1.
HUMAN TRAFFICKING IN THE CROSS BORDER
AREA OF SUNAULI, RUPANDEHI
A DISSERTATION
Submitted to Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences
Tribhuvan University
in partial fulfilment of the requirements for
Master’s Degree in Arts in
Sociology
By:
Man Kumari Malla
Roll No. 3030028
TU Registration No: 2949-1991
Department of sociology and Anthropology
Rammani Multiple Campus
Manigram, Rupandehi
i

2.
TRIBHUVAN UNIVERSITY
Department of Sociology and Anthrology
Rammani Multiple Campus
Tilottama, Manigram, Rupandehi, Nepal
LETTER OF RECOMMENDATION
This is to certify that Ms Man Kumari Malla has completed this dissertation
entitled HUMAN TRAFFICKING IN THE CROSS BORDERAREA OF
SUNAULI, RUPANDEHI under my supervision and guidance. I, therefore,
recommend this dissertation for final approval and acceptance.
Ms. Bimala Pokharel
Supervisor
6th
March 2016
ii

3.
TRIBHUVAN UNIVERSITY
Department of Sociology and Anthropology
Rammani Multiple Campus Tilottama,
Manigram, Rupandehi, Nepal
Letter of Approval
This evaluation committee has approved the dissertation entitled HUMAN
TRAFFICKING IN THE CROSS BORDERAREA OF SUNAULI,
RUPANDEHI Submitted by Man Kumari Malla is partial fulfilment of the
requirements for the degree of Master’s Degree in Sociology (MA)
Mr Tara Prasad Parajuli
Ms Bimala Pokharel
Mr Laxman Timilsina
Date:
Head of Department …………………
Supervisor ……………………….
External Examainer ……………………
iii

4.
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that the work reported in this thesis entitled HUMAN
TRAFFICKING IN THE CROSS BORDERAREA OF SUNAULI,
RUPANDEHI submitted to the Department of Sociology Ram Mani Campus,
Manigram is my original work. It is done in the form of partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the Master of Sociology (MA) under the supervision and guidance of
Ms Bimala Pokherel, Lecturer of Rammani Multiple Campus, Manigram.
6
th
March, 2016
_______________________
Man Kumari Malla
Researcher
Manigram, Rupandehi
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5.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Many helpful hands are needed to complete this project. After completion of work,
immense joy can be experienced. I'm extremely grateful with all of them who have
helped, guided and supervised to complete this work.
I would like to express my sincere thanks to Mrs Bimala Pokharel, thesis supervisor,
who helped me from inception to completion of this project.
Similaraly, I would like to Mr Tara Prasad Parajuli, Head of Research Department for
their constant guidance. I would like to express my cordial gratitude to my respected
teachers as well as all the staffs of Department of Sociology, Rammani Multiple
Campus
I am thankful to Mrs Prabha Khanal, the incharge of Maiti Nepal ,Bhairahawa
Branch. I am also thankful to my nephew for their regular support and help during my
study period.
I extend my deep gratitude to my family Members Father, Mother, Brother, Sisters, to
my friends for their support and perpetual cooperation.
I am thankful all the staff members of Library of Rammani Multiple Campus for their
manifold helps and providing good environment for this study.
Last but not least I am responsible for any errors that may have remained in this work.
Man Kumari Malla
v

6.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Recommendation ii
Approval Sheet iii
Declaration iv
Acknowledgements v
Contents vi
List of Tables viii
List of Abbreviations ix
Abstract x
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1-9
1.1 Background of the Study 1
1.2 Statement of Problem 5
1.3 Objectives of the Study 6
1.4 Significance of the Study 6
1.5 Organization of the Study 9
CHAPTER TWO : REVIEW OF LITERATURE 10-17
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY 18-22
3.1 Rationale for the selection of the study area 18
3.2 Research Design 19
3.3 Universe and Sampling Procedure 20
3.4 Nature and Sources of Data 20
3.4.1 Primary and Secondary data 20
3.5 Techniques Data Collection 20
3.5.1 Observation 21
3.5.2 In-depth Interview 21
3.6 Data Processing and Analysis 22
3.7 Limitations of the Study 22
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7.
CHAPTER FOUR: PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA 23-31
4.1 Household Survey Area and Sampling 23
4.1.1 Socio-economic status 23
4.1.2 Opinions about Trafficking and Others 24
4.1.3 Causes of Trafficking and Others 25
4.1.4 Place of Interaction between the Trafficking and the Victims 26
4.1.5 Strategies of Trafficking by the Traffickers 27
4.1.6 Most Vulnerable Groups for Trafficking 28
4.1.7 Districts with higher cases of girls trafficking from Belhiya 29
4.1.8 Type of punishment to the traffickers 30
4.19 Ways to check human trafficking 31
CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 32-45
5.1 Summary 32
5.2 Conclusion 34
Bibliography 35
APPENDIXES A
APPENDIXES B
APPENDIXES C
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8.
List of Table
Table Title Page
1 Level of Education of the Sampled Household 23
2 Level of Knowledge about Human Trafficking 24
3 Level of Understanding about Prostitution 24
4 Causes of Human Trafficking 25
5 Purposes of Trafficking 26
6 Place of Interaction between Traffickers and the Victims 27
7 Motivation to the Vulnerable Groups by the Traffickers 28
8 Most Vulnerable Target Groups for Trafficking 29
9 Districts with Higher Cases of Trafficking (with multiple answer ) 30
10 Type of Punishment to the Traffickers (with multiple answers) 31
11 Measures Needed to Check Human Trafficking 31
viii

