2. Tourism is the most competitive industry in the world. (Word Trade Organisation, 2009) For
Scotland, tourism is a vital source of income for the Scottish economy, and a healthy and
strong tourism industry is considered essential for the country’s future (VisitScotland, 2007).
New destinations are continually emerging, making the tourism market extremely
competitive. There has also been a development in the social thinking of ethical purchasing
and responsible consumption over the last decade (Green and Ethical Consumers Report,
2007) raising the issue of sustainable tourism (Wheeler, 1995).
This dissertation addresses the key perceptions of tourism consumers concerning ethical
purchasing and responsible consuming so that it may be used by tourism organisations to;
firstly, gain insight into ethical consumers, and furthermore, instigate behavioural changes
through effective ‘green’ social marketing (Cohen, 2001). In relation to these aims a
conceptual framework (Miles & Huberman, 1994) was developed covering six key areas: 1)
Development of green thinking (Peattie, 2008); 2) Sustainable tourism (Wheeler, 1995; )3)
Corporate Social Responsibility (Crane & Matten, 2006); 4) Services Marketing (Ryan, 1991), 5)
Green Marketing (Wasik, 1996) and 6) Relationship Marketing (Gordon, 1991).
Qualitative and quantitative views differ in terms of ontology, epistemology and
methodology and so the researcher committed to a mixed method approach (Teddlie &
Tashakkori, 2003) and follow a largely pragmatic paradigm, so the research strategy could be
flexible as it was a learning process (Easterby-Smith et al, 1997). However an interpretivist
approach (Patton, 2002) was taken in order to collect data on participant’s experiences,
emotions and decision making processes, which led to a more phenomenological paradigm
in this instance.
The chosen research methods were focus groups (Krueger, 1998), surveys and semi
structured interviews (Jones & Stopher, 2003). The combination of these methods generated
rich, comprehensive, quantitative and qualitative findings making the approach successful.
This dissertation indicates that there is not enough being done to promote the awareness of
sustainable tourism in Scotland, a new finding. Consumers do not associate ethical
purchasing with tourism services, and so building awareness of sustainable tourism should
be first and foremost applied, to bring the concept of sustainable tourism into mainstream
culture. Therefore furthering the work of Wheeler (1995) and Ginsberg & Bloom (2004).
Signed:_________________________
Date: _______________
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3. Thank you to:
Liz Logie-MacIver: For your continual support, knowledge and patience throughout the
planning and completion of this dissertation.
VisitScotland: For providing excellent contacts in order to seek the background information
required for this dissertation.
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4. Abstract ............................................................................................................................................. 2
Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................................... 3
1. Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 8
1.1 Proposal ................................................................................................................................. 8
1.2 Background ............................................................................................................................ 8
1.3 Topic........................................................................................................................................ 8
1.4 Chapter Summary ................................................................................................................. 9
1.5 Time Plan .............................................................................................................................. 10
1.6 Diary / Blog ........................................................................................................................... 10
2. Context ........................................................................................................................................ 11
2.1 VisitScotland ........................................................................................................................ 11
2.2 Tourism ................................................................................................................................ 12
2.3 Importance of Tourism for Scotland ................................................................................ 12
2.3 Ethical Consumers .............................................................................................................. 12
2.4 Green Trends ....................................................................................................................... 13
2.5 Marketing Communication Tools ...................................................................................... 13
2.6 Green Wash ......................................................................................................................... 13
2.7 PESTEL .................................................................................................................................. 14
2.7.1 Political Factors ................................................................................................................ 14
2.7.2 Economic Factors ............................................................................................................. 15
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5. 2.7.3 Social Factors .................................................................................................................... 15
2.7.4 Technological Factors ...................................................................................................... 16
3. Literature Review ....................................................................................................................... 17
3.1 Development of Green Thinking ....................................................................................... 17
3.2 Sustainable Tourism ........................................................................................................... 18
3.3 Corporate Social Responsibility ........................................................................................ 19
3.4 Services Marketing .............................................................................................................. 20
3.5 Green Marketing ................................................................................................................. 20
3.6 Relationship Marketing ...................................................................................................... 21
3.7 Conclusion............................................................................................................................ 22
4. Methodology .............................................................................................................................. 23
4.1 Aims ...................................................................................................................................... 23
4.2 Primary and Secondary Research ..................................................................................... 23
4.3 Theoretical Frameworks / Approaches ............................................................................ 24
4.3 Research Objectives............................................................................................................ 24
4.4 Research Strategy ............................................................................................................... 24
4.5 Research Philosophy .......................................................................................................... 25
4.6 Research Techniques .......................................................................................................... 26
4.7 Research Methods .............................................................................................................. 27
4.7.1 Focus Groups .................................................................................................................... 27
4.7.2 Hybrid Semi Structured Interview / Survey .................................................................. 28
4.8 Method Development ........................................................................................................ 28
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6. 4.8.1 Target Group .................................................................................................................... 29
4.8.2 Sampling ........................................................................................................................... 29
4.8.3 Developing the Focus Group and Hybrid Questionnaire ........................................... 30
4.8.4 Recruitment ...................................................................................................................... 31
4.9 Ethics ..................................................................................................................................... 31
5. Analysis ....................................................................................................................................... 31
5.1 Data Analysis Methodology ............................................................................................... 31
5.1.1 Raw Data ........................................................................................................................... 32
5.1.2 Description ........................................................................................................................ 32
5.1.3 Interpretation ................................................................................................................... 32
5.2 Summary .............................................................................................................................. 32
5.3 Ethical Consumers .............................................................................................................. 33
5.4 Environmental Issues ......................................................................................................... 35
5.5 Development of Green Thinking ....................................................................................... 37
5.6 Responsibility ....................................................................................................................... 39
5.7 Relationship Marketing ...................................................................................................... 40
5.8 Green Washing .................................................................................................................... 41
5.9 Conclusion............................................................................................................................ 43
6. Conclusions and Recommendations....................................................................................... 44
6.1 Central Aim .......................................................................................................................... 44
6.2 The G.R.R.E.E.D Framework ............................................................................................... 44
6.3 Methodology used .............................................................................................................. 46
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7. 6.4 Recommendations .............................................................................................................. 46
Bibliography .................................................................................................................................... 48
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8. 1.1 Proposal
This dissertation aims to explore the impact of all green policies and practices on marketing
and Tourism in Scotland. It will also analyse the affect that green marketing can have on a
company, with particular focus on the Scottish Tourist Board – VisitScotland.
As marketing is a consumer led management process (Peattie, 1992), it is important to
consider the influence that consumers have on both marketing practice and corporate
behaviour. These will be referred to as consumer behaviour and business ethics/ corporate
social responsibility.
In line with Miles and Huberman (1994) the approach required to complete this dissertation
involves data collection, suggested themes, and groupings.
The dissertation will describe what responsibilities the marketing team within VisitScotland
have, towards the main environmental issues such as recycling, use of environmental
products; less use of plastic and paper. Furthermore the dissertation will uncover the
potential role that VisitScotland has in helping with Scotland’s environmental policies,
through marketing and influencing consumers of Scottish tourism.
1.2 Background
Background on the key themes identified from the conceptual framework can be found in
Appendix 4. This gives a brief outline of each concept as well as a short summary of what
VisitScotland do.
1.3 Topic
In particular the dissertation will look to answer the following key questions relating to the
role of green marketing in Scottish Tourism:
What are green issues?
What do green issues mean for a business?
Can all businesses adopt green issues?
What do VisitScotland do to combat green issues?
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9. What effects have green issues had on consumer behaviour, in terms of buying and decision
making?
Do ethical tourists exist?
What are the green implications for VisitScotland and tourism in Scotland?
What can VisitScotland do to incorporate green marketing?
1.4 Chapter Summary
Context - The context describes the size, and growth of tourism as an industry. It also
outlines key trends in terms of ethical consumers. The rise in profile of green marketing and
the social issues raised for VisitScotland will be presented in the form of a PEST analysis
Literature Review – The literature review focuses on existing theory of the six key concepts of
the dissertation, these were based on an initial conceptual framework found in appendix 1
and then a revised framework (appendix 2) as more themes were developed from literature
(Miles and Huberman, 1994). These themes are:
Development of Green Thinking (Peattie, 1992)
Sustainable Tourism (Wheeler, 1995)
Corporate Social Responsibility (Crane & Matten, 2006)
Services Marketing (Chung-Herrera, 2007)
Green Marketing (Wasik, 1996)
Relationship Marketing (Gordon, 1991)
Within each concept, the quintessential themes and theories will be outlined and compared.
Each concept will be critically reviewed.
Methodology – The dissertation aims to provide new knowledge which can develop further
understanding of the key concepts identified. The Methodology describes and justifies the
practical methods and approaches used in collecting this primary research.
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10. 1.5 Time Plan
The time scale for this dissertation covered the period from October 2008 to April
2009. For the dissertation, an initial time plan was made, with guide dates for completing
each stage/chapter of the dissertation.
As work on the dissertation continued these guidelines were revised as the learning process
(Easterby-Smith et al, 1997) had changed. The time plan can be seen in appendix 3.
1.6 Diary / Blog
As part of the dissertation a monthly diary was kept as a tool to show the learning
development of the author.
