The document discusses motivational factors for English language learning among science and engineering (S&E) students in Japan. It begins by outlining challenges S&E students face in becoming motivated to learn English based on previous research. The document then presents three preliminary studies examining motivational factors for S&E students using structural equation modeling and regression analysis. The studies found that while students felt a strong obligation to learn English, their ability to envision themselves successfully using English predicted higher English performance. The document concludes by discussing implications for improving S&E student motivation through changes to classroom atmosphere, curriculum, and connecting English learning more directly to real world applications.

1. Motivational Self of
EFL science students in
Japan
Matthew Apple
Nara National College of Technology
Joseph Falout
Nihon University, College of Science and Technology
Glen A. Hill
Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine

2. Background

3. Why will S&E students need English?
Multinational
corporations
Environmental
protection Mega-
projects
Trade
agreements Disaster
Research & relief
development
d

4. However, S&E students struggle with second
language (L2) motivation.
S&E students are more likely to have experienced
demotivation and learned helplessness
(Falout et al, 2009)
S&E students feel a loss of confidence and blame
themselves for falling behind
(Falout & Maruyama, 2004)

5. Problems are based on false hopes false
expectations.
Specialized majors may lose motivation early, since
introductory courses are unrelated to their field
(O’Dowd, 2010)
S&E teachers do not encourage learning English, leading to
poor course selection and weak ability
(Hill, 2010)

6. What can help S&E students to become
motivated to learn and improve their L2?

7. What can help S&E students to become
motivated to learn and improve their L2?
What L2 motivational factors are most
salient for S&E students in Japan?

8. Theories of motivation applicable in the
Japanese EFL context.

9. Socio-cultural model
A desire to integrate or identify with the
target language culture  motivation.
Integrative orientation
Attitudes toward Motivational
the L2 culture intensity

10. Self-determination theory
Learners who have choices, feel they belong,
and are capable  motivated
Autonomy
Relatedness Competence

11. L2 Motivational Self System
Learners who can imagine reaching an “ideal
self”  motivated.
Ideal L2 Self
L2 Experience Ought-to L2 Self

12. In a perfect world, my English abilities are
Ideal very high.
L2 self
I will be able to use English perfectly or
almost perfectly for my needs.
What I would
like to become

13. Most likely, I can attain some of the English
abilities that I expect.
Probable
L2 self It’s possible that I will be able to use English
to a satisfactory level.
What I might
become

14. I know the specific English abilities
necessary to succeed.
Ought-to
L2 self I have no choice in selecting these.
Attaining the proper level is obligatory.
What I’m afraid
to become

15. What I would Ideal
L2
like to become self
What I might Probable
become L2 self
What I’m afraid Ought-to
to become L2 self

16. Primary research questions for the three
studies in this presentation
1. What are the most salient L2 motivational
factors for S&E students in Japan?
2. What are the relationships among various L2
motivational factors for S&E students?
3. Which Possible L2 Selves factors predict English
language performance?

17. Preliminary Studies

18. Variables Assemble!
Integrative
orientation Autonomy
Attitudes Relatedness Competence
Motivational
toward the L2
intensity
culture
Ideal L2 Self
L2 Experience Ought-to L2 Self

19. Variables in theory  Variables used
Interest in English Culture Interest in English Culture
Attitudes toward L2 Attitudes toward English
Culture
Perceived Competence Perceived Speaking Competence
Relatedness Classroom Atmosphere
Perceived Social Values
Ought-to L2 Self Ought-to L2 Self
L2 Experience Probable L2 Self

20. Apple, Falout, & Hill (2012)
N = 395; Technical college students
high sense of
importance
of English,
low sense of
ability

21. SEM path model results showed the relationship of
social, language attitudes, and possible selves.
Classroom .73 Interest in .57 Ideal L2
English
atmosphere Self
culture
.56 .73
.26 .31
.34
Speaking -.14 Perceived
speaking International .68 Probable
anxiety competence friendship L2 Self
.33 .42
.78 Ought-to
L2 Self

