists have predicted that Mt. Rainier will be the site of the next Cascade eruption. Therefore, the volcano is monitored closely, with the hope that we can warn the local population before the next lahar strikes. Lahars atLahars at Mt. RainerMt. Rainer
  • 47. Eruptive Frequency of Cascade Range Stratovolcanoes
  • 48. • Stratovolcanoes are the product of subduction zone igneous activity along oceanic-oceanic and oceanic-continental convergent plate boundaries. – Occur in conjunction with deep oceanic trenches. – Descending plate causes partial melting (wet melting) of the mantle. • A volcanic island arc if in the ocean – evolves from early-stage mantle-derived basalts to mature andesites and rhyolites. • A continental volcanic arc if along a continental margin – primarily andesites and rhyolites lesser basalts. Stratovolcanoes and Plate TectonicsPlate Tectonics
  • 50. • Associated with the Pacific Ocean Basin margin is known as the “Ring of Fire”. Stratovolcanoes and Plate TectonicsPlate Tectonics • Most of the world’s explosive volcanoes are found here.
  • 51. Size Comparison of theSize Comparison of the Three Types of VolcanoesThree Types of Volcanoes
  • 52. • Large collapse depressions with approximate circular diameter. • Steep-walled depressions at the summit. • Size generally exceeds 1 km in diameter. • Formed by the eruption of large volumes of magma from a shallow underground magma reservoir. • Results in loss of structural support for the overlying rock. • Leading to collapse of the ground and formation of a large depression. CalderasCalderas
  • 53. Form by one of the following processes: 1. Collapse of the summit of a large composite volcano following the eruption of silica-rich pryroclastic eruption (Crater Lake). CalderasCalderas Crater Lake Caldera, Oregon (6 miles diameter)Crater Lake Caldera, Oregon (6 miles diameter)
  • 54. 2. Collapse of the top of a shield volcano caused by subterranean drainage from the central magma chamber to rift zone – flank eruptions (Mauna Loa). CalderasCalderas
  • 55. 3. Collapse of large area, independent of any preexisting volcanic structures, caused by discharge of colossal volumes of silica-rich pyroclastics along ring fractures (Yellowstone). CalderasCalderas Image courtesy of the United States Geological Survey. YellowstoneYellowstone CalderaCaldera
  • 56. Calderas and Plate TectonicsPlate Tectonics – Form localized volcanic regions in the overriding plate called a hot spot. – Produces granitic magmas creating: • Calderas • Calderas are a product of intra-plate volcanism in continental crust. – Activity within a tectonic plate. – Associated with plumes of heat upwelling in the mantle – mantle plume.
  • 57. Yellowstone Valles Long Valley Large Calderas in the U.S.Large Calderas in the U.S. • Long Valley, CaliforniaLong Valley, California • Yellowstone, WyomingYellowstone, Wyoming • Valles, New MexicoValles, New Mexico
  • 58. Long Valley CalderaLong Valley Caldera • Located in eastern California. • Caldera is elliptical in shape. • Approximately 10 X 20 miles across. • Last volcanic activity ~550-600 years ago at Inyo Craters. • Huge eruption 730,000 years ago ejected about 600 km3 of material.
  • 59. Long ValleyLong Valley Caldera,Caldera, Looking fromLooking from SW to NESW to NE Inside the LongInside the Long Valley CalderaValley Caldera
  • 60. Ash Deposits from LongAsh Deposits from Long Valley Eruption, 730,000Valley Eruption, 730,000 years ago.years ago. Potential Thickness ofPotential Thickness of Tephra from Eruption of lessTephra from Eruption of less than 1 kmthan 1 km33 of Magma.of Magma.
  • 61. Fissure Eruptions and Lava Plateaus • Huge volumes of volcanic material are extruded from fractures in the crust called fissures. • Fluid basaltic lava extrude via fissure eruptions (flood basalts) building up a thick lava plateau. • e.g., Columbia River Plateau (nearly 1 mile thick of flood basalts).
  • 62. Flood Basalts and Plate TectonicsPlate Tectonics • Flood basalts are a product of intra-plate volcanism in continental crust. – Activity within a tectonic plate. – Associated with plumes of heat upwelling in the mantle – mantle plume. – Form localized volcanic regions in the overriding plate called a hot spot. – Produces basaltic magmas creating: • Flood basalts in continental environments (Columbia Plateau).
  • 63. Global distribution of flood basalt provinces (black) and associated hot- spots (red dots). Red dashed lines are hot spot tracks, which appear as lines of volcanic structures on the ocean floor. The Keweenawan and Siberian Traps formed in failed continental rifts where the crust had been greatly thinned. Whether there is a connection between the Columbia River basalts and the Yellowstone hot spot is still a matter of ongoing research.
  • 64. • Spreading Centers – The greatest volume of volcanic rock is produced along the oceanic ridge system. – Continental or oceanic rifting. – Results in partial melting of mantle (decompression melting). – Large quantities of basaltic magma are produced.