The diary offers information on progress through the dissertation as well as outlining any
challenges faced. These monthly extracts will be handed in together with the dissertation
and are evidence of reflective learning (Boyd & Fayles, 1983) throughout the previously
identified time frame.
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11. The purpose of this chapter is to introduce the reader to the key concepts of tourism and
ethical consumers, which gives a context to the dissertation.
2.1 VisitScotland
VisitScotland is a publicly funded body, accountable to the Minister for Enterprise, Energy
and Tourism. (VisitScotland, 2007)
The Scottish Tourist Board was established under the Development of Tourism Act 1969. The
Board’s principal functions under the 1969 Act were to encourage British people to take
holidays in Scotland, to encourage the provision and improvement of tourist facilities and
amenities in Scotland, and to advise Government and public bodies on matters relating to
tourism in Scotland (Jeffs, 2008). In 2001, the ‘Scottish Tourist Board’ became ‘VisitScotland’.
(www.visitscotland.org [15/04/2009])
As the national tourism organisation, they have 1000 members of staff based in offices and
Tourism Information Centres (TICs) around the country. (www.visitscotland.org,
[15/04/2009]) Their key function is ‘to help deliver sustainable economic growth by maximising
the economic benefits of tourism to Scotland. ‘ (VisitScotland, 2007, pg 3)
VisitScotland work closely with private businesses, public agencies and local authorities. At
the heart of this collaboration is the need to ensure that both the business and leisure
visitors experience the very best of Scotland. VisitScotland also act as a national coordinator
to ensure that Scotland makes the most of its outstanding tourism assets and realises its
potential. (Jeffs, 2008, pg 5) Essentially the aim is to inspire and encourage people to Visit
Scotland.
VisitScotland.com is the trading name for eTourism Ltd, the private public partnership
formed in 2002 to deliver tourism bookings for Scotland. The company works in partnership
with VisitScotland to provide comprehensive information on accommodation, visitor
attractions and local information. (www.visitscotland.org, [15/04/2009])
The company formed as a PPP, is owned by VisitScotland (36%) Atos Origin Ltd, a global
technology company (7%), Tiscover, the world’s leading provider of tourism website and
destination management technology (35%) and Partnerships UK (22%).
VisitScotland.com works with over 9,000 accommodation suppliers across the country to
help visitors find and book a place to stay. Hoteliers wishing to market their properties via
the website and contact centre can provide the company with an allocation of rooms to sell
to the market. (Jeffs, 2008, pg 5) VisitScotland.com has sold over £60 million of bookings in
total since launching in November 2002. (www.visitscotland.org, [15/04/2009])
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12. Details of VisitScotland’s brand values can be found on appendix 5.
2.2 Tourism
The World Tourism Organisation (2009) attribute tourism as ”an Economic and Social
Phenomenon” (World Tourism Organisation, 2009, pg 7). Tourism concerns any set of
actvities that involve a consumer travelling outside their regular environment for less than a
year. (Smith, 1997)
2.3 Importance of Tourism for Scotland
Detailing tourism further, the World Tourism Organisation states that as an industry, tourism
is one of the fastest growing in the world. For many countries, modern tourism is closely
linked to their economic development. (www.UNTWO.org, [17/04/2009]) This viewpoint is
also evident from writers such as Wheeler (1995); Haywood (1990); Middleton (1988) who
describe tourism and the marketing of tourism as a phenomena. Scotland is no exception to
this and tourism is fundamental to the Scottish economy, with the Scottish Executive viewing
tourism as a key contributor to the country’s future economic success (VisitScotland, 2007).
In 2006, Scotland achieved over 16 million visitors (VisitScotland Tourism Prospectus, 2007).
The Scottish tourism industry in 2006 accounted for 9% of the overall employment in
Scotland (National Statistics, 2006). “UK consumers represent 83% of volume and 65% of value
to Scottish tourism, delivering £2.7 billion to the economy” (UKTS 2006, pg 9).
The international tourism industry has grown substantially in the last 50 years, from 25
million consumers in 1950 to 803 million in 2005 (Yeoman, 2008). It is predicted that this
figure could reach 1.9 billion in the next 25 years (Yeoman 2008), which correlates with the
attributed rapid growth of the world tourism industry (World Tourism Organisation, 2009).
This growth can be attributed to new tourist destinations that are constantly emerging, and
so Scotland as a tourism product faces ever-increasing competition as both traditional and
emerging destinations increase their offerings. (VisitScotland, 2007)
Smith (1997, pg 1) states how “tourism is a major force in global trade” and certainly the above
figures would strengthen this statement. By its nature, tourism can be attributed as having
social, cultural and economic roles for individual countries (World Trade Organisation, 2009),
again this is evident in the case of Scottish tourism.
2.3 Ethical Consumers
In 2005 the Ethical Consumerism Report from the Co-op showed that UK ethical consumerism
was worth £29.3 billion. Travel and transport accounted for around £1.8billion of this,
showing what “a dominant industry it is” (Green and Ethical Consumers, Mintel, 2007, pg 17).
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13. Purchasing goods and or services is necessary. (Brassington & Pettitt, 2003) However, it is
widely reported through government legislation, newspapers, magazines and the internet
that purchase decisions don’t only affect us ourselves. The processes and operations used
by a company when producing can greatly affect its surrounding environment. (Green and
Ethical Consumers, 2007)
Therefore an ethical consumer can be defined as a consumer who seeks to actively purchase
products and services that minimise both social and environmental damage. An ethical
consumer should also seek to avoid products which would have negative ramifications on
the environment. (Carrigan & Atalla, 2001)
2.4 Green Trends
Sustainability and green issues are at the forefront of mainstream culture (Harris et al, 2002)
with governments, businesses and individuals all involved (www.green-business.co.uk,
[14/04/2009]). In line with this, there has been an increase in consumer demand and
therefore an increase in the supply of ethical products in the UK marketplace (Francis J &
Goodwin H, 2003).
In relation to green consumers, research is beginning to indicate that green and ethical
issues are becoming more important in consumer purchasing. According to the Green and
Ethical Consumer Market Assessment (2002, pg 6) “only one in five consumers would buy any
product with no reference to ethical or green issues”.
2.5 Marketing Communication Tools
It is true that online marketing is an ever growing force (Brassington & Pettitt, 2003). As users
understand more and more about how to use different medias, marketers are given more
opportunities to interact with these consumers and ultimately reach consumers in an
increasing number of ways.
Online techniques such as search engine optimization, viral marketing and e-direct mail
show the flexibility and power of the internet for marketers, which are clear developments
of ‘old’ marketing techniques – yellow pages, advertisement, mail (Grant, 2008). These are
changing the context of tourism marketing. (Wheeler, 1995)
2.6 Green Wash
“Nearly everything we buy these days seems to be "sustainably sourced" or "environmentally
friendly".” (Pearce, 2008, pg 2) It is this ‘generalisation’ of green marketing that Fred Pearce
(2008) refers to as the Green Wash, which exists commonly in marketing.
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14. Shell, have emissions from factories contributing to pollution, yet advertise trying to
influence consumers to change bad habits, displaying their factory fumes as flowers. (Please
see Appendix 6)
Toyota, despite advertising the ‘Prius’ as an environmentally friendly car; still produce the
high polluting series of 4x4 vehicles. (Please see Appendix 6)
In VisitScotland’s case there is one main example of ethical tourism in practice:
Green Tourism Business Scheme (GTBS) (please see appendix 7)
The GTBS focuses on providing the tourism consumer with information on how ‘green’ each
component of a Scottish holiday is. This scheme also acts as a tool for businesses to display
their ‘green credentials’ through a national sustainable tourism certificate and rating. The
ratings are bronze (green), silver (greener) and gold (greenest).
Despite on face value the GTBS seeming to be an authentic effort towards sustainable
tourism, its relevance may be lost amongst the aforementioned increase in ‘green
communications’ and green washing (Pearce, 2008), as false promises over green credentials
affect the amount of trust that consumers are willing to give a company. Currently the
scheme is not actively marketed by VisitScotland – it does not appear on campaign or
product websites and it is not used in any of VisitScotland’s top line advertising.
2.7 PESTEL
Please turn to Appendix 8 for the full PESTEL framework for VisitScotland. Political,
economic, social and technological points will be discussed here;
2.7.1 Political Factors
Politically, the environment is high on the agenda for VisitScotland. Both central and local
governing bodies over the last decade have introduced many new initiatives aimed at
achieving ‘sustainable living’ (Green and Ethical Consumers Report, 2007) and offered
support in the form of funding, campaigns and media attention. (www.scotexchange.net,
[accessed 21/04/2009])
With these developments in legislation, companies have started a ‘green war’ attempting to
display both commitments to the environment and “to doing business in an ethical manner”
(Green and Ethical Consumers, 2007, pg 2)
As a politically led company VisitScotland have the pressure of being field leaders within the
Scottish tourism industry, and so have the responsibility to be seen to be responding to
political developments with haste, this can be seen through its environmental policy in
appendix 10.
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15. 2.7.2 Economic Factors
Tourism as an industry is growing rapidly, and together with this more money is both being
spent on marketing tourism (Wheeler, 1995) and is being made from tourism related
services which can be seen in the growth of international tourism (Yeoman, 2008).
