SlideShare a Scribd company logo
1 of 11
Download to read offline
HOLOZOIC NUTRITION
 Most of the nutrient contained in food such as protein, lipid and carbohydrates are relatively
large molecules, which do not dissolve in water and cannot enter cell membrane. This
nutrient must be broken down to smaller unit, which can be absorbed and transported by
blood to the whole body. This is achieved through mechanical, chemical and enzymatic
reaction.

How food is process to extract its nutrient is call digestive system and occur in alimentary
canal. In human, alimentary canal is divided into six region: mouth, esophagus, stomach,
small intestine, large intestine and anal region.




                                               1
PROCESSES IN HOLOZOIC NUTRITION

In general, holozoic nutrition involved the following processes :
                                                          a) Ingestion
                                                             Ingestion involved intake of
                                                             complex organic food (solid
                                                             and liquid)


                                            2
b) Digestion
                                                             Digestion is a process of breaking large compl
                                                             and insoluble
                                                             molecules into simple, small and soluble
                                                             molecules. Digestion is
                                                             achieved through mechanical means (chewing)
                                                             of food into
                                                             smaller particles and hydrolysis by digestive
                                                             enzymes.

                                                          c) Absorption
                                                             Soluble smaller molecules
                                                             move from digestion zone to
                                                             the absorption zone where it
                                                             crosses the epithelial lining of
                                                             small intestine. There
                                                             molecules either enter the body
                                                             tissues or transported to other
                                                             part of the body by blood.

                                                          d) Assimilation
                                                             Assimilation is a process where
                                                             the molecules absorbed is used
                                                             to generate energy or used for
                                                             growth and repairs.

                                                          e) Defecation
                                                             Defecation is a process where
                                                             undigestible food, residue,
                                                             bacteria is expelled from the
                                                             body.


Function of human digestive tract

Nutrient can only be absorbed into the body when complex foods are broken down by
mechanical action of teeth and digestive tract muscle followed by enzymatic digestion
(chemical digestion) to produce simple and small molecules that can be absorbed into the
blood capillaries surrounding the small intestine. Enzymetic digestion for three food classes
(polysaccharide, protein and fat) is shown in table 4.1


Table 4.1 Enzymetic digestion for three food classes (polysaccharide, protein and fat) in
human digestive tract.

Polysaccharide        Amylase       Disaccharide     Disaccharase      monosaccharide

    Protein        Endopeptidase    Polypeptide      Exopeptidase          Dipeptide        Dipeptidase Ami
                                                                                                         aci
                   Breaking long                    Aminopeptidase                           Breaking


                                              3
chain of                        carboxypeptidase                          down
                      protein                           reacted on the                        dipeptide
                                                       end of carboxil                           into
                                                        polypeptidase                        amino acid

                     Bile salts                            Lipase
      Fat                            Colloidal fat                             Fatty acid + glycerol
                        For
                    emulsification




Each part of the digestive system have a specific function as shown in table 4.2

Table 4.2 Summary of function in human digestive system

Specific region                                    Function
Mouth cavity                                       Ingestion, mechanical digestion
Pharyngx                                           To swallow
Esophagus                                          Linking pharyngx to stomach
Stomach                                            Storing food and digestion of protein
Duodenum:
Liver (gall bladder)                               Fat emulsification
Pancreas (pancreatic secretion)                    Carbohydrate, protein and fat digestion
Illeum                                             End of digestive process and start of
                                                   absorption process
Colon                                              Absorption of water
Rectum                                             Formation and storage of fecal matter
Anus                                               Defecation


Stomach

Stomach surface lining is creased or crinkeled known as rugae Permukaan dalam perut
mempunyai lipatan-lipatan vang disebut rugae. Rugae membolehkan perut mengembang
untuk menampung kemasukan makanan. Fungsi perut termasuklah :



(1) Place for temporary
storage of food
(2) Secretion of gastric juice
(HCl) and enzymes
(3) Mechanical food mixing
(4) Control entry of food to
small intestine.