9.
ABBREVIATION
AATWIN
CBO
CDO
CEDAW
CRC
CSW
CWIN
DM
DTF
FY
GO
HIV/AIDS
IDU
IEC
INGOs
JCBC
LDO
NGO
NNAGT
PRC
SAARC
SLC
SP
STD
TU
UN
UNIFEM
UP
VDC
Alliance against Trafficking in Women and Children in Nepal
Community Based Organization
Chief District Officer
Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination
Against Women
Conventions on the Rights of Child
Commercial Sex Worker
Child Worker in Nepal
District Magistrate
District Task Force
Fiscal Year
Government Organization
Human Immune Deficiency Virus/Acquired Immune
Deficiency Virus
Intravenous Drug Users
Information, Education and Communication
International Non-Governmental Organizations
Joint Cross Border Committee
Local Development Officer
Non-Government Organization
National Network Against-Girl Trafficking
Peace Rehabilitation Centre
South Asian Association on Regional Co-operation
School Leaving Certificate
Superintendent of Police
Sexually Transmitted Diseases
Tribhuwan University
United Nations
United Nations Development Fund for Women
Uttar Pradesh
Village Development Committee
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10.
ABSTRACT
Nepal is a source country for men, women, and children trafficked for the purposes of
commercial sexual exploitation and involuntary servitude. In order to identify the status
of human trafficking in the cross border area of Sunauli, Rupendehi this study entitled
“HUMAN TRAFFICKING IN THE CROSS BORDER AREA OF SUNAULI,
RUPANDEHI” was carried at Siddharthanagar of Rupandehi district in Nepal and
Maharajgunj of India. For this study 50 households were selected on the basis of simple
random sampling. Data were collected by interview questionnaires. The findings of this
study showed that large number of female were illiterate. It was the main cause of
human being trafficked in border area. The majority of people still didn’t know about
knowledge of human trafficking. The causes of human trafficking in the study area were
family disorder and violence, lack of education or illiteracy, poverty, lack of social
awareness, lack of employment opportunities, attraction of the city life and physical
facilities and difficult rural life. Trafficking took place after some interaction between the
traffickers or middlemen and the victims, who were generally women, girls and
children. The vulnerable group of human trafficking were poor girl and women of rural
and urban areas, illiterate girls and women, semi-literate girls and women,
disadvantaged women of the society and girls of the marriageable age but neglected by
the society. Belhiya-Sunauli border at the Siddharthanagar municipality was found the
third largest transit point for human trafficking to India. This study showed that the
measures to minimize human trafficking were to create social awareness against
trafficking, strict watch at the transit point, educational opportunities at the concerned
areas, no discrimination between boys and girls, create employment opportunities at the
local level. Human trafficking is an illegal act. Mass awareness, strict law, end of gender
discrimination, providing education and employment opportunity and strict checking in
India Nepal border are the solutions of this problem.
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11.
CHAPTER: ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study
Human trafficking is one of the greatest challenges of humanity today. Trafficking in
human beings is often considered to be the modern form of the 'old' slave trade. Human
beings are treated as commodities to be bought and sold, and to be put to forced labour.
Human trafficking usually occurs in the sex industry but also in the agricultural sector,
entertainment sector, in hotels and restaurants. Most identified victims of human
trafficking are women and children, but there are also men and boys who sometimes
become victims of trafficking. The definition of trafficking has been under great debate
in the past decades, However, United Nations (UN, 2000) definition of trafficking
created a common understanding of trafficking among the major stakeholders .
According to this definition, trafficking is: The recruitment, transportation, transfer,
harbouring or receipt of persons by means of threat or use of force or other forms of
coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the abuse of power, or of a position of
vulnerability or of the giving or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve the
consent of a person having control over another person, for the purpose of exploitation.
Exploitation shall include, at minimum, the exploitation of prostitution of others or
other forms of sexual exploitation, forced labour or services, slavery or practices
similar to slavery, servitude or the removal of organs.
Although the above definition of trafficking is globally used, there are still various
understandings on trafficking in different parts of the world among researchers, Non
Governmental Organizations (NGOs) and not the least the victims of trafficking
themselves.
My study tries to compare the official definition of trafficking made by UN to the
understanding of trafficking among trafficked women and members of different
trafficking prone communities. I came back to this point again in the next chapter.
Human trafficking is often linked to organized crime that is practiced at national or
transnational range. It is a serious human rights violation and is reported by the United
Nations to be the fastest growing form of transnational organized crime. Indeed, United
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States Trafficking in Persons Report, 2007 states that human trafficking is now the
second largest illicit money making venture in the world after trafficking of weapons
and drugs whereas in 2006, it was ranked as the third largest business of illicit money
making (United States Department of State, 2015). This indicates that human
trafficking is becoming a severe problem. In this case, Nepal is not an exception
because of huge numbers of people being trafficked and increasing numbers of rescued
or returned survivors within Nepal. Human trafficking poses a great challenge to both
the Nepalese society and individual survivors. This is because the arrival of survivors
in the society is considered to threaten social dignity and prestige. Similarly, the girls
and women who have been trafficked for prostitution are publically known as social
evils in Nepal (Poudel and Carryer, 2000). In this respect, this study tries to analyze the
survivors experiences of trafficking and perceptions on reintegration of trafficked
women in their respective communities both among survivors and among people living
in some selected Communities.
Problems and Measures against Human Trafficking
The State Department of United States (2006) estimated that 600,000 to 820,000 men,
women and children are trafficked across international borders each year. Among them
approximately 80 percent are women and up to 50 percent are children. The data also
illustrates that the majority of transnational trafficked victims are being forced into
commercial sexual exploitation
1. A study by United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO) estimated that 500,000 women from Central and Eastern Europe were
working in prostitution in the European Union (EU) alone in the year 2000.
2. Similarly, another study has shown that Japan is one of the major destination
countries for women trafficked, especially from the Philippines and Thailand in
Asia. These numbers indicate the magnitude of women’s trafficking globally.
3. In the past decades, various measures have been taken to combat human trafficking
globally. Various global conventions have focused on the issue of women’s
trafficking. For instance, Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Discrimination against Women (CEDAW,1979), Convention on the Rights of the
Child (CRC,1989), Fourth World Conference on Women (1995), UN conference on
trafficking in human beings (2008).
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As a result, many countries have ratified these conventions and have tried to develop
plans, policies and programmes as well as laws. These efforts have strengthened co-
ordination and networking between and among nations and organizations to combat
human trafficking. Various international organizations like the UN, the World Bank,
the Asian Development Bank (ADB), United States Aid for International Development
(USAID) and Oxfam have prioritized the issue of human trafficking and have been
conducting programmes on awareness, advocacy, survivors support, rescue,‟
rehabilitation, reintegration and legal support to the survivors of trafficking. Although
there is great focus on programmes to combat human trafficking, the existing situation
still seems more challenging particularly on reintegration of trafficking victims in the
society (Shigekane, 2007). It is seen as a great challenge in Nepalese context where
existing interventions lack focus on reintegration of trafficked women (NHRCN, 2008).
National Level
Along with the global movement of fighting violence against women, specifically
in connection with combating women’s trafficking, Nepal government has also ratified
various international conventions and protocols including CEDAW. The government
has developed various plans, policies and programmes to combat trafficking. However,
the policy implementation is largely ineffective due to the lack of political and judicial
will to enforce legal Acts (CeLRRd, 2000). Human trafficking is a very sensitive issue,
thus, it is difficult to get exact figure of trafficking globally and nationally. There is
lack of recent estimations of human trafficking and there is no consistency in available
data. It is, therefore, difficult to determine the real magnitude of trafficking of Nepalese
girls and women. The estimate figures of trafficked women varies on different studies,
about 200,000 (Poudel and Shrestha, 1996) to 417,200 (Acharya, 1998). About 5000-
7000 girls are trafficked from Nepal to India each year specifically for 4 the first UN
convention on trafficking in human being was held in 13-15 Feb, 2008 in Vienna. 1200
experts were met to find strategies to combat trafficking forced prostitution (Poudel
2000 p.74). In another study, however, KC et al. (2001) has estimated that 12,000
children are trafficked to India every year, many of them under the age of 14 (KC,
2001). Although the studies mentioned above appear to show contrasting data, the
figures demonstrate the severity of the problem that girls and young women face in
relation to the trafficking situation in Nepal. It appears the high
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trafficking rate in Nepal is due to the high demand for fair- skinned and Mongolian
featured women for the sex industry. Further, Nepalese young women are considered
particularly valuable interms of their abilities to earn money for the traffickers (Shakti
Samuha, 2011).
Trafficking: A Gendered Issue in Nepal
According to a recent report prepared by Institute of Social Studies Trust, ‘One in every
two women in south Asia faces violence in their daily life. Many girls and women
endure daily beatings, harassment for dowry, verbal abuse and acid attacks for refusing
to comply with male demands. Other women become targets of extreme forms of
Violence like incest, rape, public humiliation, trafficking, honour killing and dowry
deaths (ISST, 2011), .Nepal is one among South Asian countries where women are
often treated as second class citizens making them more prone to trafficking than men
.Women trafficking is recognized as the result of socio-cultural structures, gender roles
and in particular gendered power differentials, poverty and lack of economic
opportunities (Mahendra et al., 2013). Generally, economic status and gender
inequality are the underlying factors of trafficking in Nepal (Poudel, 2000). Gender
inequality exists in economic activities, labour force, education, public participation,
socio-cultural values, norms and practices as well as legal structures of the state.
Institutionalized gender inequality is found in various sectors of the society. National
Census results of Nepal, 2001 show that whereas females comprise more than half the
country’s population, they share only 9.1 percent jobs in public service (CBS, 2003).
Women work 47 percent more hours than men in an average in a day. (Bajracharya ,
1994), Their involvement in household work is not considered as work even though
they work 14-17 hours a day in household and on the farm (Mahendra et al., 2001).
Although women have ownership over land and dominate the basic food processing
activities (Upadhyay, 2003), the proceeds of agriculture are controlled by men (Rana,
1999). The share of women in wage employment in the non agricultural sector is only
17.5 percent (CBS, 2006). Women are living with various problems and are
discriminated against by male members even in their family (Poudyal, 2003). The
female literacy rate in Nepal is 42.8 percent where as male literacy rate is 65 percent,
which results in women’s limited skills. Low female literacy is caused by the burden of
work on the daughters. For example, a school going daughter has to help her mother in
her daily life
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(Agrawal, 2001), whereas same aged son is neither supposed to help his parents nor
other members in the family. Various interventions for increasing female literacy are
presumed to maintain equality among boys and girls and equal participation in society
but they are not enough to achieve gender justice in education (Pant, 2006). Roth child
(2006) critically argues in his study of education in Nepal that A girl enrolling in
school enrolls in a gendered institution, not a gender neutral one. Most development
organizations in Nepal have adopted gender perspectives systematically in their
systems, structures and practices (Berger, 2004). Regardless of some achievements,
gender inequality is prevailing everywhere in Nepalese societies (The World Bank,
2001).Women in general are regarded as second class citizens due to the patriarchal
values and norms in the society. The patriarchal system of inheritance of parental
property gives high priority to men even though current inheritance of property
legislation has defined that women and men have equal right to inherit their parental
property (NHRCN, 2008).There are inequalities in policies, institutions and legislations
as well as society’s functions and practices resulting in exclusion of women,
disadvantaged groups and minorities (DFID, 2005). Following from the above, it is
reasonable to argue that not only does inequalities exist between men and women in
Nepalese society, but it is institutionalized. The situation does become more serious
when women who are already in vulnerable position are trafficked to other countries
for prostitution. A behavior that is culturally unacceptable in Nepal. This study
therefore analyses how women are trafficked and how are they treated in Nepalese
society and whether there exist the possibility of a successful reintegration in their
respective communities. The House of Representatives of Nepal had declared Nepal as
an untouchable and discrimination free nation on 4th June 2014 which is considered as
an important breakthrough for the construction of equitable society (The Kathmandu
Post, 2014). I hope the current government will extend its great efforts to formulate
equitable policies and programmes and their effective materialization, which will help
to stop girl trafficking and enhance the lives of survivors of trafficking.
1.2. Statement of Problem
A system of capitalism that promotes human greed and labels money and power as
most important in society leads people to take desperate measures to achieve status and
compete in society, even if it violates the rights of others. Men are buying women in
the same fashion that they purchase property, to be owned and controlled in everyday
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life. For those that may receive money for their work or other accommodations like
shelter it is nothing in contrast to the profits traffickers and pimps are making and or
the damage it causes to the women’s health mentally, emotionally, and physically. This
abuse and constant control creates a false consciousness for the women, making them
believe that they have no other choices and have no self worth. They are mentally
drained, ashamed, scared and lack the self-identity needed to defy their trafficker and
escape victimization.
This study will seek to answer three primary questions:
1. How are women taken across the border?
2. What are their experiences?
3. What resources or assistance is needed to keep them from returning to trafficking?
1.3. Objectives of the Study
The main objective of the present study was:
1. To find out how women are taken across the border?
2. To explore their experiences, and
3. To search out resources or assistance to keep them from returning to trafficking.
1.4 Significance of the Study
The trafficking of human beings has existed for centuries. It is a ruthless crime which
mercilessly exploits millions of vulnerable women, children and men worldwide. Even
today it is very difficult to assess the scale of the problem because of its clandestine
nature. Almost every country in the world is affected either as a country of origin,
transit, or destination. It has become a global criminal enterprise generating enormous
illicit profits, worth billions of dollars per year. This global crime moves where the
profits are higher and detection risks lower and which constantly mutates and evolves,
adapting to local circumstances and opportunities.
Existing literature regarding the issue on trafficking of girls and women indicates that
the social structure, like superior status accorded to male members in the family as well
as in the society from the very moment they are born and also on the process of their
brought up, conservative social attitude towards women, traditional existing gender
inequality values system, existing discriminatory laws, and domestic violence against
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women are some of the root causes of trafficking of girls and women in Nepal. Besides
this, they are illiterate and do not have exposure to the outside world and on the top of
that, their parents treat them as subordinate members of the family and they feel as a
burden to take care and upbringings of their daughters, because they are given away in
marriage to others' house. So, daughters are not supposed to give economic as well
social benefit to them. Hence, the major focus of the activities is on the prevention of
trafficking by changing the condition which allow for trafficking of girls and women
with impunity and making violations against the rights of girls and women more visible
thus galvanizing both public and state commitments and action. Therefore, regarding
the socio-economic status of women and their vulnerability for trafficking I proposed to
make clear distinction between trafficking, commercial sex worker and migration, and
which can also make policy recommendations separately to facilitate interest of women
in these areas. Moreover, lack of reliable information/data on prevalence causes and
consequences of trafficking, compelled to conduct a baseline study and need
assessment in those bordering areas, with the intention of generation of a basic
data/information to provide a basis for proper intervention in those areas. Besides this,
pre-project data collection and generation can compare the changes in the adjoining
border areas after some years of intervention.
In this regard, this study tries to focus on how they are taken across boarder the
problems of reintegration of survivors of trafficking. It also aims at studying the
experiences of trafficked women since reintegration cannot be understood unless we
discuss experiences of trafficking. Trafficked women have traumatic experiences of life
at working places and different physical abuses and psychological stresses. Their
retrospective life experiences create shame in them which results in the loss of their self
identity in the community. Such experiences may act as hindrances in their
reintegration in the community.
This study, therefore, tries to explore how girls are and women trafficked and
experiences of trafficked women and their reintegration processes and analyses the
perceptions on reintegration of returnees among local people within three different
communities under study and survivors themselves. My study throws important light
on the issue of reintegration of trafficked women in Nepalese context and the
experiences of trafficking victims.
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18.
This study is expected to be significant to all those who are eager to know about human
trafficking and girl trafficking in Nepal. The study will also be useful to the subject
experts, syllabus designer, social thinker , planner, social worker as well as reformer
and the people at planning and policy making level. It will be a good resource for those
who like to know and go for the further study about human trafficking.
So, the study was conducted in and around Siddharthanagar of Rupandehi district in
Nepal and Maharajgunj of India. Rupandehi district lies in the Western Development
Region of Nepal adjoining with Indian border named Sonauli of Maharajgunj district of
Uttar Pradesh. This district has two municipalities namely: Siddharthanagar and
Butwal. Siddharthanagar was previously known as Bhairahawa was declared as
Bhairahawa Nagar Panchayat in the year 1967 by the then HMG, Nepal. To honour the
Lord Buddha, it was renamed as Siddharthanagar Nagar Panchayat in 1977. The
birthplace of Lord Buddha is situated at a distance of 22 kms from the main market of
Siddharthanagar. Because of this, the city is very popular for the Buddhists from Nepal
and around the world. After the restoration of democracy in 1990, it is being renamed
as Siddharthanagar municipality. According to the latest population census of 2011, the
population of Rupandehi district is 886,706 out of which the male population is
432,193 and that of female are 448,003. Similarly, there are altogether 163,916
households and average household size is 5.37 persons. According to the concerned
authority of municipality, it is situated at an altitude of 110 meters above the sea level
and it has a total land area of 3,679.8 hectares or 36.03 Sq. km. It has 13 wards with a
total household of about 18,763 in the fiscal year 2013/14.
Siddharthanagar is a Terai belt and it is being developed as a commercial, industrial,
educational and touristic centre, so, people from the hill and mountain districts migrate
in search of fortune every year. In this municipality, there are 15 primary, 7 lower
secondary and 22 secondary schools, 16 campuses and one medical college with its
own well facilitated teaching hospital and other public utility offices. This city is linked
with major cities of Nepal by roads as well as airways.
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19.
The four boundaries of the Siddharthanagar municipality are: Basantapur and Bagaha
VDCs in the East, Hati Bangai VDC in the West, Padsari VDC in the North and border
of India in the South. Therefore, it is one of the most popular entry-point from Sunauli
of Maharajgunj district, India. So, Belhiya of Rupandehi district and Sonauli of
Maharajgunj district is border points between Nepal and India respectively. Belhiya-
Sunauli is famous as third point for tourist entry. According to the concerned authority
of the municipality, the tourists who enter Siddharthanagar via Belhiya are from India,
Sri Lanka, South Korea, China, Japan, Thailand, Canada, Germany, France, Britain,
USA, Italy, Netherlands, Denmark, Israel, New Zealand, and so on. The average tourist
entry through this point is 77 per day. A dry port has recently been constructed and
operated at Belhiya and there is Nepalese Customs Office. Almost all goods for the
Western Development Region and about 40 percent of domestic consumption goods for
the Kathmandu valley are transported through this point. So, every day 75 to 100 trucks
are entered with goods from India. Besides this, being an open border, it is affected by
heavy traffic due to the movement of people along with the truckers, rickshaw-pullers
and other public and private vehicles for various purposes in this border area.
Therefore, the exit and entry of the people between the two countries as well as
trafficking of vulnerable girls and women form this transit point seems to be very high.
1.5 Organization of the Study
The whole study is divided into five chapters. The first chapter described introduction
which includes background, statement of the problem, objectives of the study,
significance of the study, and organization of the study. The second chapter described
the theoretical and empirical literature review of books, reports, journals, previous
unpublished thesis related websites etc. Third chapter explained the research
methodology used in the study, which includes research design, resource of data,
population and sample, methods of data analysis.
Fourth chapter described and introduced the socio-economic and demographic
characteristics of the study population and introduce socio-economic and demographic
characteristics of the respondent and demographic variables of frequency, mean and
cross tabulation. The fifth chapter summarized the main conclusion that flows from the
study and offers suggestions for further improvement and conclusion of the study
9