However, based upon the current credit crunch, spending has been restricted for
VisitScotland through reducing government support funds from Scottish Executive. This is
also in line with a reduction in consumer spending on Scottish tourism, despite it being
cheaper than many other European destinations.
2.7.3 Social Factors
A trend has emerged giving companies who implement green policies and procedures in
their marketing plans significant competitive advantage (Ashley et al, 2004). This is a result of
increased consumer awareness of environment and ethical issues (Harris et al, 2002). As
companies have ‘jumped on the bandwagon’ (Kippenberger, 1996) in an effort to gain
competitive edge, there has also been an increase in the number of negative media which
suggests that some green communications are not as trustworthy as they may seem. (Green
and Ethical Consumers, 2007)
With this in mind, it appears to be a difficult juggling act for businesses and VisitScotland in
particular over adopting a green startegy. Whilst, it can be associated with competitive
advantage, it also appears to be high risk in terms of negative media. (VisitScotland, 2007)
Other social factors that affect Scottish tourism are demographics. It is predicted that by
2020 over 50’s will out number the younger generation in Scotland. (Muirden & Martin, 2004)
The current state of the economy has led to a new trend in style of holiday. Consumers find
it more cost effective to have ‘nano-breaks’ instead of the traditional fortnight. (World Travel
Guide, 2009)
Other social trends relevant to VisitScotland include the holiday booking process, many
people choose to book online through price comparison websites and consumers have as
great an access than ever before to information on destinations – maps, directions, things to
do. (VisitScotland, 2007)
Consumers increased health knowledge (Brassington & Pettitt, 2003) also makes them adapt
holidays into spa breaks, sometimes activity breaks, so it important to monitor consumers
preferences in order to sell Scotland effectively.
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16. 2.7.4 Technological Factors
Technology improvements over the last 50 years have made tourism destinations more
accessible than ever before, in terms of travelling and experiences gained. Cars, trains and
planes have all been improved in recent years, allowing for simpler, easier traveling options.
A good example of this is online check in, removing the wait time at an airport. Transport is a
key issue as it is a central service forming part of the tourism experience. If the tourism
industry wants to offer visitors around Scotland a better experience then adoptions of new
technology will be vital in helping them plan their stay in terms of activities and their
journeys on public transport. This brings forward issues of awareness, training and suppliers
of technology (www.scotexchange.net, [accessed 21/04/2009]).
At a marketing level advances in technology have developed an increase in power for the
consumer. The internet offers a convenient source of information for tourists, with pictures
and recommendations available for most destinations around the world (VisitScotland,
2007). Increased media can also be attributed to technology, which has allowed a number of
new ways to reach consumers through new forms of marketing – search engine
optimisation, pay per click, bluetooth and e-newsletters (Grant, 2008). Some of the
traditional communication channels are in direct violation of environmental issues through
excessive use of paper, or energy and so there is an opportunity for information
communication technologies to play a key role in making the advertising and communication
of the tourist industry in Scotland more sustainable. (www.scotexchange.net, [accessed
21/04/2009])
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17. Now that the author has explained the background of Scottish tourism and trends in ethical
consumers, relevant literature will be critically reviewed. In order to develop an
understanding of key themes a diagrammatic illustration was used to outline how key
concepts related to the focus of the dissertation (Miles & Huberman, 1994).
Both electronic and manual searches were conducted in order to find appropriate texts,
articles and journals for the literature review. From the literature reviewed, a number of key
areas of thought were identified in terms of the implications of environmental issues on
tourism.
3.1 Development of Green Thinking
The most apparent thing about green thinking is its age. There is little or no literature
available before the 1990’s that refers to ‘green’, suggesting that as a concept green
marketing is very young.
However this does not mean that green thinking has not evolved through time. Green issues
are a mixture of different philosophies that have arisen over centuries, (Peattie, 1992, pg 14)
and this is certainly shown in the literature, despite not using ‘green’ as a term, there has
been work on the development of industries and the pros and cons of this.
This relates to Cohen (2001) and ideas that contemporary environmentalism is a result of
growing concerns over consumption and production, which began in the 1960’s and 70’s.
Wasik (1996) suggests that the early development of green issues are to do with a quiet and
yet powerful shift in institutional thinking; a “growing relationship between ecology and
economics”. (pg 2)
In modern day, green consumption and therefore green marketing is seen as a solution to
environmental issues. (Connolly and Prothero, 2008) As organizations like the European
Union commission policies in an attempt to reform the environment and raise awareness to
consumers that their lifestyle behaviours may be having a detrimental effect on their
surroundings. (Buttel, 2003).
The awareness of the environment and consumption raises the issue of behavioural change,
with consumers taking responsibility for the effect they have on the environment by
changing their ways and practicing more environmental lifestyles. (Halkier, 1999)
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18. 3.2 Sustainable Tourism
A term that is consistently mentioned throughout academic journals, books and articles on
being green is sustainability. “Sustainable managements are long-range, resource, and societysensitive and seek some balance with nature” (Wasik, 1996, pg 42)
Ward (2008) clarifies sustainability as including three things; financial, social and
environmental. In order to be sustainable, a company must achieve a balance of these three
factors and integrate “social, economic and environmental components of their community”
(Annex, 2008, pg114)
Put simply, sustainability means making things last. (Pearce, 1988). This sentiment is echoed
by Dunckmann (2003, pg 2).and his work on conservationism, focusing on the relationship
between humans and their environment. Often, concern for a particular piece of land or
building to be looked after provokes conversationalist attitudes.
Peattie (1992) suggests that a view of stewardship is the basis of sustainable development.
This is the idea that we have the desire & responsibility to pass down a healthy environment
for future generations. (Worrell, 2000, pg 263). It appears as though sustainable tourism falls
between these two areas of thought. (Hall & Lew, 1998) There are those (Nelson 1973; Butler
1998) who argue that sustainable tourism despite being a new term is directly linked to
theory of conservation, although there are also writers (CQ Researcher, no author, 2006) that
suggest ecotourism and therefore sustainable tourism intend to pass on the advantages of
tourism to communities, which displays characteristics of stewardship. (Peattie, 1992)
By nature, tourism should be seen as an opportunity to create wealth for a country’s
economy. As outlined in the context chapter, tourism has social, cultural and economic roles,
(World Tourism Organisation, 2009) which are important to the Scottish Economy.
(VisitScotland, 2007, pg 4) However the act of tourism itself carries traces of unsustainable
development (Butler, 1992), in that tourism actively goes against the theories of
conservationism (Dunckmann, 2003) and stewardship (Peattie, 1992) through exploiting land
and buildings. According to Hultsman (1995) locals are not in favour of tourism,
“generally…local residents hold negative perceptions about the real and potential impacts of
tourism on the physical environment” (pg 557) which displays just what an uncertain concept
sustainable tourism is. (Butler, 1998, pg 25)
Butler (1998) continues by suggesting that despite sustainable tourism being well defined in
the public lexicon, actually implementing a sustainable tourism framework has not been
successful. Implementation however, may not be required. Smith and Mitchell (1990) argue
that there has not been a significant tradition of investigating actual impacts of tourism on
the environment, and with this thought in mind Hultsman (1995) draws attention to the fact
that while a number of articles and studies exist analysing the impact of tourism. Very few of
these studies have actually made an effort to address the ethical issues. (pg 557). Exceptions
to this rule do include Krohn and Ahmed (1992) and D’amore’s (1993) call for a code of
conduct concerning ethics.
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19. 3.3 Corporate Social Responsibility
Krohn and Ahmed (1992) suggested that a ground work or ‘set of rules’ should be used as a
guide to achieving good operational ethics within tourism, which would then guide an
organisation to the desired sustainable target. Johnson (1974) states that this ‘ethical
framework’ could act as an underlying principle, and set industry standards. This would give
a measure for organisations like VisitScotland to evaluate their tourism service in terms of
ethics.
There are a number of key areas of thought relating ethics to tourism which Hultsman (1995)
refers to as ethical paradigms. A key thought linked with tourism is ‘the land ethic’ (Leopold,
1949), put simply the land ethic relates to conservationism, (Peattie, 1992) don’t do anything
to the land which is not deemed right. Peattie (1992) also highlights other key areas of
thought related to environmental ethics, in particular humanism. This sits at the opposing
end of the argument, stating that humans should be able to reach their potential through
freedom, although it is unclear whether this means exploiting resources. (pg 14)
Despite literature suggesting that ethics can and should exist within tourism, more recent
literature suggests that an ethical grounding is not a reality, which confirms the lack of
addressing ethics (Hultsman, 1995). Crane & Matten (2006, pg 6) argue that a grey area
exists in the application of morals. Business ethics is split into laws and morals. It is this
subjective nature that prompts Bowman (1991) to suggest that ethics resides between the ‘is’
and the ‘ought’, and so there is no definite answer to what is ethical. (Crane & Matten, 2006,
pg 7) Leopold’s theory assumes that a moral consumer will know what is and what is not
acceptable, and this may not be the case. (Hultsman, 1995) This does strengthen the
argument of unsuccessful implementation. (Butler, 1998, pg 25)
Corporate Social Responsibility is a concept that has developed from the themes of business
ethics. (May et al, 2007, pg 15) Despite businesses historically dealing in ‘financial and human
capital’ there is now a requirement to deal with social capital. (Putman, 2000). This, as a
philosophical practice (Raphael, 1981) appears to be a job that corporations both never
wanted and have never signed on for. (Marchand, 1998).