22. SEM path model results showed the relationship of
social, language attitudes, and possible selves.
Classroom .73 Interest in .57 Ideal L2
English
atmosphere Self
culture
.56 .73
.26 .31
.34
Speaking -.14 Perceived
speaking International .68 Probable
anxiety competence friendship L2 Self
.33 .42
.78 Ought-to
L2 Self

23. SEM path model results showed the relationship of
social, language attitudes, and possible selves.
Classroom .73 Interest in .57 Ideal L2
English
atmosphere Self
culture
.56 .73
.26 .31
.34
Speaking -.14 Perceived
speaking International .68 Probable
anxiety competence friendship L2 Self
.33 .42
.78 Ought-to
L2 Self

24. Multiple regression results revealed that a sense of
Ideal L2 Self predicted English performance
TOEIC is the dependent variable (n = 317)
Variable B β t
Ideal L2 Self 9.34 .28 3.73*
Probable L2 Self -2.61 -.13 -1.57
Ought-to L2 Self 2.56 .10 1.56
* p < .001

25. Methods
Study 1

26. The study comprised 654 science and
engineering (S&E) students in Japan.
School A = 395 (Kansai)
School B = 143 (Kanto)
School C = 116 (Hokkaido)
Apple, Falout, & Hill (in press)

27. Instrumentation used in the study
A questionnaire of 54 items
Designed to measure 11 latent constructs
Used a 6-point Likert scale
Strongly disagree Strongly agree

28. A hypothetical model was created to
examine linear relationships in the data.

29. Interest in Attitude
English toward Ideal L2
culture English self
Class- Perceived
room speaking Integrative Probable
atmo- competence orientation L2 self
sphere
Desire to Perceived
Speaking Ought-to
speak social
anxiety L2 self
English value

30. Results
Study 1

31. .20
Interest in Attitude .25
English toward Ideal L2
culture English -.16 self
.11
.55
.72
3
.5
.23
Class- Perceived
room .58 .13 Integrative
speaking Probable
atmo- competence orientation L2 self
sphere
1.41
.67
4 5
.2 8
- .9 -.9
Desire to Perceived .90
Speaking Ought-to
speak .44 social
anxiety L2 self
English value

32. .20
Interest in Attitude .25
English toward Ideal L2
culture English -.16 self
.11
.55
.72
3
.5
.23
Class- Perceived
room .58 .13 Integrative
speaking Probable
atmo- competence orientation L2 self
sphere
1.41
.67
4
-.2 8 -.9
5
.9
Desire to Perceived .90
Speaking Ought-to
speak .44 social
anxiety L2 self
English value

33. .21
Interest in .58 Attitude .20
English toward Ideal L2
culture English self
.71
.40
.56
.72
8
.4
.21
Class- Perceived Desire to
room .58 .13
speaking speak Probable
atmo- competence English L2 self
sphere
.53
4
-.2 .2
9
Perceived .71
Speaking Ought-to
social L2 self
anxiety value

34. ANOVA revealed significant differences between
participants’ final expected degree
Ought-to L2 Self is the dependent variable
Final expected
degree Number Percent
Junior college 144 27.9
4-year university 173 33.5
F(1,3) = 3.60
Master’s 151 29.2
p = .013
Doctorate 49 9.5

35. The post hoc analysis indicated differences
between junior college and master’s degree goals.
Ought-to L2 Self is the dependent variable
Final expected
degree Number Percent
Junior college 144 27.9
t(150) = 3.45
p = .007
d = .38 medium Master’s 151 29.2
r = .19 small / med

36. Discussion
Study 1

37. Ought-to L2 Self was more important than Ideal L2
Self, but Ideal L2 Self led to higher English ability.
 Societal obligations to learn English
for careers in S&E
 Personal interests for friendship and
pleasure