20.
CHAPTER: TWO
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
The concept and the definition of trafficking have varied over time and are still under
debate today. Considering the definitions from various agencies (organizations) over
the period 1949 to 2015, they can be grouped into three different schools of thoughts
(IIDS, 2015): The first idea considers trafficking as moving, selling and buying of
women and children for prostitution. This concept is associated with the UN
Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Persons and the Exploitation of
Prostitution of Others (1949). This convention is considered to be the first UN
instrument to combat trafficking. Various actions linked trafficking to the prostitution
during the decades, and various governments actions were founded on such an
understanding of trafficking. Critics argued that this definition includes a narrow
understanding of trafficking. Trafficking is presented in very limited visible aspects.
However it is used by various organizations without considering its lacking. The
Nepalese government action was motivated by the definition above and led to the
restriction on the movement of women without considering their rights (MWCSW,
2008 b). The second school of thought considers trafficking as forced prostitution and
coerced labour.
“Human trafficking is one of the world's most shameful ills-a heartless violation of
human rights in which lives are traded, sold, exploited, abused and ruined. No country
is immune, and millions of lives are at stake. We must take a united stand, shine a
spotlight on the issue, put traffickers behind bars and give protection and support to
victims and vulnerable people”. - Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon.
This definition is associated with the concept of trafficking developed in UN General
Assembly, 1994. The main point of this thought is that trafficking is basically
associated with economies in transition. The critics of the definition argue 11 that this
definition explains trafficking as a crime which is a very visible aspect of trafficking.
However, trafficking also relates to various invisible activities, but this definition does
not go beyond the visible aspects of trafficking. The definition does not explicate the
relationship between trafficking and other processes like migration, neither does it take
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21.
into account social hierarchy or power relations in society. Finally, it does not deal with
trafficking within a nation’s boundary (IIDS and UNIFEM, 2004). It is the latest and
most widely used definition on trafficking. As earlier discussed in chapter 1, trafficking
is, according to this definition, recruitment, transportation, purchase, sale, transfer,
harbouring or receipt of persons.
Trafficking is required to be understood in different perspectives: White slave trade,
transnational organized crime, an illegal migration problem, a threat to national
sovereignty and security, a labour issues, human rights violations, or combinations of
them all Lee (2007).
The UN definition is inadequate in explaining the connections among the ideas included in
the definitions: methods, motive, content and the consent. Although most of the
organizations (INGOs) working to combat trafficking in Nepal emphasize that they are
taking on UN (2000) definition of trafficking as their starting point, there are varying
perceptions of definition and practices (Skilberi and Tveit, 2008).
The National Human Rights Commission in Nepal, 2006 states that different agencies
have built a common consensus on trafficking in persons recently which encourages the
agencies to attempt a comprehensive definition of trafficking going beyond the limit of
sex work and treating the issue as a violation of human rights pertaining to civil,
political, economic, social and cultural rights (p. 8). However, people living in different
places have different perceptions of trafficking. They explain trafficking in different
ways. Some people view it as a greatest human crime that is seen as the violation of
human right (Watts, 2004), and others perceive it as a form of violence against women.
People’s diverse understanding of trafficking complicates the effective implementation
of anti-trafficking programmes whereas the official definition of trafficking is seen as
an important base for the formulation of plans and policies to combat trafficking. This
study therefore tries to analyse how trafficking is understood among survivors of
trafficking and people from three trafficking prone communities.
Even though there is no authentic information on the genesis of human trafficking in
Nepal (Ghimire, 1997), evidence available support the assertion that it has been in
existence since the beginning of the 20th century. Two schools of thought 7 exist
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regarding the history of trafficking in Nepal. One group of scholars argue that
trafficking existed even in the ancient rules of Lichchhabi era, Malla period and Rana
regime 8. Trafficking in girls and women became more pronounced after the downfall
of the Rana regime (1951). People believed that the Ranas had kept many young girls
as maids and concubines, dancers and singers for luxury and sexual pleasures, most of
whom belonged to Tamang community located in the mountain districts like
Sindhupalchok and Nuwakot (Brown, 2006). The people s war in 1950/51 ended Rana‟
Regime and sent Ranas to India. At that time they took many of their concubines and
maids with them. Ranas could not keep all the maids and concubines due to their
declining economic status in their exile lives. While in India, those girls had challenges
and hardships concerning Lichchhabi Era, Malla period and Rana regime denotes the
ancient rules of the government of Nepal. Rana had dictatorship rule in Nepal from
1847 to 1951. They were thrown out by the people’s movement in 1950/51.
Tamang is an indigenous group of people who are living mostly in northern mountain
and hill region of Nepal. They are considered as most vulnerable to trafficking. They
then entered into sex work for survival. Later on, some of them opened up their own
brothels and brought young girls from their own communities to India with the promise
of good economic earning and city lives (KC et al., 2001). This business expanded and
resulted in the current situation of trafficking in Nepal. Another school of thought
explains that the origin of trafficking in Nepal resulted from Tibet-Indian merchant
relations. From the beginning of 20th
century, Tibetans were running their business in
India through Nepal (NHRCN, 2006). They had recruited many Nepali young boys and
girls in the construction work. With the growth of their business in India, Tibetans
opened brothels in Indian red light areas and recruited many girls to work there. After
the Indo-Tibet war10 in 1950/60s, Tibetans could not continue the brothels so they
handed over brothel ownership to Nepalese women from the hill region who had been
working there. Finally those women deceived other young girls to work in brothels and
their business resulted in current situation of Nepalese women’s trafficking. (Muliki
Ain, 1853), the first written law of Nepal that prohibits sale or purchase of any person,
was promulgated in Rana period. The slavery system was abolished in 1923 from
Nepal. Nevertheless the process of bringing girls from the mountain and the hilly
regions continued (Shakya, 2006). It is argued that certain traditional systems like
Deuki, Jhuma and Badi 12 in Nepal also contributed to the promotion of women’s
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trafficking ( Brown, 2006). Human trafficking increased rapidly during the Panchayat
1960-1990 in Nepal. (NHRCN, 2006) due to misuse of political power (MANK, 2007).
The Panchayat system itself was criticized as feudal whereby people s socio economic‟
status worsened rapidly. Due to the rampant poverty, people tried to find better
economic opportunities. The circumstances made it easy for traffickers to lure girls for
better economic possibilities. There was war between India and Tibet in 1959- 1962
(Visit the web: srujit Mansingh). Deuki, Jhuma and Badi system are traditional
practices where girls are used as commodity. In Deuki and Jhuma system, girls are
worshiped to the god and they are not supposed to get marriage. They are vulnerable to
trafficking. Badi women are engage in prostitution from their early puberty. Girls
prostitution is considered as family business in Badi system. Panchayat system is
considered as a dictatorial system. Political parties were banned and the king had
absolute power. It remained for 30 (1960-1990) years in Nepal.
India and also helped them to convince the girls parents. Girls trafficking were seen in
major cities within the country as well as in the highways transits. Although
government had made anti-trafficking law (Jiu Masne Bechne Karya niyantran garne
Ain, 1986 to punish traffickers, it did not function well as it was meant to do. People
claimed that many Pancha14 were also involved in trafficking and they protected the
traffickers even if the brokers were arrested by the police (MANK, 2007). In 1990,
Multi-party Democracy was restored in Nepal. People expected a lot from it but were
disappointed. They remained poor. Due to attraction of various facilities in the cities,
rural people migrated to urban canters especially Kathmandu and Terai region. This
increased girls and women’s vulnerability to trafficking. Internal conflicts between‟
Maoist and Government that started in 1996 completely disturbed the activities of
organizations in various fields, including combating trafficking. People were internally
displaced which resulted in more migration to cities (especially Kathmandu). Limited
facilities in the city could not provide economic security to the migrants, something
which also helped traffickers to deceive girls and women with prospects of having
better economic opportunities in foreign countries and helped to promote trafficking in
Nepal (NHRCN, 2006). Many organizations (INGOs) were working to combat
trafficking but could not achieve the expected results. Although the constitution of the
Kingdom of Nepal, 1990 also ensured that the act of trafficking is punishable by law,
trafficking affected the country more. Nowadays, the situation is getting worse. It has
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developed as a high profit making business without any investment and loss which
increases irregular migration as well as victimization of women. The increment in
profit making business seems as an indication of the involvement of organized crime
network too (Jahic, 2005). More so, the increase in the foreign employment
opportunities in general contributed to the vulnerability to trafficking among Nepali
girls and women (NHRCN, 2006). Studies on trafficking show that traffickers have
changed the form and routes of trafficking. They avoid official check points and
existing legal provisions. On the one hand, it is believed that recruiting agencies
(manpower companies) are also contributing to trafficking because they recruit girls
and women for foreign employment without Pancha refers to the local government
authority in Panchayat Systm. Literal meaning of Panch is five. This is the decision
making body in the village/city who can decide what punishment is needed in a
particular case securing them jobs or helping them to get good working conditions . In
other words, these women are denied contracts, which specify their jobs, salaries,
working hours, workers duties and responsibilities as well as other benefits/facilities
(NIDS 2006). Due to the lack of detailed information about the work to be done in the
foreign country, possible obstacles and the ways of problem solving, some girls are
being victimized of trafficking. On the other hand, internal trafficking is also becoming
severe in Nepal. Even though it is illegal, prostitution is rampant in various massage
parlours, night clubs, restaurants, dance bars and cabins. Transit points on different
highways are also seen as vulnerable zones for internal trafficking. A study made by
Institute of Integrated Development Studies (IIDS) and United Nations Development
Fund for Women (UNIFEM) (2004) shows that trafficking has increased not only
among rural illiterate girls and women, but also city girls/women and literate women.
Such a trend and situation of trafficking has increased challenges in the reintegration of
trafficked women in the society as it increases the number of victims.
Why and how are Nepalese Women Trafficked? The majority of available studies on
trafficking are focused on why and how women are victimized in trafficking. The
major objectives of such studies are to analyze policy implications and existent
situation of trafficking in general. Various studies show that socio-cultural structures,
gender roles and power differentials, poverty and economic hardships are the major
factors contributing to trafficking (Mahendra et al., 2001). In addition, many other
causes behind the trafficking of Nepalese girls and women have been identified and
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they include lack of vocational skills, migration, growing consumerism, ill treatment by
parents/guardians, desertion by spouses, rejection in love, gender discrimination, debt
bondage, fenced love or marriage, unemployment ( Mukherjee, 2007). Gender disparity
exists in communities. In general people perceive the movement of men and women
differently and believe that men belong to the public sphere (world) while women
should remain in the private sphere (household). Gender discrimination in household
sometimes results in divorce and the husband s second marriage. Dowry issues also can‟
break the relationship between husband and wife. More so, discrimination results into
early marriages for the girls that ultimately encourages/forces women to live
independent lives and this makes them easy targets for the traffickers (Ali, 2005).
Although women and girls are trafficked mainly for prostitution, there are many other
purposes like circus, camel joking, bonded labours, domestic servant, agriculture
labours (Watch, 2001). Some studies focused on trafficking from an economic
perspective. Females are dominated in the society and their works are limited to
household chores, but their contributions in households work are not counted as work.
A very low percentage of female involvement in public services shows women’s
economic hardship in one way and on the other, their lack of skills due to illiteracy
(CBS, 2003). In addition, the subsistence economy is no longer a feasible means of
their livelihoods and these situations make rural females unemployed. Poverty thus,