                                               4
Thick mucosal layer are supplied with gastric gland and goblet cells. Gastric gland consists
of three type of cells
       i) zymogen cells               ii) oxintic cells              iii) argentafin cells


These cells produced intrinsic factor which assist in the absorption of vitamin B12 complex
molecules.

Goblet cells produced copius mucous to protect intestinal lining against corrosive nature of
HCl and digestive protein enzyme.

Collective secretion of gastric gland and goblet cells is also known as gastric secretion.

Stomach muscle will churned (mixed) foods with gastric secretion and turned it into semi-
liquid state called chyme. After about 2-3 hours the chyme is released to the duodenum.

Small Intestine

Chyme enter small intestine in stages and mixed together with small intestine’s secretion.
There are three types of small intestine secretion:
   i) intestinal secretion             ii) bile secretion        iii) pancreatic secretion

Most of the digestion and absorption processes taken place in small intestine. Chyme will
remain in small intestine for about 4-5 hours. When most of the nutrient are absorbed, the
remaining mixture will move to the large intestine by peristaltic action.


Table 3.2 Summary of chemical/enzymatic digestion in human.

                                     Site where
                                                       Optimum
  Secretion           Enzyme           reaction                     Substrates       End product
                                                         pH
                                     takes place
   Salivery                             Mouth
                  Salivary amylase                      6.5-7.5   Starch (amylose)    malthose
   secretion                            cavity
    Gastric
                     Pro(renin)        Stomach           2.0        Caseinogen         Casein
   secretion
                   Pepsin (ogen)                         2.0          Protein        Polypeptide
                     HCl (non
                                                         2.0        Pepsinogen         Pepsin
                    enzymatic)

   Intestinal                            Small
                     Malthase                            8.5         Malthose          Glucose
   secretion                           intestine
                                         Small                                        Glucose +
                      Lactase                            8.5          Lactose
                                       intestine                                      galactose

                                         Small                                        Glucose +
                      Sucrase                            8.5          Sucrose
                                       intestine                                       fructose

                                         Small
 Exopeptidase     Aminopeptidase                         8.5      Polypeptide and    Amino acid
                                       intestine
                                         Small
                    Dipeptidase                          8.5         Dipeptide       Amino acid
                                       intestine



                                                   5
Small
                     Enterokinase                      8.5         Trypsinogen        Trypsin
                                       intestine

                      Bile salt          Small
 Bile secretion                                        7.0             Fat           Fat droplet
                   (Non enzymatic)     intestine

  Pancreatic                             Small
                       Amylase                         7.0       Starch (Amylose)    Malthose
   secretion                           intestine
                                         Small                                      Fatty acid +
                        Lipase                         7.0             Fat
                                       intestine                                     glycerol

                                         Small                      Protein          Amino acid
                    Trypsin(ogen)                      7.0
                                       intestine                Chemotrypsinogen    chemotrypsin

                                         Small
(Endopeptidase)   Chemotrypsin(ogen)                   7.0           Casein         Amino acid
                                       intestine
                                         Small
(Exopeptidase)     Carboxypeptidase                    7.0         Polypeptide       aminoacid
                                       intestine



Large intestine

In overall digestive gland secrete about 5-6 liters of water daily on the food mixture. From
that amount only 0.2 liter that is not reabsorb by the large intestine. There are symbiotic
bacteria living in the large intestine synthesizing amino acid and vitamins especially vitamin
K from the remaining (residue). The synthesize amino acids and vitamin K is absorb into the
blood stream.

Reabsorption of water and the presence of bacteria turned the “residue” into solid mass
known as fecal matter. It is estimated that about 50% of the solid fecal matter consist of
bacteria. The epithelial mucosal lining of the large intestine secrete mucous to lubricate
fecal matter.

Fecal matter can remain in large intestine for 36 hours before sending it to temporarily to
rectum. It will expelled through anus by anal sphincter muscle.




                                                   6
Absoption and transport of nutrient

The structure of small intestine is optimized
for nutrient absorption.