Milton Friedman (1970) consistently argues against corporate social responsibility, which
would appear to draw parallels with Marchand’s suggestion. Friedman (1970) argues that
first and foremost organisations must think of their shareholders, stating that it would be
wrong and would affect growth by using resources to manage social interest.
However high profile businessmen, such as John Mackay (2009) disagree with Friedman’s
arguments and in stead take the view that a truly enlightened company understands the
significance of corporate social responsibility. This style of thought can be labelled as
enlightened self interest. (Peattie, 1992)
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20. Wheeler (1995, pg 38) outlines the importance of relating ethics to tourism, also stating that
despite interesting work on both ethics and tourism, there hasn’t been an effective relation
of the effects of tourism marketing and ethics.
3.4 Services Marketing
VisitScotland, are a marketing service. (Campbell, 2008, pg 6). Whilst they do have products
in the form of souvenirs at Visitor Information Centres, their essential aim is to sell the
experience of Scotland. (www.visitscotland.org, [08/04/2009])
As a service, they need to meet the psychological needs of a consumer (Chung-Herrera,
2007) because by definition services are intangible (Logie-MacIver, 2008, s3) a link can be
made from corporate social responsibility (May et al, 2007) to both the personality of service
(Harris and Fleming, 2005) and brand personality scale (Aaker, 1997). Tourism is intangible as
the production of the tourism product (experience) occurs at the same time the experience
is consumed. (Wheeler, 1995, pg 41) This makes tourism as a service perishable in aspects of
time and space.
In relation to the personality of service model, it seems important to be enlightened (Peattie,
1992, pg 71) and recognise the importance of social capital (May et al, 2007, pg 16) in order
to create a positive corporate personality and therefore meet consumer’s psychological
needs.
As essentially, tourism is a blend of accommodation, travel and attractions (Wheeler, 1995,
pg 41) this affects the marketing process. Where a product may be able to remain the same
over a long period of time, tourism is an amalgam of many services which can and arguably
should change over time. (Ryan, 1991).
This makes tourism marketing different from most other services marketing. It is an
experience based on expectation (psychological needs) and so the aim for tourism
marketing is to create awareness and present this experience. (Wheeler, 1995)
3.5 Green Marketing
Green marketing as a concept involves: Corporate social responsibility, innovation and
company ethos. (Ward, 2008) As a tool, those that market in a green manner such as
promoting recycling are attempting to practice as a sustainable company. (Annex, 2008).
As outlined by Davis (1992) a regular theme to be drawn from marketing and ethics is the
concept of truth. This truth element is labelled as green washing (John Grant, 2008), which is
a term coined as a result of the confusion between green marketing and corporate social
responsibility.
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21. There are examples of companies promoting green credentials, when in fact they are in
violation of good ethics. These violations can have a detrimental long-term effect on a
company. (Wheeler, 1995)
Apparent from the literature is that there is no clear definition of green marketing. Wheeler
(1995) describes green marketing as the claims of a company implying that their product is
better for the consumer and the environment.
However, there is a lack of standards as to what constitutes as green marketing (John Grant,
2008), and furthermore whether green marketing itself is ethical (Pearce, 2008). With this in
mind it seems that there is a need for clearer claims from companies, using precise
language. Similar to the concepts of sustainability and corporate social responsibility, there
are a number of terms which are used referring to marketing and green thinking. It is not
clear; however, which one of these terms is the correct one. (Craig-Smith, 1988; Wheeler,
1995)
Ginsberg & Bloom (2004, pg 80) point out that green marketing is not the solution as
suggested by Connolly and Prothero (2008), but the tool towards building awareness of the
solution.
3.6 Relationship Marketing
With the aim of the dissertation to understand the role of green marketing for Scottish
tourism, it is appropriate to discuss an emerging trend within marketing – relationship
marketing (Gordon, 1998), which also draws from the same social context as green
marketing.
The characteristics of relationship marketing relates to the transactive model of
communication as outline by Foulger (2008). Communication is a constant flow, two way
process, literally a continual relationship between company and consumer. Relationship
marketing then is a method of connecting with consumers. (Payne et al, 2005, pg 856)
The development of relationship marketing is similar to the development of corporate social
responsibility, and the idea of ‘social capital’ developing into a business as global markets
have expanded. (Putman, 2000; Payne et al, 2005) Its focus is in contrast to arguments of
Milton Friedman (1970) in that organisations must be aware of stakeholders, rather than
simply shareholders. (Payne et al, 2005, pg 855)
As with the previously identified literature relating to this dissertation, a paradox also exists
within relationship marketing as to who a company should consider a stakeholder. (Harrison
& Freeman, 1999) In this respect it appears to show a similar lack of standards as with green
marketing. (Grant, 2008)
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22. Christopher et al (1991) six markets model is argued as being most appropriate in line with
relationship marketing. (Payne et al, 2005)
The model identifies six main markets that can have a significant impact on an organisation:
customers, referrals, influencers, employees, suppliers and internals. (Christopher et al,
1991) However, this framework is not specific for tourism, nor is it specific for green markets.
Ginsberg & Bloom (2004) identify five key markets regarding green consumers; these can be
found in appendix 9. These consumers differ in terms of beliefs relating to the environment,
ranging from true blue greens to basic browns.
It is with the identification of these segments that it is suggested that green marketing in the
same way as relationship marketing cannot be a one-size fits all solution. (Ginsberg & Bloom,
2004, pg 80)
3.7 Conclusion
The over-riding theme which has developed throughout the literature review is that the
social concepts of sustainable development and ethics are grey areas. John Grant (2008, pg
59) describes green marketing as ‘in’, despite not knowing what it is, and it would appear
that despite heavy literature covering both the topics of sustainability and ethics from a
tourism perspective that, this is the case for sustainable tourism and tourism ethics.
Whilst writers Crane & Matten (2006) recognise the grey area between ethics and morals, so
too does Butler (1992) in relation to sustainable tourism. Writers including Wheeler (1995)
and Ryan (1991) draw attention to the paradox within tourism; other writers Wasik (1996),
Peattie (1992) and Grant (2008) identify paradoxes in the concept of green marketing.
Marketing by nature encourages more consumption, whilst green thinking encourages
moderate consumption. (Grant, 2008) Tourism marketing encourages mass tourism, while
sustainable tourism promotes conservation (Wheeler, 1995), these factors lead to general
confusion over tourism marketing ethics and create these paradigms.
As identified by Ginsberg and Bloom (2004) these paradoxes could have been created
through misconceptions that consumers will compromise convenience, availability, price,
quality and performance to support environmental products. (pg 80)
Despite, clear and concise literature regarding each individual topic, there appears to be
little literature on how to adopt green marketing (Wasik, 1996) into relationship marketing
(Payne et al, 2005) and how to apply both techniques within tourism.
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23. In this chapter, the chosen methodology applied in order to research the key themes will be
described and justified. The methodology will also include how these methods have
developed over time, and how effective application will produce valid and appropriate
findings.
Firstly the aims and objectives of the methodology will be mentioned.
4.1 Aims
The methodology aims to uncover public perception of environmental and ethical issues in
tourism. The level of importance of these issues will identify the role of green marketing,
business ethics and marketing communications for tourism organisations in Scotland in
terms of satisfying their consumers, linking back to the principle aim of this dissertation – to
identify the potential role of green marketing for tourism in Scotland.
On a large scale the research should seek to better inform those that intend to apply
initiatives and policies to counter perceptions and attitudes relating to green marketing,
corporate social responsibility & marketing communications for the Scottish tourism
industry.
4.2 Primary and Secondary Research
In order to complete the dissertation thoroughly, secondary research is required in order to
establish a firm background and context of the topics before planning the required primary
research.
The electronic searches looked for literature in the form of books, journals and articles
which combined the key themes outlined from the objectives of this dissertation, using
terms such as ‘tourism and green marketing’, ‘tourism and ethics’, ‘tourism and ethical
consumers’ and ‘ethical communications’.
The manual searches mainly involved books and reports on existing theory and figures/
findings from previous research into the topics.
Secondary research carried out was also used in order to build an effective research
technique.
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24. 4.3 Theoretical Frameworks / Approaches
Teddlie & Tashakkori (2003) identify 3 main groups of researchers in social and behavioural
studies: qualitative, quantitative and mixed method.
Qualitative researchers can be associated with Easterby-Smith et al’s (1997) identified
phenomenology paradigm. Whereby researchers focus on meanings and narrative, and
believe the world is socially constructed and subjective.
Quantitative researchers can have characteristics associated with Easterby-Smith et al’s
(1997) positivist paradigm. This leans towards numerical analysis and focuses on facts,
positivists believe the world is external and objective.
A mixed methods approach is interested in both quantitative and qualitative data. This is
associated with the pragmatic paradigm. Pragmatist researchers are focused on the 'what'
and 'how' of the research problem, and do not commit to any other belief. (Creswell, 2003)
It is worth noting that a mixed methods approach can be used, despite a quantitative or a
qualitative approach being used during data collection. (Creswell, 2003)
4.3 Research Objectives
Discover people’s feelings and beliefs towards environmental issues.