forces the migration of labour from rural areas to the cities (New ERA, 2004). In
particular, labour migration results into increased vulnerability of many women to sex
trafficking (Evans, 2000). Due to loss of traditional jobs as a result of technological
transformation rural unskilled women are pushed especially to migrate for their survival
(Ali, 2005). However many people in the rural communities equate women’s migration
to new places and job to their involvement in sex trade (Mahendra et al., 2001). Some
studies mainly focused on the process of trafficking. According to a study by Simkhada
(2004), in most cases, traffickers get 'their victims' through tricking, luring by false
promises, physical force, feigned love or marriage, isolation and even forced drug
abuse. Most of the victims seem to be trafficked by trusted members of their
community including their relatives, like uncles, aunts, cousins, brothers, stepfathers
(Simkhada, 2004).
The causes of trafficking in her study of trafficking in south Asia. She accepts the
various purposes and causes of trafficking but argues that prostitution is not just a
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product of poverty but may be a career option for some individuals. One of the causes
of girls/women trafficking to India is considered the open national state borders. Brown
(2006).
Nepali people can freely visit India without any documents, hence making or creating
easy access to the brokers. Some of the major exit points of Nepal have police check
posts and some organizations vigilance cells but these are not sufficient to check the
exits. Moreover, traffickers have changed the actual roots frequently for the fear of
being intercepted (Ali, 2005). Additionally, large numbers of women have migrated to
Arab and Gulf countries like Saudi Arabia, Malaysia, the United Arab Emirates and
Hong Kong for foreign employment. They are lured by being offered work to be
domestic servants, work in households and business companies but are ultimately
forced into prostitution (Huda, 2006).
Trafficking in South Asia (including Nepal) is deeply rooted in social, economic, political
and religious aspects of the society. She found that gender discrimination starts from birth
of a child in a family. A man’s role in his society is perceived as respectable and
independent whereas a woman is restricted in the household and her role is always linked
to her family’s identity: first with her father (as somebody’s daughter), then with her
husband (as someone’s wife) and later with her son (as someone’s mother) (Brown, 2006).
She further explains that women are commoditized through illiteracy and marriage because
dowry determines their level of marriage on one hand and on the other hand, girls are being
exchanged for the marriage. Invariably, Brown found that women who have sexual
relationships with multiple partners are considered as characterless women and are
perceived as polluted women whereas males having sexual relation with multiple partners
do not disrupt social harmony and order. Women are perceived as economically,
religiously and socially inferior. Similarly, a recent study shows that increased numbers of
trafficking impacted on women’s social role and further reduced their status in society
( IIDS, 2004). Trafficking is thus, a form of violence against women that results into
physical, psychological and sexual abuses.
The Country Report of Asian Development Bank states that involvement of ADB in
combating trafficking of women and children directly addresses the strategic goals of
poverty reduction and promotion of gender equality. It also argues that analysis of
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demand and supply side of trafficking could reduce trafficking vulnerability of women
( Shigekane, 2007). More so, some policy documents and studies focus their analysis
on the government plans and policies to combat trafficking. Policy document of
Government of Nepal, Human Trafficking (control Act, 1986) National Plan of Action
to Control Trafficking, 1998; and Trafficking Control Bill, 2002 has presented various
preventive measures for the victims, like awareness and advocacy programme, rescue
and rehabilitation. However it has not specifically stressed the programmes for
reintegration of survivors of trafficking. Similarly another government plan document,
Three years interim development plan of Nepal (2008-2010) has also identified
problems on reintegration of trafficking survivors and stated that programmes directed
towards solving the problems should be conducted but no programmes are specifically
mentioned in the document.
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CHAPTER: THREE
METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY
3.1 Rationale for Selection of the Study Area
The study area was prescribed along the border areas of Rupandehi district Nepal and its
adjoining Indian Territory. So, the study was conducted in and around Siddharthanagar
of Rupandehi district in Nepal and Maharajgunj of India. Rupandehi district lies in the
Western Development Region of Nepal adjoining with Indian border named Sunauli of
Maharajgunj district of Uttar Pradesh. This district has two municipalities namely:
Siddharthanagar and Butwal. Siddharthanagar . To honour the Lord Buddha, it was
named as Siddharthanagar Nagar, the birthplace of Lord Buddha. It is like Mecca –
Madina to the Muslims, Jerusalem to the Christian and Chardham to the Hindus, the
greatest and holiest pilgrimage of all the Buddhists of the world. Girl trafficking from
such a place is not merely a crime against humanity rather a shame and heterogeneity
and an attack on spirituality of millions and millions of Buddhists all over the world. As
a law practitioner and woman, I did not like it and selected this topic for my thesis to do
something for to do away with this sort of social evil.
This city is linked with major cities of Nepal by roads as well as airways. The four
boundaries of the Siddharthanagar Municipality are: Basantapur and Bagaha VDCs in
the East, Hati Bangai VDC in the West, Padsari VDC in the North and border of India
in the South. Therefore, it is one of the most popular entry-point from Sunauli of
Maharajgunj district, India. So, Belhiya of Rupandehi district and Sunauli of
Maharajgunj district is border points between Nepal and India respectively. Belhiya-
Sunauli is famous as third point for tourist entry. According to the concerned authority
of the municipality, the tourists who enter Siddhartha Nagar via Belhiya are from India,
Sri Lanka, South Korea, China, Japan, Thailand, Canada, Germany, France, Britain,
USA, Italy, Netherlands, Denmark, Israel, New Zealand, and so on. The average tourist
entry through this point is 77 per day. A dry port has recently been constructed and
operated at Belhiya and there is Nepalese Customs Office. Almost all goods for the
Western Development Region and about 40 percent of domestic consumption goods for
the Kathmandu valley are transported through this point. So, every day 75 to 100 trucks
are entered with goods from India. Besides this, being an open border, it is affected by
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heavy traffic due to the movement of people along with the truckers, rickshaw-pullers
and other public and private vehicles for various purposes in this border area.
Therefore, the exit and entry of the people between the two countries as well as
trafficking of vulnerable girls and women form this transit point seems to be very high.
3.2 Research Design
This research is based on descriptive and analytical Process after fieldwork survey of
prescribed. Five sets of structural questionnaire will be developed and pre-tested in the
concerned areas prior to conduct survey. The questionnaire will be designed to generate
information and inputs from household, NGOs, local authorities or NG's high ranking
officials, Nepal Police and intellectuals, journalists, concerning stakeholders and the
civil society. Different types of the checklists were prepared and finalized after proper
consultation with the concerned personnel within and outside the MAITI NEPAL.
Household survey has been carried out in 50 households, which has been very
successful to visualize the clear picture of the situation within and across the border of
Rupandehi district. The survey was conducted in and around Siddhartha Nagar in
Rupandehi district of Nepal and its adjoining Indian Territory that is at Maharajgunj.
Besides, focus groups discussions as well as interviews were also conducted by the help
of a checklist wherever needed. During this process, information will be collected from
other key informants like concerned officials from the NGOs/INGOs working there,
local authorities and police, social workers, transport agencies (even rickshaw pullers),
hotel and lodge owners/staffs, and so on. I also will be reviewed about the extent of co-
ordination work between the agencies working against trafficking at Siddhartha Nagar
and across the border. In this context, I will also be assessed and reviewed the progress
of Joint Cross Border Committee (JCBC) for anti-trafficking movement in particular
location or transit point.
The structural questionnaire or checklists will cover all the required concerned
information such as the reaction of hotel/ lodge owner in the case of trafficking, the
examining the magnitude of hassles faced by young girls or women crossing border,
problems and impacts of local prostitution and all. The basic thrust of the study is to
generate the suggestions and recommendations to combat trafficking at the local level.
As secondary sources of information, various published journals, books, documents,
papers and other materials are used to generate information regarding the trafficking
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scenario and conceptual clarity on trafficking, commercial sex work and migration.
Lots of documents and previous studies will have consulted to bring-up a module
covering the all aspects of trafficking and right-based migration as well. Moreover,
various data, facts and information are generated at different level, have been
materialized to bring a lively picture of the issue.
3.3 Universe and sampling procedure
The research was conducted in Siddharthanagar Municipaliy in Rupandehi district. The
total population of Siddharthanagar Municipality is 108558. Male 55692 and female
52866. Out of 1353 households, 50 households were taken as sample for the study. In
50 sample households, total population was 250.The males were 120 (48%) and
females were 130(52%). Questions were asked to the members of 50 households. The
study was carried out on the basis of simple random sampling to select the sampling
unit.
3.4 Nature and sources of the data
The data are of two types; quantitative and qualitative. The study has focused on both
quantitative and qualitative for the sake of clarity.
3.4.1 Primary and secondary data
This study is based on both primary and secondary data. Primary data was collected
from field survey of the selected study area direct through interview to the respondents
and the household which was taken from sampling from S.N.P-1 Sunauli using simple
random sampling method and questionnaire method, respondent are selected from 50
different household. Secondary data are collected through National report from CBS,
NDHS 2011, population census and VDC Profile.
3.5 Techniques of data Collection
I gathered information from primary data sources through observation and interview .
Additionally I collected other relevant information from secondary sources. I collected
both qualitative and quantitative information for the study.
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3.5.1 Observation
The researcher participates in individuals or communities daily lives/activities by
listening, observing, questioning and understanding the lives of people. Maiti Nepal
where I had regular contact and communications with survivors. Shakti Samuha has a
separate hostel for the survivors and office for its day to day activities. The survivors
visit the office frequently for various purposes. Some of them work there in the office;
others get training, keep on contacts and meetings with NGO personals. I observed
together with them in the office, which helped me to become familiar with them. My
role was to assist the overall activities (project report, assist to conduct workshops,
gender training) in the office. I was involved in the managerial team for the Preparation
workshop for trafficking survivors’ national conference, where I assisted with
managing the programme schedule, publication and co-ordination for the workshop.
My role was useful in the sense that the conference was to generate pressure to the
government to ensure trafficking survivors rights in the constitution19. Such allocation
of role in the organization helped me to establish a good relationship with the staff,
which in turn helped me to acquire the trust of the informants. I observed their
behaviors, attitudes, appearances and way of interpersonal interactions. I also noticed
physical injuries, way of talking walking, dressing up, their facial expressions
(depression, brightness, tension, and charming face) during my work period (May-July,
2008). In order to understand their lives, I gathered information through daily
communication/ interactions, meetings and informal talks on lunch breaks as well as tea
time. I observed the trafficking survivors during interview in Maiti Nepal in
Bhairahawa .
3.5.2 In-depth interviews
It gives empirical data about the social world that can be obtained from taking to
people about their lives and experiences. In-depth interview is an interview by which
individual people can share their understanding of real world and experiences of their
lives. It is applied to emphasize the essentials of my study that is individual information
in households on how the girls trafficked and how much pain they experienced. I found
it relevant to my study.
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3.6 Data processing and analysis
Finally, collected data and information though surveys have displayed by using
questionnaires resulting into able formats. And the displayed tables have successfully
visualized the status and situation of study components. In fact, this report has been
enriched and enlightened using and inserting various information, facts and figures are
abstracted from previous studies, publications, journals and materials.
3.7 Limitations of the study
Research has its own focus in a particular issue of Bhairahawa transit. Some of major
limitations of this study are as follows:
1. The study is limited to the information from 50 households in boardering area and
the experiences of trafficked women who have been living in Maiti Nepal