Internal small intestine can be increased by the
following methods:

(a) Small intestine is a long slender tube.
(b) The internal surface is folded to increase
surface area.
(c) The folded internal surface has papilae
outgrowth called villus.
(d) Numerous hair like projection on each
    villus called microvillus.




               Figure 4.4 How the internal surface area of intestine is increased


In each villus is supplied with blood capillaries network and lacteal to absorb and transport
nutrient.
Monosaccharide and amino acid is absorbed through simple diffusion or active to the blood
capillaries. These nutrient is sent to the liver. Most of the monosaccharides (glucose) is
stored in liver or muscle as glycogen and fats. Part of the absorbed glucose is distributed to
the rest of the body and oxidised in cellular respiration for energy generation.

Amino acid is used to synthesis new protoplasm, replacement of dead body tissues,
manufacturing enzymes and hormones. Excess amino acid cannot be stored in liver but
deaminated that is the amino group is removed and turned into urea, uric acid and other
nitrogenous excretory product. These materials is removed through urine and remaining
amino acid is converted into stored glycogen.




                                                 7
Fatty acid and glycerol enter epithelial cells where it is turned into fat. The fat will enter
lacteal where it is surrounded by protein layer to form lipoprotein and known as
cholymicron. Lipoprotein than enter the blood stream. In the blood, lipoprotein is
hydrolyzes by enzymes to form fatty acids and glycerol. These two lipid componen (fatty
acids and glycerol) will enter cells and used in cellular respiration or stored as fat in liver,
muscles, adipose tissues underneath skin, around heart and kidney and mesentery. The
mesentery is a structure that envelops the internal organs, such as the small intestine,
lending support, blood supply, and lymph vessel drainage. Some of the lipoprotein is used as
cell’s membrane and muclear membrane.

Advantageous of fat as storage material.
Fat is important as reserve energy. It contain significant amount of carbon-hydrogen bond
which is rich in energy compared to carbohydrate. Fat produce 9.3 kcal energy per gram
compared to 3.79 kcal for carbohydrates and 3.12 kcal for protein. Therefore more energy
can be stored in compact package.

The advantageous of fat as storage material
Fat is an important source of reserve energy. Fat contain significant amount of high energy
carbon-hydrogen bond compared to carbohydrates. Fats produce 9.3 kcal of energy /g
compared to 3.79 kcal for carbohydrate and 3.12 kcal for protein. Therefore fat is a compact
high-energy package, which is more suited for animal, which require mobility. Fat also
produced 2 times more water during cellular respiration compared to carbohydrates and
proteins. That is why it is an important for desert.

Variation of digestive tract
Digestive tract of higher organism consist of long elongated tube with one opening at one
end (mouth) for entery of food and another opening at the end (anus) for excretion of
undigested food. This tube is divided into specialized region with specific function as shown
in table 3.2

Variation of the digestive tract in vertebrates is closely associated with the following:
(1) Types of food :
    Whether the food is easily absorbed or requires extensive mechanical and enzymatic
digestion.

(2) Quantity of food :

Its depends whether food supply or food source is easily available or otherwise. If food is
difficult to obtain the animal must consume large quantity and digestive tract must be able to
accommodate it until it can be digested later.

3) Body shape :

If the body is long , it is most likely that the digestive tract is long. If the body is compact,
the digestive can be short of in coiled form to provide increase absorption area.

Cyclostoma :




                                                 8
Cyclostoma is a primitive jawless fish, which has the simplest digestive tract. It is an
elongated tube with esophagus and intestine. The intestine is equipped with spiral valve
known as tiflosol to slows down food movement and increase absorption area. Ikan

Shark :

Digestive system of shark consist of esophagus, stomach and duodenum. Duodenum has
spiral valve to slows down food movement and increase absorption area.

Bird :

The lower end of esophagus enlarge to from crop where food is stored and moistened. The
stomact consist of two parts that is proventriculus and gizzard. Proventriculus secretes
gastric secretion whereas gizzard is a thick wall and muscular which provide mechanical
digestion. For grain eating bird, mechanical digestion is aided with small stone and sand.