38. Ought-to L2 Self as more important than Ideal L2
Self reflects the L2 situation in Japan.
Participants have a desire to Ideal L2
Self
communicate, but...
.31
Probable
L2 Self
.42
Ought-to
L2 Self

39. Ought-to L2 Self as more important than Ideal L2
Self reflects the L2 situation in Japan.
Participants have a desire to Ideal L2
Self
communicate, but...
.31
...they have difficulty imagining Probable
L2 Self
themselves using English...
.42
Ought-to
L2 Self

40. Ought-to L2 Self as more important than Ideal L2
Self reflects the L2 situation in Japan.
Participants have a desire to Ideal L2
Self
communicate, but...
.31
...they have difficulty imagining Probable
L2 Self
themselves using English...
.42
...yet little difficulty agreeing Ought-to
that they have to learn English. L2 Self

41. Results indicate that as students mature, their
Possible Selves may change
Technician
vs.
Technical
specialist?

42. Results indicate that as students mature, their
Possible Selves may change
A matter of
age / year of
study?

43. Unresolved issues from previous studies
leading to current study
1. Small sample size
(54 variables x 20 cases = min. 1008)
2. Limited range of institutions (only 3)
3. Uneven numbers across years of study
4. Not enough TOEIC scores
5. Model was not validated with separate
sample after path respecification

44. Methods
Study 2 (In progress)

45. Pilot study results
N = 310 (university 1st to doctorate)
Ages ranged from 19 to 27 (Ave = 20)
84.5% male, 15.5% female

46. Pilot study results - findings
Attitude toward English
Items did not correlate well with any
other factor
A handful of items were skewed
Removed all 4 AE items
Slightly rewrote 5 items to distinguish
Possible Selves

47. The study comprises 1,891 science and
engineering (S&E) students in Japan.
16 institutions
High school 2nd to Master’s 2nd
40-item instrument

48. The hypothetical model was based on previous
research and modified for this study
Interest in
Classroom Ideal L2
English
atmosphere Self
culture
Perceived
Speaking speaking International Probable
anxiety competence friendship L2 Self
Ought-to
L2 Self

49. Analysis procedures to be followed
1. Pilot the questionnaire (completed)
2. Descriptive statistics (used for screening data)
3. Factor analysis (to determine item strength)
4. Structural equation modeling
(to determine relationships among factors)
5. Multiple regression (to examine predictive quality)

50. Preliminary Results
Study 2 (In progress)

51. Data screening reduced the size to 1,839
52 student responses removed due to
incomplete or patterned responses
Ages ranged from 15 to 63 years old
(Ave: 19)
79% male, 20% female

52. Travel / overseas items showed a lack of
international / intercultural experience
37% had traveled overseas
5% had lived overseas
1.3% had most of their schooling overseas

53. Participants’ English ability level was measured
by TOEIC and/or TOEIC Bridge
866 reported TOEIC
scores
Bridge scores were
transformed into
TOEIC for
comparison
Average TOEIC
score = 388.16

54. Correlational analyses showed strong
relationships between variables
Top 3 correlated factors for the Possible Selves
Ideal L2 Self Probable L2 Self Ought-to L2 Self
Internat’l Friendship Internat’l Friendship Perceived Social Value
(r = .64) (r = .69) (r = .72)
Speaking Competence Interest in Culture Internat’l Friendship
(r = .60) (r = .56) (r = .48)
Interest in Culture
Perceived Social Value
(r = .61)
(r = .53)

55. Exploratory Factor Analysis (FA)
demonstrated mixing of items
Ought-to L2 Self, Perceived Social Values,
Probable L2 Self items loaded onto same factor
 Probable L2 Self items also loaded onto other
factors
 Why?