Uncover the stereotype of ethical consumers.
Discover differing opinions of environmental issues in terms of gender & age.
Find out if people consider themselves as an ethical consumer.
Discover the people’s opinion of how environmental issues relate to tourism.
4.4 Research Strategy
From the literature review, business ethics and environmental issues can be identified as
being social marketing practices. In line with this as the topic is socially orientated,
information on attitudes and behaviours are predominantly required.
The researcher identified that qualitative methods were appropriate in order to seek
participant perceptions of green issues in tourism. A qualitative approach seeks to display an
environment (world), where reality is socially constructed, multifaceted and continually
evolving. (Glesne, 1999). Therefore, a qualitative methodological approach is appropriate as
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25. it focuses on understanding the human environment and experiences that they go through.
(Patton, 2002).
This is particularly relevant to Scottish tourism, as they seek to understand the human
environment for the tourist. (www.visitscotland.org, 2009)
”When research is being conducted as part of a higher degree it is usually best to adopt a flexible
strategy, because within any learning process there will be mistakes and false starts.” (EasterbySmith et al, 1997, pg 8)
With this in mind, the researcher will aim to be flexible in terms of seeking the answers to
the research objectives.
Research will be done in line with Easterby-Smith et al’s (1997) identified forms of pure and
applied research. With an intended outcome of reflection – that is to say where existing
theory (as identified in the literature review) is re examined in a different organisational or
social context. In this case how existing trends and theory on environmental issues, ethical
consumers and corporate social responsibility affect the products and services that
VisitScotland offer.
4.5 Research Philosophy
A phenomenological conceptual approach will be undertaken in this dissertation. The
research will focus on ‘the different way in which people experience and understand the
world and their relations with others and their environment’ (Van Manen, 1996). Within this
philosophy, the researcher aims to understand and then attempt to explain why people
experience different things. This is opposed to seeking external reasons to quantify their
behaviour. (Easterby-Smith et al, 1997).
This phenomenological philosophy is shown in the choice of focus groups and interviews,
where participants’ experiences of the ‘green and ethical phenomenon’ are examined. (Van
Manen, 2002)
According to Terre Blanche & Durrheim (2002) research methods can be identified into 3
categories. – Ontology, Epistemology and methodology
As the researcher will be using a mainly interpretivist approach (Glesne, 1999) to collect the
data, it is assumed that the collected data on participants experiences will be real (relating to
ontology) it will be subjective (relating to epistemology) and will be qualitative (relating to
methodology).
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26. 4.6 Research Techniques
In terms of qualitative research four main techniques have been considered in line with
travel behaviour: (Jones & Stopher, 2003)
Diary methods – a reliable approach detailing a tourism consumer’s behaviour and activity.
(Richardson et al, 1995). However this approach would be time consuming and expensive to
collect. Therefore, it is considered too large scale to complete within the allotted period of
time of this dissertation.
Gaming and simulation – this technique would enable a simulation of decision making
behaviours, whereby preferences are stated. (Jones 1979) This enables an excellent
opportunity for observation research (Babbie, 1992). However this approach would require
extensive prior research in order to structure the game, there would also be difficulties in
terms of ‘seeing’ phenomenology. (Bernard, 1994).
Unstructured interviews – as a tool unstructured interviews can be described as ‘guided
conversations’. Whilst they will offer depth of information, they can also be time consuming
which would restrict use of this technique to a small sample. This approach would hopefully
offer private answers as opposed to public answers, that is to say true feelings in the
participants own words. (Jones, 1981).
Focus groups – A focus group would allow for discussion over consumer attitudes (Krueger,
2000), and can give insight into how a product, service or opportunity is viewed. Despite also
being time consuming and so only allowing for small samples, this would offer an
opportunity of comparison between public and private answers (groups and individuals).
From the analysis of appropriate methods used for tourism based research – it was decided
that the techniques most suited for the purpose of the dissertation were interviews and
focus groups.
The over-riding reason for adopting these techniques is to encourage and allow for the
aforementioned flexibility (Easterby-Smith et al, 1997). From the identified methods – focus
groups and interviews show the most ability to change, that is to say, the researcher will
have the largest opportunity to adapt to each participant or group in terms of structure.
Whilst the flexibility of a participant diary is great, the time scale of completing this technique
does not fit with the outlined time plan (shown in appendix 3). If a diary method was used
then research would not be completed in time.
This brings forward consumer behaviour theory which should be reflected through the
research:
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27. The game simulation would give fewer leniencies, in terms of adapting to how a particular
participant styles their response, as they would be heavily structured. Where as, the
interviews and focus groups whilst being guided (semi-structured) allow for greater freedom
and ease of flow for the participant.
To gain the greatest insight into the consumer, the researcher should be able to adapt and
satisfy the needs of the participant. That is to say, provide the environment whereby the
participant is going to feel most comfortable, and the researcher is going to gain depth of
insight (Krueger, 1993).
This can be linked to Evans et al (2006) and the requirement for a compromise between
organisational goals and consumer needs. In this instance, organisational goals are replaced
with research objectives.
4.7 Research Methods
Qualitative methods would be used in order to meet the aims of the research. The primary
data will be supplied in the form of focus groups (Krueger, 1993) and interviews (Jones and
Stopher, 2003) which will involve members of the targeted population.
4.7.1 Focus Groups
A focus group can be defined as “a small gathering of individuals who have a common interest
or characteristic, assembled by a moderator, who uses the group and its interactions as a way to
gain information about a particular issue.” (Williams & Katz, 2001, pg 61)
As a tool of research the focus group should “generate a rich understanding of participants
experience and beliefs” (Morgan, 1998, pg11)
The information obtained from a focus group should generate this rich understanding by
creating a comfortable atmosphere where participants can share their feelings, experiences
and beliefs. (Williams & Katz, 2001)
Participants within the focus group both influence and are influenced by the other
participants, for the researcher, it is necessary to be a moderator, listener, observer and
ultimately an analyst. (Krueger and Casey, 2000)
The focus group is appropriate for the purpose of this dissertation, as it will offer both
individual and group responses. It also presents a social situation for the researcher to
observe, this is ideal considering the social context of the subject at hand.
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28. The weaknesses of focus groups come with its definitive qualitative nature; it cannot be used
to project figures, or indeed to produce a definitive answer. (Morgan & Krueger, 1993)
However, the information obtained from a focus group can be instrumental in the later
decision making process. (Krueger & Casey, 2000)
There is also a danger that participants may be embarrassed to fully participate within a
group setting relating to peer pressure, and so answers may not be entirely truthful. “For
some self disclosure comes easily…but for others it is difficult” (Krueger & Casey, 2000, pg 8)
4.7.2 Hybrid Semi Structured Interview / Survey
With a limited time scale to complete the dissertation it was felt that interviews would be
appropriate to try and access participants true feelings, which they would not share when
part of a focus group.
By nature interviews ‘induce respondents to reveal sensitive information’ (Zikmund, 2000, p202)
and so it was felt that ‘real’ data would be obtained.
The interviews however would likely take just as much time to complete as a focus group,
but without the richness of understanding. The researcher therefore decided to adopt a
hybrid semi structured interview and survey. The use of similar approaches of theory and
methodology will provide strong validity and justification for the research (Hudson &
Ozanne, 2001).
Both the interview and the survey would carry the same open ended questions, as the focus
groups and so the same subject matter would be covered, however this would allow for
three different aspects of the data which would mirror that of Patton’s (2002)
methodological triangulation. The combined data from interviews / survey and focus groups
can “strengthen a study”. This would then mean that “a higher quality of findings…can be
achieved” (Wong, 2006, pg 254)
The hybrid development of the interview / survey would give three types of responses:
Anonymous (survey), individual (interview) and group (focus group).
4.8 Method Development
In order for research to be successful and relevant, the methods chosen to obtain data must
be organised and carefully planned. (Krueger & Casey, 2000)
This involves; targeting a group, sampling, developing the focus group and hybrid interview /
survey, recruiting participants and finally collecting the data.
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29. 4.8.1 Target Group
The target group for the research are VisitScotland employees, and people who have had a
holiday in Scotland in the last 5 years. There will be an intended balance between
VisitScotland employees and Scottish tourism consumers. This is based on gathering
findings from both perspectives in order to gain a full understanding of stakeholders’ views.
Participants recruited will not be exclusively male or female, nor will particular age groups be
excluded from the research.
4.8.2 Sampling
The use of sampling in primary research is in order generalise the findings from the sample
and apply them to the population. (Graziano & Raulin, 2007)
Purposeful sampling (Patton, 2002, pg 45) is based on recruiting participants which will
provide the greatest discussion. (Morgan, 1998, p56). Ideally, sample participants will have
an interest in the topic being researched in order to produce a valuable discussion. (Birley &
Moreland, 1998, p51)
However, due to both time and cost restrictions of the dissertation, a form of convenience
sampling (Leary, 2008, p124) will have to take place in order to achieve findings.