Cow. :

A system that could process cellulose before food travelled through the main digestive
organs would be more efficient. The ungulates - cows, deer sheep and their relatives - have
found a way. The lower part of the oesophagus and the stomach of a cow are highly
modified (the quot;four stomachsquot; of a cow). A large chamber, the rumen, is dedicated to
storing grass and mixing it with a variety of symbiotic bacteria. This opens into a second
chamber, the reticulum, with highly folded inner walls that provide a massive area for
bacterial growth. The walls of this chamber are sold in grocery stores as quot;honeycomb tripequot;
The bacteria feed on the cellulose and grow to massive populations. Hours later, the cow
will regurgitate a combination of caked bacteria and undigested food called cud. It will chew
the cud and swallow it, this time diverting it to the third chamber, the omasum. Here water
is withdrawn for recycling. From the omasum the cud enters the true stomach, or
abomasum, where chemical digestion begins.

Because this all occurs before the food enters the stomach, digestive enzymes can now break
down the various proteins, carbohydrates and lipids found in the bacteria. This extremely
rich mixture of nutrients can sustain quite large animals on a diet mainly consisting of
quot;indigestiblequot; grass. In fact, a cow is not living directly on grass, but an a diet of bacteria. It
is little wonder, with this special design for getting the best out of an abundant resource, that
the wildebeest, bison, antelopes and caribou have become the dominant large mammals of
their respective environments.




                                                9
10
11

More Related Content

What's hot (20)

Bony fish
Bony fishBony fish
Bony fish
 
Presentation on porifera
Presentation on poriferaPresentation on porifera
Presentation on porifera
 
Excretory system 2
Excretory system 2Excretory system 2
Excretory system 2
 
Marine worms powerpoint
Marine worms powerpointMarine worms powerpoint
Marine worms powerpoint
 
Development of frog/ embryogenesis
Development of frog/ embryogenesisDevelopment of frog/ embryogenesis
Development of frog/ embryogenesis
 
Evolution Of Behaviour
Evolution Of BehaviourEvolution Of Behaviour
Evolution Of Behaviour
 
Mollusca
MolluscaMollusca
Mollusca
 
Gastrulation in frog embryo
Gastrulation in frog embryoGastrulation in frog embryo
Gastrulation in frog embryo
 
Osmoregulation vertebrates
Osmoregulation vertebratesOsmoregulation vertebrates
Osmoregulation vertebrates
 
7 Pila globosa.pptx
7 Pila globosa.pptx7 Pila globosa.pptx
7 Pila globosa.pptx
 
Echinoderms
EchinodermsEchinoderms
Echinoderms
 
Invertebrate larvae, M. Sc. Zoology, University of Mumbai
Invertebrate larvae, M. Sc. Zoology, University of MumbaiInvertebrate larvae, M. Sc. Zoology, University of Mumbai
Invertebrate larvae, M. Sc. Zoology, University of Mumbai
 
Nutrition in mammals
Nutrition in mammalsNutrition in mammals
Nutrition in mammals
 
Platyhelminthes
PlatyhelminthesPlatyhelminthes
Platyhelminthes
 
Paramecium
ParameciumParamecium
Paramecium
 
Porifera
PoriferaPorifera
Porifera
 
Origin of chordata
Origin of chordataOrigin of chordata
Origin of chordata
 
Biology notes form 1
Biology notes form 1Biology notes form 1
Biology notes form 1
 
Evolution of reptiles
Evolution of reptilesEvolution of reptiles
Evolution of reptiles
 
Animal like protists
Animal like protistsAnimal like protists
Animal like protists
 

Similar to Holozoic nutrition

2.19 Human Digestion Cambridge IGSSE Biology
2.19 Human Digestion Cambridge IGSSE Biology2.19 Human Digestion Cambridge IGSSE Biology
2.19 Human Digestion Cambridge IGSSE Biologyssuser79fe74
 