2. The areas of the study were limited only to Siddharthanagar Belaiya- region. The
survey area is the border areas of Rupandehi district Nepal and its adjoining Indian
Territory. So, the study was conducted in and around Siddharthanagar of
Rupandehi district in Nepal and Maharajgunj of India. Rupandehi district lies in the
Western Development Region of Nepal adjoining with Indian border named
Sonauli of Maharajgunj district of Uttar Pradesh.
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33.
CHAPTER: FOUR
PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA
4.1 House Hold Survey Area and Sampling
4.1.1 Socio-economic status
Every human activity has a financial effect. Basically, the main cause of human
trafficking is also money. It’s a driving force. High ambition, luxuries life style needs
more money, so uneducated and low educated young girls are liable to the victim
trafficking .
Table1: Level of Education of the Sampled Household
Level of Education Male Female Total Percent
Literate Only 2 2 4 8.0
Class 1 to 5 9 9 18 36.0
Class 6 to 10 5 8 13 26
SLC Pass 2 2 4 8
Intermediate 1 1 2 4.0
Bachelors Degree 3 3 6 12
Masters Degree 3 0 3 6.0
Total 25 25 50 100.0
Source: Field Survey, 2015
Table no.1 shows that the large number of female are illiterate. It is the main cause of
being trafficked in boardering. In the sampled households, there were 50 persons
illiterate, the sample showed that 8 Percent were literate only, that is they can read and
write with informal education as presented. On the other hand, 26 percent (13 persons)
had formal education from Class 6-10 26 percent ( 13 ), while 36 percent (18 persons)
had formal education from Class 1-5, 8 percent (4 persons) were SLC passed, 4 percent
(2 persons) were Intermediate passed, 4 percent (2 persons) had Bachelors degree, and
12 percent (6 persons) had Masters degree. Among the literates males are more than
females.
4.1.2 Opinions about Trafficking and Others
Human trafficking is an unforgivable crime. It is against humanity, though it still
existing. It’s the lack of public awareness and greed for illegal money. Knowledge
about trafficking and other issues and the result showed that large number of people
still “Don’t know” about the human trafficking. Most of the people in the study area
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are still ignorant how and where the girls are taken. Some people seem to have no idea
at all. They are unknown about the pros and cons, risks and returns.
Table 2 : Level of Knowledge about Human Trafficking
Level of Knowledge Sample Percent
Transfer of persons from one place to another 27 54.0
Transfer of persons without violating human rights 19 38.0
Transfer of persons for trafficking or monetary benefits 0 -
Don’t know 4 8.0
Total 50 100.0
Source: Field Survey, 2015
Tale no. 2 shows that about the level of understanding or knowledge about prostitution,
large number of people 54 percent ( 27) persons know merely that human trafficking is
just transfer of persons from one place to another. People are still unaware about the
monetary benefit out of human trafficking. They don’t understand that it’s the violation
of human rights. There were responses from 50 households only. The result showed
that 27 households (54 percent) opined that prostitution was Indulge in flesh trade with
their own will and 12 households (24 percent) opined that it was to Indulge in flesh
trade under compulsion or unwillingly. However, 4households indicated as “Don’t
know” about the level of understanding regarding prostitution and some of the
respondents were hesitant to talk about this issue.
4.1.3 Level of Understanding about Prostitution
People basically take human trafficking and prostitution in a same way. Some are
bound to follow for their financial need. Other are being trafficked in temptation
and the others are unknown about the reality.
Table: 3 : Level of Understanding about Prostitution
Level of Understanding sample Percent
Indulge in flesh trade under compulsion or unwilling 12 24
Indulge in flesh trade with their own will 25 50.0
Don’t know 5 10.0
No response 8 16
Total 50 100
Source: Field Survey, 2015
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Table 3.shows there were responses from 50 households only. The result showed that
25 households (50 percent) opined that prostitution was Indulge in flesh trade with their
own will and 12 households (24 percent) opined that it was to Indulge in flesh trade‟
under compulsion or unwillingly as shown in Table 3. However, the households
indicated that 16 percent as “Don’t know about the level of understanding regarding‟
prostitution and some of the respondents were hesitant to talk about this issue.
4.1.4 Causes of Trafficking and Others
Trafficking in women, girls, and children are taking place for certain causes. The
household survey also collected opinions about its causes (where the answer could be
more than one).
Table: 4 : Causes of Human Trafficking
Causes of Trafficking Sample Percent
Lack of social awareness 7.0 14.0
Poverty 11 22.0
Lack of Education or illiteracy 13 26.0
Lack of employment opportunities 6 12.0
Attraction of the city life and physical facilities 3 6.0
Difficult rural life 3 6.0
Degrading social values 2 6.0
Family disorder and violence 2 4.0
Lack of political commitment 1 2.0
Weak administration and legal flawlessness 1 2.0
Discrimination between boys and girls 1 2.0
Total 50 100.0
Source: Field Survey 2015
Table 4 shows that the analysis of the result showed that there were a total number of
answers pointing out about the causes of human trafficking. Out of them family disorder
and violence 4 percent (2 sample) indicated as Lack of education or illiteracy while 13
sample (26 percent) indicated as Due to poverty22 percent (11 sample), 34 percent (17
sample) indicated as In lack of social awareness, 22 percent (11 sample) indicated as In
lack of employment opportunities, 14 percent (7 sample) indicated as
Due to attraction of the city life and physical facilities, 10 percent (5 sample) indicated as
Due to difficult rural life, and so on as shown by Table 4. It shows a large number of
people are indulge in prostitution because of poverty and illiteracy. The
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causes of being trafficked is illiteracy. The purpose of trafficking of the women, girls
and children, there were a total of 50 responses out of which 5 indicated a “Don’t
know”. Among others, a majority of the respondents (4 percent or 33 sample) opined
that it was For prostitution in a brothel while 46 percent (23 sample) opined that it was
For household works, 6 percent each (3 sample) opined that it was To indulge in
harmful/risky jobs and To work in a circus and so on as presented in the table.‟
4.1.5 Purposes of Trafficking
Different people have different purposes of trafficking. Some are for brothel, household
works, circus, human organs and the others are trafficked for monetary purpose.
Table 5 : Purposes of Trafficking
Purposes of Trafficking Sample Percent
For prostitution in a brothel 23 46
For household works 13 26
To indulge in harmful/risky jobs 2 4
For the purpose of selling human organs 1 2.0
To make street-beggar 1 2.0
To dance in night-clubs 0 0
To work in a circus 2 4.0
To earn money by the Traffickers 5 10.0
Don’t know 3 6.0
Total 50 100
Source: Field Survey, 2015
Table 5 shows that purpose of trafficking of the women, girls and children, there were a
total of 50 responses out of which 6 percent (3 sample ) indicated as “Don’t know” as
presented. Among others, a majority of the respondents opined that For prostitution in a
brothel 46 percent (23 sample) For household works, 26 percent (13 sample) 4 percent
(2 sample) To indulge in harmful/risky jobs and To work in a circus 4 percent (2
samples ) and so on as presented in the table below. Table no. 5 shows that Purposes of
Trafficking is for prostitution in brothel
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4.1.6 Place of Interaction between the Traffickers and the Victims
Trafficking can take place after some interaction between the traffickers or middlemen
and the victims, who are generally women, girls and children. The sample survey
showed that there were a total of 50 responses out of which 10 samples indicated as
“Don’t know”. Among others, 14 percent of the result (7 sample) pointed out the place
of interaction as While going in the forest to collect fodder or fire-wood while 18
percent (9 sample) pointed out as From own home, 16 percent each ( 8 sample) pointed
out as In the local market or Hat bazaar and so as presented in Table 6.
Table: 6 : Place of Interaction between Traffickers and the Victims
Place of Interaction Sample Percent
From own home 7 14.0
While going in the forest to collect fodder or firewood 18 36.0
In the local market 6 12.0
In the factory or workplace 6 12.0
In the School 6 12.0
Don’t Know 7 14.0
Total 50 100.0
Source: Field Survey, 2015
Tale no 6 shows that the sample survey showed that there were a total of 50 responses
out of which 10 samples indicated as “Don’t know” 14 percent of the result (7 sample)
pointed out the place of interaction as While going in the forest to collect fodder or fire-
wood while 18 percent (9 sample) pointed out as From own home, 16 percent each (8
sample) pointed out as In the local market or Hat bazaar and so as presented in Table 6.
It shows that mostly the being trafficked are because of low economic status.
4.1.7 Strategies of Trafficking by the Traffickers
In most of the cases, the motivation adopted by the traffickers to the most vulnerable
group of persons or victims indicated that they adopt new methods most of the time so
that they could be successful to convince the potential victims and cross the border
easily.
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Table 7 : Motivation to the Vulnerable Groups by the Traffickers
Motivation to the Vulnerable Groups Sample Percent
In pursuance of good job and income 22 44.0
By fake marriage 11 22.0
Attraction of better life 9 18.0
By the use of drugs and indulgence 1 2.0
Attraction of travelling 3 6.0
By force and threat 1 2.0
Don’t know 3 6.0
Total 50 100
Source: Field Survey, 2015
Table no. 7 shows the sample survey result showed that there were a total of 50
responses out of which 5 samples indicated as Don’t know. Among others, 6 percent (3
sample) said that the strategies adopted for motivation like In pursuance of good job
and better income while 44 percent (22 sample) pointed out as By fake marriage, 22
percent (11 sample) pointed out as Attraction of better life, 18 percent (9 sample) as
Attraction of travelling, and so on as presented in Table 7. It shows most of the women
are being trafficked in the greed of good job and income.
4.1.8 Most Vulnerable Groups for Trafficking
There are many purposes of human trafficking and the most vulnerable target groups
for trafficking are presented in Table 8. Poor girl and women of rural and urban areas,
Illiterate girls and women, Semi-literate girls and women, Disadvantaged women of the
society, Girls of the marriageable age but neglected by the society.
Table: 8 : Most Vulnerable Target Groups for Trafficking
Most Vulnerable Target Groups Sample Percent
Poor girl and women of rural and urban areas 11 22.0
Illiterate girls and women 14 28
Semi-literate girls and women 13 26.0
Disadvantaged women of the society 5 10.0
Girls of the marriageable age but neglected by the society 3 6.0
Unemployed women 3 6.0
Girls without guardians 1 2.0
Total 50 100.0
Source: Field Survey, 2015
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Table no 8 shows that out of the total answer of 30. percent of the result (15 sample)
indicated the most vulnerable target group as Illiterate girls and women while 26
percent (13 sample) indicated Semi-literate girls and women, 16 percent (8 sample)
indicated Disadvantaged women of the society, 10 percent (5 sample) indicated Girls of
marriageable age but neglected by the society, 8 percent (4 sample) indicated
Unemployed women, and 4 percent (2 sample) indicated Girls without guardians as‟
presented in the table below. Table 8 shows that most vulnerable group of target group
are semi-illiterate and illiterate girls.
4.1.9 Districts with higher cases of girls trafficking from Belhiya - Sunauli border
Belhiya-Sunauli border at the Siddharthanagar municipality is the third largest transit
point to India that is after Birgunj-Raxaul and Biratnagar- Jogbani points to India.
Table: 9 : Districts with Higher Cases of Trafficking
Name of the Districts Sample Percent
Syangja 10 20.0
Baglung 9 18.0
Gulmi 6 12.0
Kaski 5 10.0
Parbat 4 8.0
Arghakhachi 4 8.0
Nawalparasi 4 8.0
Dhading 3 6.0
Sindhupalchowk 2 4.0
Nuwakot 2 4.0
Rasuwa 1 2.0
Total 50 100.0
Source: Field Survey, 2015
Table no. 9 shows that there were a total of 50 responses. Out of them, the districts with
higher cases of trafficking as reported were Syangja by 20 percent of the sample
households while Baglung by 18.0 percent, Gulmi 12. percent, Kaski 10. percent,
Parbat 8.0 percent, Arghakhachi and Nawalparasi each 8.0 percent, Dhading 6.0
percent and Sindhupalchowk each 4.0 percent, and so on as presented . So, the result
shows that though Birgunj-Raxaul point is closer to cross the border for the possible
traffickers for the districts like: Dhading, Sindhupalchowk , Nuwakot, Rasuwa etc. they
have taken a longer route in order to be cross the border more safely and get success in
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the mission of trafficking . It shows higher Cases of Trafficking is highest in Syanja
and least in Rasuwa .
4.1.10 Type of punishment to the traffickers
The sample survey also collected suggestions about the type of punishment to
traffickers. Large number of people are in life in imprisonment. Then, the population
hanging to death are. The least number of people are 1-5 years imprisonment.
Table 10 : Type of punishment to the traffickers
Type of Punishment Sample Percent
Life-imprisonment 30 60
Imprisonment for 5 to 10 years 5 10.0
Imprisonment for 1 to 5 years 2 4.0
Hang to death 13 26.0
Total 50 100.0
Source: Field Survey, 2015
There were a total of 50 answers. Out of them, 60 percent of the result (30 samples)
suggested for Life-imprisonment while 10 percent (5 sample) suggested for Hang to
death followed by 26 percent (13 samples) for Imprisonment for 5 to 10 years and 4.0
percent (2 samples) for Imprisonment for 1 to 5 years as presented in table.
4.1.11 Ways to check human trafficking
The sample survey also collected suggestions to check human trafficking from Nepal
and there were a total of 50 responses. Measures, Create social awareness against
trafficking, Strict watch at the transit point, educational opportunities at the concerned
areas, no discrimination between boys and girls, Create employment opportunities at
the local level.
30