A balance of the two approaches will have to be achieved in order to complete the research,
some compromises may be made in order to achieve the six members (Zikmund, 2000) of
the focus group but also achieve a valuable discussion. (Birley & Moreland, 1998)
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30. 4.8.3 Developing the Focus Group and Hybrid
Questionnaire
The Components of a Questionnaire
Associated with quantitative studies
Questionnaire length is fixed. The session length is determined by the questionnaire
Standard ways are used to collect information, e.g. neutral questions, scales, show cards
Questions should be posed in order, but filters may mean the questions asked vary
Question wording is carefully formulated before the session and should not be modified
Answers are recorded on the questionnaire either by pen or via keyboard
Well-worded questions
(Taken from Bradley, N. 2007. Page 201)
Bradley’s (2007) recommendations for a suitable questionnaire are relevant due to the
qualitative nature of the planned mixed method approach. (Patton, 2002).
In order to generalise findings and apply data from the sample to the population it is
necessary to have consistent questions throughout each research approach. Therefore for
the semi-structured interview will be based on a two way, transactive communication
process (Foulger, 2004) relating to relationship marketing (Gordon, 1998). Information
offered by the participant will not be dismissed at any level; however conversation will be
guided using the questionnaire questions as a guide for the interviewer.
A similar approach will be maintained for the focus group, however based on a larger
number of participants, discussions could evolve which creates the potential to travel away
from the six main themes focused on (see appendix 2, conceptual framework). To
counteract this, a more detailed focus group plan will be used as outlined in appendix 11 this
plan is based on the recommendations of Krueger (1993). This plan was then used to
develop the questions outlined in appendix 12.
Initial questions for the interview/focus group are designed from literature only, before
applying using the above research categories. (Tesch, 1990)
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31. 4.8.4 Recruitment
Recruitment was conducted through personal relationships and contacts. The researcher
had the benefit of previously working at VisitScotland, which meant the research would
benefit from a mix of internal and external stakeholders (Christopher, 1991). Contact with
prospective participants was made via email, phone and face to face.
Recruitment was able to give a mix of male and female participants ranging from aged 18 –
50+. All participants recruited were English, Scottish or Irish.
4.9 Ethics
This methodology was planned in line with ‘Edinburgh Napier University Code of Practice on
Research Ethics January 2009’.
In this chapter, the data collected will be analysed, reduced, interpreted and compared to
existing theory, relating back to the dissertation aim;
This dissertation aims to explore the impact of all green policies and practices on marketing
and Tourism in Scotland. It will also analyse the affect that green marketing can have on a
company, with particular focus on the Scottish Tourist Board – VisitScotland.
5.1 Data Analysis Methodology
In terms of analysis, the researcher will follow the recommendations of Miles & Huberman
(1984) for analysing structured interviews and questionnaire’s. The researcher will also adopt
a ‘grounded theory’ approach (Easterby-Smith et al, 1997, pg 108) as there will be relatively
large amounts of none standard data, it will need to be systematically analysed. The analysis
will also display characteristics of an inductive analysis; there will be an “immersion in the
details and specifics of the data in order to discover patterns, themes and inter relationships”
(Patton, 2002, pg 41).
The findings from the semi structured interview / survey will be broken down to individual
questions, assessing the responses and relating them to key theory from the literature
review.
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32. Patton (2002, pg 438) identifies four key areas for the analysis of data: Raw data, description,
interpretation and recommendation.
Raw Data
Description
Interpretation
Recommendation
Source: Krueger, 1998, p27
5.1.1 Raw Data
Raw data handling should ensure that the raw information is directly and accurately
transcribed through use of ‘words, body language, gestures and tones of voice’ (Saunders,
Lewis & Thornhill, 2007). In order to achieve this for the focus group the researcher recruited
a scribe in order to be able to focus on delivering the discussion topic, without
compromising the raw data.
5.1.2 Description
During the description stage the data will be simplified in order to draw out themes and
summarise the findings. (Saunders, 2007, pg 493)
Themes can be identified as those which occur most frequently, and which are relevant to
the research topic. (Krueger, 1998b, p36)
5.1.3 Interpretation
Interpretation is the process whereby the primary data is combined with appropriate
secondary research, (Patton, 2002) in order to relate the findings back to the dissertation
aim.
5.2 Summary
In total, one focus group was conducted and 37 responses were collected from the hybrid
questionnaire/ interview. Participants 1-6 completed the focus group; whilst participants 737 completed the survey either through a semi structured interview, or anonymous
questionnaire.
The focus group consisted of six participants, 3 male and 3 female with an age range of 20 –
50+ years. Of the six participants, two currently work for VisitScotland. The focus group
participants were numbered one to six, by the moderator and scribe, and quotations from
each participant are displayed using their number. E.g. P1 = participant 1
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33. Of the 37 survey responses, 19 were collected using the semi structured interview technique
and 18 were collected through asking participants to fill out the questionnaire individually.
Key themes developed from the research and these themes will be described and
interpreted question by question, relating to appropriate literature. Despite three different
forms of primary research being carried out, findings will be combined based upon multiple
perspectives yielding a more comprehensive view of phenomena. (Gioia and Pitre, 1990)
5.3 Ethical Consumers
The first key theme identified from the research was that of ethical consumers.
Q. Would you describe yourself as an ethical consumer of tourism?
The survey responses showed that participants didn’t consider themselves to be ethical
consumers of tourism, with only one person considering themselves an ethical tourism
consumer.
Would you describe yourself as an ethical
consumer of tourism?
40
30
20
10
0
yes
no
The perceptions of ethical consumers didn’t necessarily relate to tourism, these findings
were mirrored in the focus groups where despite people stating they behaved ethically, they
didn’t associate these behaviours with tourism.
“Not relating to tourism” (P4, aged 18-25)
Another focus group participant suggested a similar view;
“I’m ethical when it comes to recycling, but I don’t really think about it when I’m booking a holiday”
(P1, aged 36-50)
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34. These findings support those of Wheeler (1995, pg 45) who suggested that green tourism
awareness has increased but only in industry and academic circles.
Q. Please outline the characteristics of an ethical consumer.
Findings from the survey indicated that participants had good awareness of ethical
consumers, all data collected displayed some level of understanding of how ethical
consumers behave, however some descriptions of ethical consumers seemed confused
when compared to the literature. Participants outlined individual characteristics, but also
generalised.
“interest and consideration in the environmental impact of their purchases and lifestyle choices”
(P7, aged 26-35)
One participant in the semi structured interview related the role of ethics in tourism solely to
transport.
“Finding the greenest way from A to B” (P9, aged 18-25)
While another participant offered a slightly different perspective, focusing on products and
accommodation:
“Ethical consumers specifically look for ethical places to stay, products to buy” (P18, aged 18-25)
Both of these quotes display an understanding of ethical consumers in terms of
characteristics, and a questionnaire participant gave good insight linking to theories of
stewardship (Peattie, 1992)
“A truly ethical consumer would do his best to look after the world for the future, by causing little
harm to his or her environment” (P25, aged 26-35)
However, generally questionnaire and interview participants did not associate ethical
consumers with tourism services, a new finding separate from existing literature. Focus
group participants did show signs of recognising ethics within tourism consumers; however
this could be due to their involvement in the tourism sector.
“I am aware of the link between tourism and ethical consumers, but mainly because of my
workplace (VisitScotland). I don’t know anyone who consciously evaluates the environment when
planning a short or a long break.” (P2, aged 36-50)
This comment triggered other focus group members to disagree:
“I think we do evaluate the environment, when I go abroad I always search for the best suited
facilities, if you’re paying a lot of money you want to be comfortable.” (P6, aged 26-35)
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35. “I like to know what to expect when I’m going away, knowing the place is going to suit us.” (P5,
aged 18-25)
This view draws back to outlined theory on green tourism by Wheeler (1995) and mass
tourism forcing unspoiled areas to offer home comforts. Whilst it also displays slight
confusion over the definition of environmental issues, relating back to Grant (2008).
Another participant offered an interesting perspective, that there wasn’t currently a
requirement for people to be concerned over ethical tourism;
“There isn’t currently the demand to be ethical when booking holidays, but there is the demand to
recycle through the local councils.” (P3, aged 50+)
Combined with aforementioned views of being unaware of ethics in tourism, this perspective
suggests that tourism organisations aren’t marketing sustainable tourism. Despite
government bodies offering policy and guidance papers (Department of the Environment,
2007) this response could be seen as evidence that they are failing in terms of Wheeler’s
(1995) suggestion of protecting the interest of communities. This is in line with Grant’s (2008)
view that it is the responsibility of marketers to raise awareness of environmental issues for
consumers.
5.4 Environmental Issues
The second key theme which developed from the research was concerning environmental
issues.
Q. What are the most important environmental / green issues to you?
The findings from this question showed that sustainable tourism was generally not as high
up on the radar in terms of being an environmental issue, which furthers previous
perception research from Mintel (Green and Ethical Consumers, 2007). Recycling and over
use of plastic bags were considered to be more important to people achieving 27% and 18%
of the votes respectively. Sustainable tourism didn’t feature as important with the lowest
percentage of votes (4%).
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36. Most Important Environmental Issues
12
Carbon foot print
10
Ethical sourcing
8
Fair Trade
CO2 Emissions
6
Recycling
4
Renewable energy
2
Over use of plastic bags
0
Sustainable tourism
1
“I’m not sure what that (sustainable tourism) is” (P6, aged 26-35)
Participants being unaware of sustainable tourism and rating it as least important,
contradicts the works of Butler (1998) who described the term sustainable tourism as
common in public language.