Physiology
PhysiologyPhysiology
Physiologyegfr3yfg
 
6.1 digestion
6.1 digestion6.1 digestion
6.1 digestioncartlidge
 
Biolove chapter 1 digestive system
Biolove chapter 1 digestive systemBiolove chapter 1 digestive system
Biolove chapter 1 digestive systemMohd Ikmal
 
GIT PHYSIOLOGY 1 INTRODUCTION
GIT PHYSIOLOGY 1  INTRODUCTIONGIT PHYSIOLOGY 1  INTRODUCTION
GIT PHYSIOLOGY 1 INTRODUCTIONSAMOEINESH
 
6.1 digestion HL Year One
6.1 digestion HL Year One6.1 digestion HL Year One
6.1 digestion HL Year OneBob Smullen
 
Human digestion _ch[1]._35
Human digestion _ch[1]._35Human digestion _ch[1]._35
Human digestion _ch[1]._35careng9
 
Mechanical and chemical digestion in human
Mechanical and chemical digestion in humanMechanical and chemical digestion in human
Mechanical and chemical digestion in humanhaziah21695
 
IGCSE Biology chapter digestion by T@NV!R
IGCSE Biology chapter digestion by T@NV!RIGCSE Biology chapter digestion by T@NV!R
IGCSE Biology chapter digestion by T@NV!RTanvir Ahmed
 
IGCSE Biology chapter digestion by ..T@NV!R
IGCSE Biology chapter digestion by ..T@NV!RIGCSE Biology chapter digestion by ..T@NV!R
IGCSE Biology chapter digestion by ..T@NV!RTanvir Ahmed
 
IGCSE Biology chpater.digestion ..by T@NV!R
IGCSE Biology chpater.digestion ..by T@NV!RIGCSE Biology chpater.digestion ..by T@NV!R
IGCSE Biology chpater.digestion ..by T@NV!RTanvir Ahmed
 
Digestive system
Digestive systemDigestive system
Digestive systemKomal Kp
 
Digestion in monogastric animal and hormonal control
Digestion in monogastric animal and hormonal controlDigestion in monogastric animal and hormonal control
Digestion in monogastric animal and hormonal controlSourabh Kant
 
A complete guide to the Human Digestive System
A complete guide to the Human Digestive SystemA complete guide to the Human Digestive System
A complete guide to the Human Digestive Systemantoneymichael992
 

Similar to Holozoic nutrition (20)

2.19 Human Digestion Cambridge IGSSE Biology
2.19 Human Digestion Cambridge IGSSE Biology2.19 Human Digestion Cambridge IGSSE Biology
2.19 Human Digestion Cambridge IGSSE Biology
 
Physiology
PhysiologyPhysiology
Physiology
 
6.1 digestion
6.1 digestion6.1 digestion
6.1 digestion
 
DIGESTION.pptx
DIGESTION.pptxDIGESTION.pptx
DIGESTION.pptx
 
Bio2#7
Bio2#7Bio2#7
Bio2#7
 
6.1 digestion
6.1 digestion6.1 digestion
6.1 digestion
 
Biolove chapter 1 digestive system
Biolove chapter 1 digestive systemBiolove chapter 1 digestive system
Biolove chapter 1 digestive system
 
GIT PHYSIOLOGY 1 INTRODUCTION
GIT PHYSIOLOGY 1  INTRODUCTIONGIT PHYSIOLOGY 1  INTRODUCTION
GIT PHYSIOLOGY 1 INTRODUCTION
 
Digestion
DigestionDigestion
Digestion
 
6.1 digestion HL Year One
6.1 digestion HL Year One6.1 digestion HL Year One
6.1 digestion HL Year One
 
Digestion
DigestionDigestion
Digestion
 
Human digestion _ch[1]._35
Human digestion _ch[1]._35Human digestion _ch[1]._35
Human digestion _ch[1]._35
 
Mechanical and chemical digestion in human
Mechanical and chemical digestion in humanMechanical and chemical digestion in human
Mechanical and chemical digestion in human
 
IGCSE Biology chapter digestion by T@NV!R
IGCSE Biology chapter digestion by T@NV!RIGCSE Biology chapter digestion by T@NV!R
IGCSE Biology chapter digestion by T@NV!R
 