41.
Table: 11 : Measures Needed to Check Human Trafficking
Measures Sample Percent
Create social awareness against trafficking 7 14.0
Strict watch at the transit point 17 34.0
Educational opportunities at the concerned areas 13 26.0
No discrimination between boys and girls 6 12.0
Income generating activities 4 8.0
Create employment opportunities at the local level 3 6.0
Total 50 100.0
Source: Field Survey,
2015
Table 11 shows that the cause is lack of strict watch at the transit point and to create
employment opportunity. Out of them, 46 percent (23 samples) suggested for Strict
watch or vigilance at the border-points while 34 percent (17 sample) suggested for
More educational opportunities at the concerned areas, 20 percent (10 sample)
suggested for Creating social awareness against trafficking, 16 percent (8 sample)
suggested for Non-discrimination between boys and girls, 10 percent (5 sample)
suggested for More income generating activities, and 8.0 percent (4 sample) suggested
for Creating employment opportunities at the local level as presented in the table
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CHAPTER: FIVE
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
5.1 Summary
Nepal has long open border (1,740-mile) with India from which there is free entry and
exit system between the two countries. As a result, the trafficking in girls and women
for sexual exploitation has been easy and growing faster than ever. Mostly young girls
are trafficked to the brothels of major cities of India since a long time due to higher
demand for the hilly girls. In recent years, there are many cases of women being
sexually exploited and even to the Middle East countries. Many young girls and women
used to be trafficked out of the country with an attraction of lucrative job opportunities
and earnings. In the past, in some districts of the hilly region in some specific
castes/ethnic communities, parents used to send their young daughters to the brothels of
big cities in India like Kolkata, Delhi and Mumbai as a good source of earnings.
However, only, after the havoc of HIV/AIDS in the middle of eighties, girl trafficking
was considered as a problematic issue because of many victims of trafficking returned
with HIV/AIDS affected. Despite this, girls trafficking could not be controlled since it
is a lucrative business. Therefore, the most targeted population for trafficking in Nepal
are poor and unprivileged girls and women with disrupted and large family size and
with limited economic opportunities and power, and they are mostly from ethnic
minorities, without any education and/or low level education with lack of
understanding and capacity to exercise their legal rights.
Rupandehi district lies in the Western Development Region of Nepal adjoining with
Indian border, Sunauli of Maharajgunj district of Uttar Pradesh. This district has two
municipalities namely: Siddharthanagar and Butwal. The birthplace of Lord Buddha
(Lumbini) is situated at a distance of 22 km from the main market of Siddharthanagar.
As regards trafficking (in girls and women) prone districts, all those interviewed held
somehow similar views. They identified Gulmi, Syangja, Arghakhachi, Baglung,
Nawalparasi, Sindhupalchock, Dhading, Makawanpur, Kaski and Chitwan as
trafficking prone districts. Due to open border between Nepal and India and
Siddharthanagar lying on such a place having easy access to Indian towns (Delhi,
Kolkata and Mumbai) with a developed network of railway system connecting all the
32