Upon explaining the concept of sustainable tourism (Wheeler, 1995) most focus group and
interview participants accepted that perhaps there was a need for visitors to be green,
despite it not existing currently. This strengthens the work of Wheeler (1995) suggesting that
the awareness of ethics in tourism is only evident in industry circles and academics.
“Visiting a place shouldn’t damage it; however things do wear out over time” (P3, aged 50+)
“Natural destinations like Loch Ness should be looked after.” (P38, aged 26-35)
Other participants mentioned points which suggested that it wasn’t a consumer’s
responsibility to be ethical, which links back to theory of corporate social responsibility (May
et al, 2007) and also the paradox of green marketing (Grant, 2008), consumers show signs of
being encouraged to take holidays.
“the public are sold holidays, so it’s not really our fault” (P5, aged 18-25)
“I trust in the travel agents…. it’s impossible to check what damage you might cause to a country if
you’ve never been there!” (P31, aged 18-25)
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37. “It’s the responsibility of the service provider to assess the impact of the service.” (P42, aged 2635)
Links can also be made here to VisitScotland’s personality of service (Harris and Fleming,
2005), they sell the holidays in Scotland, and so if they are not sustainable, it could reflect
badly on VisitScotland’s corporate persona. However this research has identified that at
present VisitScotland are not alone; responsibility also lies with travel agents and tour
providers.
A consistent view proposed in all three forms of research was that people didn’t feel their
behaviours would significantly change anything. Participants rationalised their behaviours to
everyday occurrences:
“Bags and recycling are closer to me – I feel I can make a difference, I can’t affect co2 emissions. I
wouldn’t sacrifice my holiday for the environment, I’d always choose a hotel over a tent.” (P12,
aged 18-25)
“Plastic bags is something I feel I have most control over, as it is an everyday way of making a
difference.” (P20, aged 18-25)
Similarly, a questionnaire participant offered insight into behaviour justification:
“I think climate change is already past the point of no return, so me not going to Greece in the
summer won’t make a difference” (P10, aged 18 – 25)
These quotes show a direct contrast with the work of Halkier (1999), with behaviours not
changing despite the awareness of ethical issues. This shows no correlation with Peattie
(1992) stewardship or Dunckmann (2003) conservationism and instead displays a dismissive
attitude similar to that of humanism (Edwords, 1989) and exploiting the environment for
human benefit.
5.5 Development of Green Thinking
The third key theme proposed from the findings of the research was regarding the time
scale of awareness, which can be correlated to theory around the development of green
thinking (Peattie, 1992)
Q. How long have you been aware of environmental issues concerning tourism?
Participants in all methods of primary research showed an awareness of environmental
issues; however participants struggled to connect environmental issues with tourism – a key
finding from the research. Therefore, insight into this question can be regarded as slightly
unreliable, as some participants responses were not concerning tourism but environmental
issues in general.
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38. The most frequent answer relating to this question was that participants had been aware of
environmental issues for between 1 and 3 years. Participants in the focus group sighted two
main contributors to their awareness of environmental issues;
Q. Was there a defining moment (e.g. event, news story) which developed your awareness of
environmentally friendly behaviours in tourism?
Mirroring answers from the previous question, participants did not show signs of defining
moments relating to tourism, instead examples were used which showed a clear relationship
to everyday life and correlated with other environmental issues of recycling and fair trade.
“I became aware from the film by Al Gore; it made me pay attention because he is a trusted public
figure.” (P2, aged 36-50)
“When local councils introduced recycling bins a couple of years ago.” (P1, aged 26-50)
Interestingly, it was evident that a correlation existed between where participants were from
and how long they had been aware of environmental issues. Scottish participants commonly
cited the introduction of wheelie bins 2 years ago as a catalyst for awareness. In comparison
English participants mentioned awareness beginning when local councils introduced
recycling 3 years ago. This suggests what an important role government has to play in raising
the awareness for consumers, which relates back to the context chapter of the dissertation
and political factors.
This point is further strengthened by the effect of individual politicians, raising the public
profile of environmental issues. This proposes that through the correct media tool,
awareness of environmental issues can be created through marketing and so should be
seen as inspiration for tourism marketers and academics in order to use these tools to
create awareness of sustainable tourism. This draws on theory of Grant (2008) who outlined
the responsibility of green marketing to raise awareness. The film ‘An Inconvenient Truth’
was mentioned frequently as a source to create awareness.
People also identified supermarkets as having a huge impact on awareness of ethical and
environmental issues;
“I started to see fair trade logos in the supermarket.” (P23, aged 36-50)
This proposes that green marketing is successful – consumers identifying logos and brands
are fundamental concepts to marketing, and so it would appear that in terms of fair trade,
green marketing has been successful. This suggests that green marketing can also work for
sustainable tourism.
Younger participants also identified the role of mass media such as television, newspapers
and cinema using examples from different industries.
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39. “I’ve seen the Toyota Prius in loads of movies and on TV, so that’s kind of in trend, it makes it look
cooler to own one.” (P5, aged 18-25)
“The Guardian also ran a feature on the effect of tourism” (P10, aged 18-25)
This shows that with the right exposure environmental beliefs can be created through
indirect awareness – watching films as opposed to advertisements and reading newspapers
as opposed to government reports. This supports literature on the promotional mix.
(Brassington & Pettit, 2003)
5.6 Responsibility
The development of the questionnaire (Bradley, 2007), enabled findings to emerge from the
key theme of corporate social responsibility (May et al, 2007) in relation to consumer
reactions to corporations. This theme was discussed in detail in the focus groups (Krueger,
1993) which gives the findings a concise, reliable result.
Q. Do you actively seek out and use travel and tourism products/services which share the same
issues as you?
Findings displayed a clear majority; participants generally did not seek out travel and
tourism products and services which shared beliefs on environmental issues. With the basis
of findings from previous questions, it can be identified that participant’s responses could be
unreliable bearing in mind they were generally not ethical consumers and didn’t have high
awareness of sustainable tourism.
Do you actively seel out and use tourism
products which share the same issues as you?
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
yes
no
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40. From the focus group and interviews participants were able to give insight into why
consumers didn’t search for companies which shared environmental beliefs.
“If I like something and it shares the same environmental issues as me then it would heighten my
enjoyment, but if it doesn’t share my ‘issues’ it doesn’t bother me.” (P18, aged 18-25)
Similar to this, the survey produced findings that generally people don’t become affected by
organisational ethics. Those that did search for tourism products that shared issues
displayed understanding and knowledge of where to find this information.Which suggests
that low level awareness does exist for sustainable tourism.
“The Telegraph & Argus newspaper publication produces a feature every Wednesday called Planet,
focusing on ‘green’ issues including travel, holidays, homes and houses and general day to day
living.” (P10, aged 18-25)
However, the same particpant also stated that when booking a holiday, she did not make
use of these facilities, stating that price was the main determint factor when booking a
holiday. This was proposed frequently in the focus groups and semi structured interviews:
“I just go for cheapest flight” (P13, aged 26-35)
“My decision is price dependant not ethics dependant” (P15, aged 18-25)
It is worth pointing out that there has been a difference between consumer beliefs according
to age, despite not being an aim of the research. Younger participants seemed to be more
aware of environmental issues, which could likely be to do with the last decade of
development in green thinking (Peattie, 1992), and older participants seemed to be less
aware of environmental issues. Ironically, and in line with the paradoxes outlined in the
literature review findings from the research indicate a paradox. Older participants were
more prepared to change behaviours despite reduced awareness, yet young participants
who benefitted from increased awareness were dismissive of changing behaviours.
5.7 Relationship Marketing
This shows a definite insight that there is a role of relationship marketing within ethical
marketing and marketing of sustainable tourism. From observing both the focus group and
interviews consumers showed differing opinions of environmental issues similar to that of
Ginsberg & Bloom‘s (2004) identified green segments (see appendix 9). This suggests that if
sustainable tourism was to be marketed it should be approached through different
segments taking into account the differign levels of awareness and acceptance.
Q. Does an organisation’s stance on green issues affect whether you consume their product
and/or service?
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41. Findings from this question defied the existing literature on corporate social responsibility
and agreed with the work of Ginsberg & Bloom (2004) which suggested that consumer’s
behaviour would not be compromised in terms of what they expected from a product or
service.
Survey findings produced definitive answers, 62% stated that an organisation’s stance on
green issues does not affect consumption. The focus groups and interview responses were
more balanced and participants seemed confused as to their actions which showed a degree
of behavioural change (Helkier, 1999) and also the potential existence of peer pressure
within the group discussion process.
“If there was evidence that they actually harmed the environment, then I would stop consuming a
product, for example Primark and child labour makes me feel guilty.” (P19, aged 26-35)
This is despite participants originally stating that they were not ethical consumers earlier in
the research process. One thing that particularly stood out was the lack of tourism based
examples used by participants. Only one participant mentioned an example of tourism:
“The Guardian reported in Asia, Africa and South America…locals are becoming more resentful of
the natural environment being compromised by tourism.” (P10, aged 18-25)
But, despite examples like this there was a sense of reluctance to accept responsibility for
the negative effects of tourism.