IGCSE Biology chapter digestion by ..T@NV!R
IGCSE Biology chapter digestion by ..T@NV!RIGCSE Biology chapter digestion by ..T@NV!R
IGCSE Biology chapter digestion by ..T@NV!R
 
IGCSE Biology chpater.digestion ..by T@NV!R
IGCSE Biology chpater.digestion ..by T@NV!RIGCSE Biology chpater.digestion ..by T@NV!R
IGCSE Biology chpater.digestion ..by T@NV!R
 
Digestive system
Digestive systemDigestive system
Digestive system
 
61digetion.ppt
61digetion.ppt61digetion.ppt
61digetion.ppt
 
Digestion in monogastric animal and hormonal control
Digestion in monogastric animal and hormonal controlDigestion in monogastric animal and hormonal control
Digestion in monogastric animal and hormonal control
 
A complete guide to the Human Digestive System
A complete guide to the Human Digestive SystemA complete guide to the Human Digestive System
A complete guide to the Human Digestive System
 

More from mandalina landy

securitization+musyarakah+murabahah+and+ijarah
securitization+musyarakah+murabahah+and+ijarahsecuritization+musyarakah+murabahah+and+ijarah
securitization+musyarakah+murabahah+and+ijarahmandalina landy
 
PERBEZAAN PELABURAN DALAM PASARAN MODAL ISLAM DENGAN PASARAN MODAL KONVENSIONAL
PERBEZAAN PELABURAN DALAM PASARAN MODAL ISLAM DENGAN PASARAN MODAL KONVENSIONAL PERBEZAAN PELABURAN DALAM PASARAN MODAL ISLAM DENGAN PASARAN MODAL KONVENSIONAL
PERBEZAAN PELABURAN DALAM PASARAN MODAL ISLAM DENGAN PASARAN MODAL KONVENSIONAL mandalina landy
 
Glossary islamic finance intruments
Glossary islamic finance intrumentsGlossary islamic finance intruments
Glossary islamic finance intrumentsmandalina landy
 
securitization+musyarakah+murabahah+and+ijarah
securitization+musyarakah+murabahah+and+ijarahsecuritization+musyarakah+murabahah+and+ijarah
securitization+musyarakah+murabahah+and+ijarahmandalina landy
 
KAJIAN MENGENAI AMALAN DAN TINGKAHLAKU PENGGUNA TERHADAP PENGGUNAAN LESTARI K...
KAJIAN MENGENAI AMALAN DAN TINGKAHLAKU PENGGUNA TERHADAP PENGGUNAAN LESTARI K...KAJIAN MENGENAI AMALAN DAN TINGKAHLAKU PENGGUNA TERHADAP PENGGUNAAN LESTARI K...
KAJIAN MENGENAI AMALAN DAN TINGKAHLAKU PENGGUNA TERHADAP PENGGUNAAN LESTARI K...mandalina landy
 
Pembangunan Lestari Pengertian Dan Pengukur
Pembangunan Lestari Pengertian Dan PengukurPembangunan Lestari Pengertian Dan Pengukur
Pembangunan Lestari Pengertian Dan Pengukurmandalina landy
 
Perbezaan Pelaburan dalam Pasaran Modal Islam dengan Pasaran Modal Konvensional
Perbezaan Pelaburan dalam Pasaran Modal Islam dengan Pasaran Modal KonvensionalPerbezaan Pelaburan dalam Pasaran Modal Islam dengan Pasaran Modal Konvensional
Perbezaan Pelaburan dalam Pasaran Modal Islam dengan Pasaran Modal Konvensionalmandalina landy
 
Keselamatan barangan plastik
Keselamatan barangan plastikKeselamatan barangan plastik
Keselamatan barangan plastikmandalina landy
 