43.
major cities of India serves as a major transit point for trafficking in girls and women of
the districts mentioned above. And the main ethnic groups trafficked belong to
Tamang, Gurung, Magar and underprivileged and lower castes, which generally have
larger number of children in their families. Siddharthanagar being such a major transit
point for trafficking, even general public, especially women and girls who travel with
their families face unnecessary hassles at police check points while crossing the border
even for genuine purposes.
Growing prostitution in Rupandehi district is causing a grave problem. The border
areas of Siddharthanagar and Butwal municipalities of Rupandehi district, Nepal, and
Sunauli Bazaar, of Maharajgunj district, India, are the prominent centers of
prostitution. Some of the hotels of these places are found involved in running this
lucrative business. As regards, their number the interviewees revealed that there were
about 225 females engaged in prostitution, about 150 of them in border areas of
Siddharthanagar and the rest (about 75) in Butwal municipality areas. Their age ranges
between 18 and 40 years. The major ethnic groups these prostitutes belong to are
Magar, Gurung, Dhiro (Terai people), Chhetri and lower castes. The Maiti Nepal,
District Administration and Police, Beyond Trafficking: A Joint Initiative in the
Millennium against Trafficking in Girls and Women (MAITI NEPAL), Women
Development Division, and Akata Kendra, Siddharthanagar, Rupandehi district, Nepal
and SEWA (Sewa Satarkata Prakostha), Sunauli, Maharajgunj district, India are some
of the institutions working against trafficking. Apart from the above mentioned Go and
NGOs, Joint Cross Border Committee (JCBC) was also formed chaired by the CDO of
the district in June 27, 2000. Of the institutions working against trafficking, Maiti
Nepal is playing a pivotal role in this area. It is keeping vigilance on Nepal-India
border and monitors suspicious activities. Enquiries are made of all those females
potential to be trafficked on their way to cross the border. The Maiti Nepal has been
engaged in rehabilitating the victims returning from Indian brothels.
Transparent and regular monitoring and evaluation mechanism is necessary to visualize
the real situation of trafficking. The existing anti-trafficking laws should be reviewed
and necessary changes made to modify flaws. They also demanded strict
implementation of the anti-trafficking law - from grassroots to national level. The
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44.
participants also mentioned the practical difficulties they come across while filing cases
on trafficking in special courts.
The government has not been able to set up and run well-equipped rehabilitation
centres due to resource constraints and the absence of a concrete national policy. A few
NGOs are conducting package programs on rescue and rehabilitation but they have not
been able to meet requirements. Hence, the participants emphasized that the
government needs to be sensitive and formulate a proper national policy. Moreover,
efforts should be made by the government and NGOs to set up and run well-equipped
rehabilitation centres, not only for accommodation but also for counselling, medical
facilities for physical and mental trauma, skill development package, etc. Along with
these facilities, a homely and family environment is urgently needed for rehabilitation.
The current anti-trafficking laws do not have provisions for severely punishing the
culprits/traffickers. Therefore, they indulge in such trade over and over again. Some
even advocate life-imprisonment for those found guilty so that they may not venture to
victimize others ever again. Hence, the existing anti-trafficking mechanism is not
effective enough. An Anti-trafficking Division under the Ministry of Women and
Social Welfare as well as the Ministry of Defense should be established in order to
make them more effective.
5.2 Conclusion
Prostitution is illegal in Nepal. The impact of such illegal trade is harmful to society
and people concerned. Many have advocated making the flesh trade legal in certain
areas with strict rules and regulations as well as regular medical check-up so that
harmful effects can be minimized. Hence, it must be advocated to greater extent for
implementation in the country.
1. The root causes of human trafficking in Nepal are poverty, ignorance, gender
prejudice, lack of rule, corruption, desires for luxurious life.
2. Increasing unemployment.
3. Urbanization
4. Weak law enforcement.
5. Lack of Good governance and harsher punishment to the traffickers.
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45.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Acharya, B. (1998). Reviews of the Studies on Trafficking in Women and Girls, Efforts
toPrevent Trafficking in Women and Girls: A Pre-study for Media Activism.
Kathmandu.
ADB. (1914) . Country briefing Paper, women in Nepal. Bankok : Asian Development
Bank (ADB).
ADB. (2015). Combating Trafficking of Women and Children in South Asia, Country
Paper of Kingdom of Nepal . Canada: Asian Development Bank (ADB).
Adepoju, A. (2005). Review of Research and Data on Human Trafficking in sub-
Saharan.
Africa (Vol. 43, pp. 75-98): Blackwell Synergy.
Aengst, J. (2001).Girl Trafficking in Nepal (Vol. 12).
Agrawal, B. (2001). Participatory Exclusions, Community Forestry and Gender:
An Analysis for South Asia and a Conceptual Framework. World Development,
29(10), 1623-1648.Ainlay, S. C., Becker, G., and Coleman, L. M. (1986). The
dilemma of difference: A multidisciplinary view of stigma: Plenum Pub Corp.
Ali, A. K. M. M. (2005). Treading along a treacherous trail: research on trafficking in
persons in south Asia. Data and Research on Human Trafficking:A Global
Survey, 43 (1- 2), 141-164.
Bajracharya, B. (1994). Gender Issues in Nepali Agriculture, A Review. Kathmandu:
Ministry of Agriculture/ Winrock International.
Bell, J. (2005). Doing Your Research Project, A Guide to First-time Researchers in
Education, Health and Social Science (Fourth ed.). London: Open University
Press.
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Benninger- Budel, C., and Lacroix, A. L. (1999) . World Organisation Against
Torture. Bhattrai, K. K. (2002). Gender Dynamics in Crops Production in the Hills of
Nepal: Feminization of Agriculture? , Agricultural University of Norway, Ås.
Brounovskis, A., and Tyldum, G. (2004). Crossing the Borders: An Empirical Study
ofTransnational Prostitution and Trafficking in Human Beings. Oslo: FAFO.
Brown, L. (2006). Sex Slaves, the Trafficking of Women in Asia. London: Virago Press.
CBS. (2011). Population Monograph of Nepal (Vol. I and II). Kathmandu: Central
Bureau of Statistics (CPBS).
CBS. (2011). Nepal in Figures (Booklet). Kathmandu: Central Bureau of Statistics
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47.
Appendix A:
Questionnaire
Interview Guide
 How did you get into trafficking?
• When did you get involved?
• How did you get involved?
• Why did you continue with the process?
• Who was involved?
Personal Experiences –
 What did your average day consist of?
 Where did you stay?
 Was there abuse? - by pimp -by by customers -by others, other women involved
 how often?
Housing
• Do you feel people continue with trafficking to have a roof over their head?
• Do you feel there is adequate housing for those rescued?
• What type of housing do you prefer or would say is best for those rescued
Mental Emotions
• Have you developed any mental issues from trafficking?
(Depression Sex-Trafficking -lonely –anxiety)
• Are you seeking treatments for any of them?
• What emotions did you experience while involved in trafficking?
• What emotions have you experienced since being rescued?
• What would help you conquer these emotions?
Health Care
• Do you feel adequate health care is available?
• Do you feel affordable health care is available?
• In the past 6 months have you wanted to seek medical attention and couldn't why?