  • 65. Lava DomesLava Domes • Most are associated with composite cones that produce explosive eruptions of silica- and gas-rich lavas. • Typify late stages if mature, chiefly andesitic cones. Lava Dome on Mt. St. HelensLava Dome on Mt. St. Helens • Bulbous mass of congealed lava. • Form in the summit crater.
  • 69. Volcanic PipesVolcanic Pipes • Most volcanic pipes are conduits that connect a magma chamber to the surface. • Pipes may extend in a tube-like manner to depth exceeding 200 km (rare). • Enables ultramafic rocks from the mantle to reach the surface that have undergone very little alteration. • Diamond-bearing kimberlite dikes.
  • 70. Volcanic NecksVolcanic Necks • Erosion of the outer flanks of the volcanic cone leave behind the more- resistant neck. Shiprock, NMShiprock, NM – A Volcanic– A Volcanic NeckNeck
  • 71. • Form as igneous rocks cool at or near the surface. • Shrinkage fractures formed by tensional forces that cracks the rock as it contracts during cooling. • Produces elongated, pillar-like columns. • Common is lava flows and sills. Columnar JointsColumnar Joints
  • 73. Plutonic Igneous Bodieslutonic Igneous Bodies • Most magma is emplaced at depth in the Earth. • An underground igneous body, once cooled and solidified, is called a pluton.
  • 74. Classification of Plutons 2. Orientation with respect to the host (surrounding) rock: – Discordant – cuts across existing structures or rock units. – Concordant – parallel to existing structures of rock units. • Classification of Plutons: 1. Shape • Tabular (sheetlike) • Massive 3. Size
  • 75. Types of Intrusive Igneous Features • Dike – a tabular, discordant pluton where magma has injected into fractures. – Pathways that fed ancient lava flows. – Occur in clusters – radiating around neck.
  • 77. • Sill – a tabular, concordant pluton where magma has injected along sedimentary bedding surfaces. – Occur in shallow environments less force required to move overlying rock layers. – Frequently cut across layers and resume concordant nature at a higher level. Types of Intrusive Igneous Features
  • 78. A Sill in the Salt River Canyon,A Sill in the Salt River Canyon, ArizonaArizona
  • 79. • Laccolith – Similar to a sill (near-surface environment). – Lens or mushroom-shaped mass. – Generated by accumulation of more viscous magma. Types of Intrusive Igneous Features – Arches overlying strata upward.
  • 80. • Two Types of Plutons (based on size) – Batholiths • Largest intrusive body. • Surface exposure of 100+ square kilometers. Types of Intrusive Igneous Features • Frequently form the cores of mountains.
  • 81. • Two Types of Plutons (based on size) – Stocks • Smaller • Surface exposure less than 100 square kilometers. Types of Intrusive Igneous Features • Batholiths consist of large numbers of distinct plutons (including stocks) that were intruded over millions of years.
  • 82. Batholiths of WesternBatholiths of Western North AmericaNorth America The Sierra Nevada Batholith exposed inThe Sierra Nevada Batholith exposed in Yosemite Natl. ParkYosemite Natl. Park

Editor's Notes

  1. We discussed the various types of igneous rocks last week and in general how they formed. Now we are going to look more deeply into their environment of formation. How does their chemistry affect the type of volcanic eruptions produced, rocks formed, and volcanic structures.
  2. Show The Nature of Volcanic Eruptions Tutorial from Chapter 5 of the Geode Earth CDROM.
  3. We discussed the various types of igneous rocks last week and in general how they formed. Now we are going to look more deeply into their environment of formation. How does their chemistry affect the type of volcanic eruptions produced, rocks formed, and volcanic structures.
  4. The release of gases is like what happens when you pop the top off a soda bottle. There is a sudden release of pressure, but because the soda is very fluid, the gases escape easily and there is not explosion.
  5. We discussed the various types of igneous rocks last week and in general how they formed. Now we are going to look more deeply into their environment of formation. How does their chemistry affect the type of volcanic eruptions produced, rocks formed, and volcanic structures.
  6. Now I am going to discuss the various types of volcanoes and their eruptive styles. This will effect the types of rocks they produce and volcanic structures manifested.
  7. Now I am going to discuss the various types of volcanoes and their eruptive styles. This will effect the types of rocks they produce and volcanic structures manifested.
  8. Now I am going to discuss the various types of volcanoes and their eruptive styles. This will effect the types of rocks they produce and volcanic structures manifested.
  9. We discussed the various types of igneous rocks last week and in general how they formed. Now we are going to look more deeply into their environment of formation. How does their chemistry affect the type of volcanic eruptions produced, rocks formed, and volcanic structures.
  10. We discussed the various types of igneous rocks last week and in general how they formed. Now we are going to look more deeply into their environment of formation. How does their chemistry affect the type of volcanic eruptions produced, rocks formed, and volcanic structures.