Tahap Kepuasan Mahasiswa Terhadap Perkhidmatan Bas Di Universiti Putra Malays...
Tahap Kepuasan Mahasiswa Terhadap Perkhidmatan Bas Di Universiti Putra Malays...Tahap Kepuasan Mahasiswa Terhadap Perkhidmatan Bas Di Universiti Putra Malays...
Tahap Kepuasan Mahasiswa Terhadap Perkhidmatan Bas Di Universiti Putra Malays...mandalina landy
 
KEPUASAN PERUMAHAN DAN PERSEKITARAN REMAJA DI RUMAH PANGSA, KUALA LUMPUR
KEPUASAN PERUMAHAN DAN PERSEKITARAN REMAJA DI RUMAH PANGSA, KUALA LUMPUR  KEPUASAN PERUMAHAN DAN PERSEKITARAN REMAJA DI RUMAH PANGSA, KUALA LUMPUR
KEPUASAN PERUMAHAN DAN PERSEKITARAN REMAJA DI RUMAH PANGSA, KUALA LUMPUR mandalina landy
 
teori percampuran dan pertukaran musyarakah
teori percampuran dan pertukaran  musyarakahteori percampuran dan pertukaran  musyarakah
teori percampuran dan pertukaran musyarakahmandalina landy
 
securitization and musyarakah+murabahah and ijarah
securitization and musyarakah+murabahah and ijarahsecuritization and musyarakah+murabahah and ijarah
securitization and musyarakah+murabahah and ijarahmandalina landy
 
bai as-salam and istisna
bai as-salam and istisnabai as-salam and istisna
bai as-salam and istisnamandalina landy
 
murabaha and bai bithaman ajil (kontrak jual beli)
murabaha and bai bithaman ajil (kontrak jual beli)murabaha and bai bithaman ajil (kontrak jual beli)
murabaha and bai bithaman ajil (kontrak jual beli)mandalina landy
 
transaksi yang dilarang dlm syariah islam
transaksi yang dilarang dlm syariah islamtransaksi yang dilarang dlm syariah islam
transaksi yang dilarang dlm syariah islammandalina landy
 

More from mandalina landy (20)

securitization+musyarakah+murabahah+and+ijarah
securitization+musyarakah+murabahah+and+ijarahsecuritization+musyarakah+murabahah+and+ijarah
securitization+musyarakah+murabahah+and+ijarah
 
Presentation final
Presentation finalPresentation final
Presentation final
 
PERBEZAAN PELABURAN DALAM PASARAN MODAL ISLAM DENGAN PASARAN MODAL KONVENSIONAL
PERBEZAAN PELABURAN DALAM PASARAN MODAL ISLAM DENGAN PASARAN MODAL KONVENSIONAL PERBEZAAN PELABURAN DALAM PASARAN MODAL ISLAM DENGAN PASARAN MODAL KONVENSIONAL
PERBEZAAN PELABURAN DALAM PASARAN MODAL ISLAM DENGAN PASARAN MODAL KONVENSIONAL
 
Glossary islamic finance intruments
Glossary islamic finance intrumentsGlossary islamic finance intruments
Glossary islamic finance intruments
 
securitization+musyarakah+murabahah+and+ijarah
securitization+musyarakah+murabahah+and+ijarahsecuritization+musyarakah+murabahah+and+ijarah
securitization+musyarakah+murabahah+and+ijarah
 
KAJIAN MENGENAI AMALAN DAN TINGKAHLAKU PENGGUNA TERHADAP PENGGUNAAN LESTARI K...
KAJIAN MENGENAI AMALAN DAN TINGKAHLAKU PENGGUNA TERHADAP PENGGUNAAN LESTARI K...KAJIAN MENGENAI AMALAN DAN TINGKAHLAKU PENGGUNA TERHADAP PENGGUNAAN LESTARI K...
KAJIAN MENGENAI AMALAN DAN TINGKAHLAKU PENGGUNA TERHADAP PENGGUNAAN LESTARI K...
 