“We’re giving their economy money, so we shouldn’t feel guilty about it” (P39, aged 50+)
5.8 Green Washing
Q. Has there been an occasion where negative press of a company has made you stop consuming
their products and/or service?
The finding to this based on all three research techniques was no. Consumers will not
sacrifice their own needs for the sake of ethical purchases (Ginsberg and Bloom, 2004). 58%
of participants stated there had not been an occasion where negative press had affected
their decision process. With this in mind it would appear that the risk of greenwashing
holidays in Scotland is a slim one, especially considering the trust that is associated with
government organisations.
Of the minortiy that did mention examples, most of these were to do with smaller purchases
such as food or clothes items, again there was no link to Tourism.
“Primark and GAP with child labour” (P18, aged 18-25)
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42. “I woud never wear fur, knowing how it is obtained” (P26, aged 26-35)
“Fair trade - coffee, farmers” (P39, aged 36-50)
“I watched the programme by Jamie Oliver, and haven’t bought ASDA chicken ever since” (P31,
aged 36 – 50)
In the focus group insight was obtained into why people didn’t see tourism as being affected
by negative press.
“Everyone is different and so some people enjoy a destination more than others, not everything
can be liked by everyone. Tourist boards give you the information to make a judgement about a
place.” (P2, aged 26-50)
“Holidays are not an everyday occurrence, and so people should look towards everyday things in
order to make environmental decisions” (P1, aged 36-50)
“It’s a combination of experiences – you’re flight, you’re hotel and the activities you do, but a travel
agent can’t be responsible for how a hotel or a cabin crew operate.” (P17, aged 26-35)
Generally, participants saw companies within the tourism sector as reliable. Travel agents
and tourist boards are viewed as essentially providing a service of information, which links
back to Wheeler (1995) and the intangible combination of services. Participants
demonstrated trust towards companies like VisitScotland, citing that if a holiday goes wrong
it is usually a bad experience at one of the services – accommodation, attractions, and travel
operators.
Q. Please give an example of a company who you believe has strong environmental ethics, and
why you believe them to be an environmentally friendly company.
The most frequently mentioned companies were supermarkets;
“The Co-op, marketed as a fair trade company, but more to do with how they market themselves –
I don’t see them as going out of their way to be ethical.” (P18, aged 18-25)
“Sainsbury’s seems to consistently offer solutions to most of the green/ethical issues that face
consumers, making it easier (and just nicer) to do your everyday shopping there with a semi-clear
conscience” (P7, aged 26-35)
Frequently mentioned was the fact that people recognise if a company tries too hard, which
relates back to literature on trust (Crane & Matten, 2006). The quotes above demonstrate a
relationship between company and consumer. Participants showed feelings of being
attached to companies that didn’t try too hard as they related this to honesty and their own
consumer behaviours of not trying too hard. This is evidence of the potential of relationship
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43. marketing (Gordon, 1998), with consumers identifying their own behaviours in an
organisations behaviour.
“Companies who don’t promote green credentials – matches my thought process ‘I don’t think
about it’.” (P17, aged 18-25)
5.9 Conclusion
This description and interpretation analysis of the findings has highlighted some important
factors made in the perceptions of green marketing and ethics for the tourism industry. With
more time and in depth research, findings could be developed into specific task to be
undertaken in order to increase the awareness of sustainable tourism. These relate to the
implementation of green marketing and ethics for VisitScotland, with this in mind the
research has been successful in terms of outlining beliefs and existing awareness of
sustainable tourism and therefore the role of green marketing for VisitScotland.
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44. 6.1 Central Aim
The aim of this dissertation was to explore the impact of green policies and practices on
marketing and tourism in Scotland. Through appropriate planned research, the dissertation
has generated valid information relating to how VisitScotland could and should market their
service regarding the six key themes.
The six themes identified from the research are:
Ethical consumers
Development of green thinking
Environmental issues
Responsibility
Green wash
Relationships
6.2 The G.R.R.E.E.D Framework
These six themes can be formulated into a new G.R.R.E.E.D framework, outlining the affects
of these themes for tourism information services and how tourism organisations can apply
these themes.
G - Green wash
This research has found that tourism organisations should be aware of how they intend to
be green. If they have not been established as a green tourism company then they shouldn’t
try to pass themselves off as having a green ethos. This is a new finding, furthering work of
Ginsberg and Bloom (2004). This research identified that consumers have more respect for
tourism companies who are not afraid to show their true colours, and findings from the
research also supported previous work of Ginsberg and Bloom (2004) that consumer
purchases will not be sacrificed in order to be ethical. Therefore it can be concluded that
tourism companies should not sacrifice their profits to try and seem ethical as ultimately this
will have an adverse effect.
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45. R – Responsibility
This research has found that consumers don’t feel responsible for negative effects on the
environment and therefore counteracts previous work of Helkier (1999). Consumers want to
relax on holiday and not worry about the environment. Quantitaive fidnigns showed that
consumers don’t identify this behaviour changing.
Equally, consumers do not hold tourism information providers responsible for any negative
experiences whilst on holiday. It can therefore be assumed that tourism information
providers are not responsible for a consumer’s satisfaction in terms of experience which is a
new finding. Instead, tourism organisations are responsible for making consumers aware of
the possible tourism experience and whether that is good or bad for the environment. A
new finding can therefore be interpreted, different to that of Wheeler (1995). It is the
responsibility of the tourism organisations to provide information on sustainable tourism
and build awareness of it before trying to change behaviours.
R – Relationship
Findings from this research indicate that a relationship with the consumer is important for a
tourism organisation combining previous work by Ginsberg and Bloom (2004) regarding
green consumer segments and Gordon (1998) regarding relationship marketing. The tourism
organisation should make efforts to build a relationship with consumers in order to raise
this awareness of sustainable tourism. Recognition of these different green consumer
segments (Ginsberg and Bloom, 2004) should be used to develop a relationship (Gordon,
1998) whereby green options are available should a consumer need them.
E – Ethical Consumers
Ethical consumers do exist according to secondary research (Green and Ethical Consumer
Report, 2007), however a new finding from this research has shown that tourism consumers
do not consider themselves ethical consumers. For tourism consumers it is the individual
relationship with tourism organisations that matters, not the tourism companies general
ethics. This adds to the work of Gordon (1998). The research found that people generally do
not want to be considered as ethical consumers in the context of tourism, which is a new
finding for the topic. Furthermore the research contradicts existing literature on corporate
social responsibility (May et al, 2007) and ethical consumers (Peattie, 1992). Consumers do
not hold it against an organisation if they are not treated like ethical consumers.
E – Environmental issues
For the environmental issue of sustainable tourism, this research identified that there is not
sufficient awareness within the public domain this furthers the work of Wheeler (1995). Until
sustainable tourism becomes a mainstream concern there is no need for tourism
organisations to market themselves as sustainable. However, based upon secondary
research those organisations that have a plan for it will ultimately have an advantage once
sustainable tourism does become a mainstream concern.
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46. D – Development of green thinking
A new finding from the research has indicated that it is only once green thinking for tourism
has developed further that there will be a need for sustainable tourism frameworks. In the
meantime, consideration (and indeed development at a corporate tourism level) should be
taken to forward plan how to increase consumer awareness of sustainable tourism.
Findings from this research show at present, sustainable tourism is associated with a lower
quality of tourism likely to do with the lack of awareness of sustainable tourism supporting
the work of Ginsberg and Bloom (2004), once this has developed into a maintained level of
quality there will be a need for green tourism marketing.
6.3 Methodology used
The mixed methods approach was a success in that it resulted in comprehensive findings.
These are a combination of qualitative and quantitative which gives this dissertation rich
meaning. This approach allowed the author to see a wide scope of findings making
recommendations reliable, and shows that this methodology is appropriate for any future
research regarding these social themes. (Hudson & Ozanne, 2001)
Surveys achieved a good response rate and encouraged participants to be open and honest
with their answers for this subject. This would be an excellent method for any future
quantitative research due to the one way communication process.
In depth data was gained from the semi-structured interviews, whilst also allowing
participants to speak freely without fear of peer pressure. Although this method is more
time consuming than surveys it offers extra depth in terms of adding qualitative reasoning
to quantitative facts.
The focus group method gave greatest depth in terms of qualitative proposals. It was the
most time consuming and labour intensive of the three research methods used, but gave
the most insight into sustainable tourism and ethical consumers.
6.4 Recommendations
The research did not identify many current benefits of green marketing for tourism
organisations. It did however establish several new findings relating to sustainable tourism
in Scotland. Generally, there is not enough being done to promote consumer awareness of
sustainable tourism which has added to the work of Wheeler’s (1995).
The author suggests that VisitScotland should begin advertising sustainable tourism directly
to consumers through promotion of websites like http://www.greentourism.org.uk/ and the
green tourism business scheme. Begin to make tourism consumers aware of the impact of
mass tourism.
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47. Future research should be more direct in terms of outlining how consumers think
VisitScotland should market sustainable tourism. Findings from this research would then
identify a clear path for VisitScotland to achieve awareness of sustainable toruism and
ultimately protect the landscape and scenery which attracts so many tourists.
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