56. Exploratory Factor Analysis (FA) is based on
correlations among factors
Correlations among the Possible Selves factors are
strong, making it difficult for FA to separate them
Ideal L2 Self  Probable L2 Self (r = .73)
Ought-to L2 Self  Probable L2 Self (r = .63)

57. Implications
(based on previous studies)

58. Potential solutions to improve motivation
Interest in
Classroom Ideal L2
English
atmosphere Self
culture
Classroom
Atmosphere Perceived
speaking International
friendship
influences competence
competence,
interest, desire,
and ultimately
Ideal L2 Self

59. Potential solutions to improve motivation
Examples:
1.Pair/group work
Classroom
Atmosphere 2.Classroom physical
design
3.Teach no single answer

60. Potential solutions to improve motivation
Curriculum
Changes
Increases social
value of English,
Probable
eases monotony L2 Self
of lessons
Ought-to
L2 Self

61. Potential solutions to improve motivation
Curriculum Examples:
Changes
1.Allow students to mix
more year to year
2.Put S&E students
together with other majors

62. Potential solutions to improve motivation
Ideal L2
Self
Connect English
to Real World
Increases social
value of English,
Probable
provides clearer L2 Self
sense of purpose
for Ideal Self
Ought-to
L2 Self

63. Potential solutions to improve motivation
Ideal L2
Self
Connect English
to Real World
Increases social
value of English,
Probable
provides clearer L2 Self
sense of purpose
for Ideal Self
Ought-to
L2 Self

64. Potential solutions to improve motivation
Connect English Examples:
to Real World
1.Learn from experiences of
Japanese in S&E industry
2.Communicate with foreign
S&E counterparts
3.Solve problems together

65. Future Results
Study 2 (In progress)

66. Model confirmation of previous studies using
different groups of students
Interest in
Classroom English Ideal L2 Self
atmosphere culture
• Technical college
students
• Undergraduate
Perceived
Speaking International Probable L2
speaking
anxiety friendship Self
competence
students
Ought-to L2
Self • Graduate
students

67. Model confirmation of previous studies using
different groups of students
Interest in
Classroom English Ideal L2 Self
atmosphere culture
• Or, using a
demographic
variable (age,
Perceived
Speaking International Probable L2
Age speaking
anxiety friendship Self
competence
expected final
degree, etc.)
Ought-to L2
Self

68. Regressional analysis to determine predictive
capability of English proficiency
N = 317
• Previous study showed
Variable B β t
Ideal L2 Self 9.34 .28 3.73*
Ideal L2 Self as
predictor of TOEIC
Probable L2
-2.61 -.13 -1.57
Self
Ought-to L2  Will an increased
2.56 .10 1.56
Self
(Apple et al,
sample size from more
2012) schools (N = 866)
show the same results?

69. Qualitative stage of the project (2013~2014)
includes follow-up interviews
• Currently 150+ students volunteered
• Interviews will occur 4 times, half-year intervals
When do science students develop a sense of an Ideal
L2 Self?
What factors are involved?
How can ESP instructors help students develop an L2
Self from “I have to” to “I can imagine myself using”?

70. Motivational Self of
EFL science students in
Japan
Thank you for your attention
Matthew Apple
Nara National College of Technology
Joseph Falout
Nihon University, College of Science and Technology
Glen A. Hill
Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine

71. Acknowledgments
The main study in this presentation was funded
by a JSPS Grant-in-Aid (General C)
and generous contributions of time and data
collecting by EFL instructors across Japan
Matthew Apple
Nara National College of Technology
Joseph Falout
Nihon University, College of Science and Technology
Glen A. Hill
Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine

72. Japan is a “black hole” of scientific research
(IEEE Spectrum, Sept 2012).

73. Few scientists coming in…
even fewer going out…

74. The Rasch model
(Rasch, 1960)

75. The Rating Scale Model
(Andrich, 1978)

76. Reliability and separation scores

77. Item-person map for all constructs

78. Rasch principal components analysis of item
residuals (first contrast)