48.
Financials
• Do you currently have a way of making a living?
• How much did you make on average day during trafficking?
• Was this enough money to afford your basic necessities?
• What do you currently need money for?
Occupation/Education
• Do you think there should be programs to help victims with gaining work skills and
getting back into school?
• What type of occupations training do you think would be best?
• Would you be interested in going back to school?
Family including children
• Do you have kids?
• Where are they now?
Sex andTrafficking
• Do you have family that you are close to?
• Does your family know about your experiences?
• Is there some type of support to help you reunite with family?
• Is this support effective?
• What type of support or program would be better?
Substance Abuse
• While in trafficking did you use drugs? (Alcohol, marijuana, cocaine, prescription
pill, etc.)
• Did using substances make it easier to cope?
• Do you still use any of these substances?
• Is it a problem of addiction?
Spiritual Connection
• Would you consider yourself religious?
• What religion do you most affiliate with?
• How often do you attend religious service or take part in religious activities?

49.
• While in trafficking did you rely on your religion to make it through?

50.
Appendix: B
(Interview with post-trafficked girl from Maiti Nepal, Rehabilitation center
Participants )
1. How old were you, when you were trafficked?
2. Area of residency at the time of trafficked?
3. What is your educational background?
a. Primary [ ] b. secondary [ ] c. university/ college [ ] d. No education. [ ]
4. How was your relation with your family?
a. Good [ ] b. Somewhat good [ ] c. Not so good [ ] d. Bad [ ]
5. Did you hear about girls/women trafficking before?
a. Yes [ ] b. No [ ]
6. If yes how did you know?
a. Friends [ ] b. Teacher [ ] d. Family members [ ]
c. TV, Radio, Newspaper [ ] e. Others [ ]
7. What was your reason behind migration?
a. To earn [ ] b. Employment [ ] c. To maintain economic status [ ]
d. False marriage [ ] e. Others [ ]
8. With whom did you go?
a. Family member [ ] b. Kin member [ ] c. Friends [ ]
d. Agents [ ] e. Others please specify…
9. If agent was/ were brothel member, where did you meet them?
10. How they convinced you, what incentives were you provided with?
11. Where and when did you know that you are trafficked?
12. How would you define your nature and working condition?
13. Did you suffer from any kind of abuse, violence or disease?
14. How much did you earn monthly there (brothel/ other)?
15. How did you utilize that money?
16. How much time did you spend there? (Year/month/day)
a. Buying clothes/ ornaments/ cosmetics b. Sending home – for whom?
c. Collecting and balancing d. Others (please specify
17. Why and how did you return from there? (Specify the reason)
18. When did you return from there? [ ]

51.
19. Did you go your home after returning?
a. Yes [ ] b. No [ ]
20. If yes, how much time did you stay there and why you came here?
21. If not, why? Please give the reason?
22. Who helped you to come here?
23. What kinds of services are being offered to you by this rehabilitation center? –
They are providing me with professional vocational skills like sewing,
weaving etc.
24. Would you want to go back in your home now?
a. A. Yes [ ] b. No [ ]
25. Why? Please give the reason
26. What suggestion would you want to give for betterment of girls and women
Trafficking situation?
27. What is your future plan?

52.
Appendix: C
Interviews
Experiences of the trafficked women
Out of 18 trafficked women 14 replied that they were trafficked for prostitution, only
one had replied for circus and 3 women said that they worked in circus and are also
sexually exploited there, but they did not work as prostitute in brothel in established
way. All of them had a common answer that they knew their purposes of trafficking
only after being taken to their destinations. In response to my question, what were you
compelled to do there [refers to brothel or circus?
Puja said that: “I don’t know what the motive was behind my trafficking, but when I
heard that I was sold to a brothel, and the brothel owner forced me for sexual
exploitation then I became sure that I was trafficked for prostitution. I was forced to
work in the brothel and even restricted to go out” .The quote above is a representative
story of women trafficked for prostitution. All the informants who were trafficked for
prostitution knew their purposes of trafficking at the moment when they were forced
to involve in prostitution. They got the information that they were sold by the broker
for a certain amount of money only after the broker left away. Women trafficked for
circus had also similar understanding.
Saraswoti reported having been forced to do many risky games during the circus.
She explained that: “I was told that I was going to play in circus when the broker
talked to my parents. My father and I thought that circus was a game like dancing and
playing with other friends, but we were wrong. I understood the real meaning of
circus at that moment when I was entered to the circus industry (parlor) and forced to
do different life threatening games. I was supposed to attract the audiences showing
up my body parts [indicating showing up her parts with dressing up of short skirts,
wearing a transparent bra, applying makeup on her face]. Then only I knew that I was
trafficked for circus but I did not feel that I was trafficked for sexual exploitation”.
Three other informants had different experiences since they were involved in multiple
jobs during circus.

53.
Samjhana, a young woman aged 21 said: “Primarily I was working in circus industry
but I was forced to sleep with the master when he asked me for sex. I had no option
other rather than letting him have sex with me. Normally, it could be anytime in the
night because I had to work for the circus in the day time”.
Similarly, Parvati replied that: “In the beginning I was working for the circus training
only. It was a difficult job to do. In circus we were supposed to wear short skirts and
apply makeup to show beauty, I also did the same. One day as circus training was
going on, a teacher came to me and commented on my work, very good job. He also
said that I was a very beautiful girl and pinched my body parts [indicating buttocks,
breasts and cheeks]. He did this for many days. He finally raped me one night and
repeated it many times. It is prevalent that girls and women are trafficked not only for
a single purpose. They are forced to do many tasks simultaneously. My findings are
similar to other studies findings that girls and women are trafficked not only for
prostitution but also employees for exploitative works (Thomas and Jones, 1993;
Human Rights Watch, 1995). Women, who were trafficked for either purpose, were
not aware until they are involved in the respective exploitations.
In response to the question what are the causes being trafficked, Prem kumari, a
dalitwoman, replied: “I ran away to Kathmandu with a friend from my village. She
was the one who convinced me for [prospects of having] better earning from carpet
weaving in Kathmandu. I went with her because of poverty in my family. But I was
sold to a brothel by the brokers (her friend and her gang). They threatened to murder
me when I tried to escape. Then I was forced to involve in prostitution”.
In response to the same question, Goma another informant explained her story of
being trafficked for prostitution. She narrated: “I am from a poor family. It is difficult
to manage the whole year by earning from our field. For our livelihood, we need to
work for others on daily wages. So I came to Kathmandu with my brother for work. I
searched for better jobs but could not get any due to my illiteracy. I started to work as
a tailor in the morning and as a painter with a boy from my village during the day
time. One day, the boy told me that he could send me to Dubai for work where his
cousin was working. There I could get 25,000.00 Nepali currencies per month. It was
a good amount I was attracted and followed him. He asked me to bring other friend

54.
also so that I would have friends even if I get sick. Then I talked to one of my friends
about the work in Dubai. She was also ready to go with me. The boy (my work mate)
took us by bus to Butwal- Bhairahawa. He told us that if police stop us, we should say
that we are sisters and brothers going for shopping in Sunauli [city in border of Nepal
and India]. We did as he said and crossed the border. He then took us tom Bombay by
train. Thereafter, we took a taxi where he introduced us to other 2 boys as his cousins.
They took us to a huge building which had security guards. When we reached the
building, he told us that it was his sister’s house and told us to live there with her. He
then told us that he had to go out to call his family in Nepal and buy some food and
clothes for us. We waited for him but he did not come back. We did not know about
the brothel until that woman told us to get ready for prostitution. We cried and refused
to do so. We did not eat anything for 3 days. She told us that she had bought us for
50,000 Indian currencies and that we must do the work. To be free from the brothel
we were supposed to return that amount she paid to the broker, which was impossible
for us. We had no option except to involve in forced prostitution for our survival”.
While Goma was sharing her experiences she could not look at me. Her eyes were full
of tears and shecried loudly for some time. Sabitri another informant aged 22 years
had different story about experience of involvement in circus from Goma’s. She
narrated that: “My family was poor and we did not have enough food for a year from
our field. It was difficult to afford my brothers education. A man from the
neighbouring village came and talked to my father and told him about employment in
India for me. My father was easily convinced because he thought that I could earn
money and whole family would get rid from the hunger. I could not refuse because I
did not know about the work, he just told me that was to play in circus. Then I was
sent to the circus industry where I was supposed to play various games like sleeping
with tiger, walking on a string, climbing up the stairs. Those games were dangerous
and difficult for me to do because I was only 8 years at that time. If I made a mistake
or refused to do what I was told, the master would bit and hit me with a rubber string.
After some months, I was sexually harassed. The teacher pinched my cheeks, caressed
my buttocks and hip and touched my breasts. Finally he raped me but I could not
protect myself from being raped because I had no other alternatives”. Some of the
survivors I interviewed were forced go with brokers after being threatened and even
poisoned.

55.
Puja, a woman aged 25 said that “I met my sister’s friend during local festival in the
neighbouring village. She asked me to eat some sweets. I was not aware of the poison
in the sweets, I ate [them]. Then I don’t remember what happened. When I regained
consciousness, I was in a brothel. Chameli, another survivor was double victimized
by violence. In response to the question, could you tell me how you compelled to be
involved in trafficking, she narrated her story: “I migrated to Terai from the hilly
region because of sufferings [torture] from family members including my husband. I
was searching for a job. I met a woman in Bara (a place). She told me that she would
give me a job in Birgunj (bordering city to India). She asked me to go with her to
watch a movie which was the first [time] in my life. During the movie, she gave me
some food to eat. I ate and I did not know what happened. When I regained
consciousness, I was in a brothel and a woman was asking me to sleep with the
customer. It was like a dream for me. I refused to work there but brothel owner beat
me with a stick and told me that I was sold and must work as a prostitute. I cried but it
had no effect. I was forced to sex work”. While narrating her story, she also cried
continuously and could not look at my face. In addition to the above mentioned
trajectories to being trafficked, some informants also explained that their own longing
for wealth and beauty played a role in their being cheated into prostitution.
Dhanmaya reported that I am illiterate and my family had no sufficient food for the
year. I was attracted to the dress up and ornaments of my neighbouring sister who was
back from Bombay. She had golden bracelets on her hands, necklace and ring and so
on. I also wanted to be like her so I met her and asked for the work. When she took
me to Bombay [the brothel] I was forced to fall in prostitution. Actually I did not
know about the work to be done there. The experiences of the survivors of trafficking
and the causes identified by studies show a similarity in their explanation of factors
motivating girls and women for the trafficking. Most of them replied that they had big
families and were forced to work for the daily subsistence of their families. Poverty
and unemployment, followed by illiteracy as a supporting factor as well as love and
marriage are used to deceive the women. Another factor is the promise of better job
opportunities in the city (Poudel and Carryer, 2000; Mukherjee and Mukherjee,
2007). Like Adepoju (2005) found in his research, I also found that force,

56.
threat and poisoning, displacement, peer influences are factors used to traffic women
due to their ignorance. Although the survivors were from different locations, their
experiences were similar. The brokers had lured them with better income, threatened
them or poisoned them. Poor and innocent girls and women were transported to the
city and sold to the brothel. There was a chain of brokers who had different m
relations with different people in many places that helped in the process of trafficking.
The brokers guided (told) women to act as family members or businessmen if they
were asked by the police or NGOs personnel at the border. Considering available
security in the border, they practice it for some days. Then they take girls to the
destinations. In this process, sometimes the brokers may bribe the possible agencies
working on combating trafficking like police, NGOs and vigilance cell agents. In all
cases, the brokers had pretended to bring food, clothes for the trafficked women or
making calls home.