Pembangunan Lestari Pengertian Dan Pengukur
Pembangunan Lestari Pengertian Dan PengukurPembangunan Lestari Pengertian Dan Pengukur
Pembangunan Lestari Pengertian Dan Pengukur
 
Perbezaan Pelaburan dalam Pasaran Modal Islam dengan Pasaran Modal Konvensional
Perbezaan Pelaburan dalam Pasaran Modal Islam dengan Pasaran Modal KonvensionalPerbezaan Pelaburan dalam Pasaran Modal Islam dengan Pasaran Modal Konvensional
Perbezaan Pelaburan dalam Pasaran Modal Islam dengan Pasaran Modal Konvensional
 
Keselamatan barangan plastik
Keselamatan barangan plastikKeselamatan barangan plastik
Keselamatan barangan plastik
 
Tahap Kepuasan Mahasiswa Terhadap Perkhidmatan Bas Di Universiti Putra Malays...
Tahap Kepuasan Mahasiswa Terhadap Perkhidmatan Bas Di Universiti Putra Malays...Tahap Kepuasan Mahasiswa Terhadap Perkhidmatan Bas Di Universiti Putra Malays...
Tahap Kepuasan Mahasiswa Terhadap Perkhidmatan Bas Di Universiti Putra Malays...
 
KEPUASAN PERUMAHAN DAN PERSEKITARAN REMAJA DI RUMAH PANGSA, KUALA LUMPUR
KEPUASAN PERUMAHAN DAN PERSEKITARAN REMAJA DI RUMAH PANGSA, KUALA LUMPUR  KEPUASAN PERUMAHAN DAN PERSEKITARAN REMAJA DI RUMAH PANGSA, KUALA LUMPUR
KEPUASAN PERUMAHAN DAN PERSEKITARAN REMAJA DI RUMAH PANGSA, KUALA LUMPUR
 
teori percampuran dan pertukaran musyarakah
teori percampuran dan pertukaran  musyarakahteori percampuran dan pertukaran  musyarakah
teori percampuran dan pertukaran musyarakah
 
sukuk - islamic bond
sukuk - islamic bondsukuk - islamic bond
sukuk - islamic bond
 
securitization and musyarakah+murabahah and ijarah
securitization and musyarakah+murabahah and ijarahsecuritization and musyarakah+murabahah and ijarah
securitization and musyarakah+murabahah and ijarah
 
shirkah dan mudharabah
shirkah dan mudharabah shirkah dan mudharabah
shirkah dan mudharabah
 
bai as-salam and istisna
bai as-salam and istisnabai as-salam and istisna
bai as-salam and istisna
 
islam dan perniagaan
islam dan perniagaanislam dan perniagaan
islam dan perniagaan
 
al ijarah
al ijarahal ijarah
al ijarah
 
murabaha and bai bithaman ajil (kontrak jual beli)
murabaha and bai bithaman ajil (kontrak jual beli)murabaha and bai bithaman ajil (kontrak jual beli)
murabaha and bai bithaman ajil (kontrak jual beli)
 
transaksi yang dilarang dlm syariah islam
transaksi yang dilarang dlm syariah islamtransaksi yang dilarang dlm syariah islam
transaksi yang dilarang dlm syariah islam
 

Recently uploaded

Transport across cell membrane (passive, active, vesicular)
Transport across cell membrane (passive, active, vesicular)Transport across cell membrane (passive, active, vesicular)
Transport across cell membrane (passive, active, vesicular)MedicoseAcademics
 
Understanding AIDS:a roadmap to well ess
Understanding AIDS:a roadmap to well essUnderstanding AIDS:a roadmap to well ess
Understanding AIDS:a roadmap to well essAbhishekKumar524514
 
Unit I herbs as raw materials, biodynamic agriculture.ppt
Unit I herbs as raw materials, biodynamic agriculture.pptUnit I herbs as raw materials, biodynamic agriculture.ppt
Unit I herbs as raw materials, biodynamic agriculture.pptPradnya Wadekar
 
SGK NGẠT NƯỚC ĐHYHN RẤT LÀ HAY NHA .pdf
SGK NGẠT NƯỚC ĐHYHN RẤT LÀ HAY NHA    .pdfSGK NGẠT NƯỚC ĐHYHN RẤT LÀ HAY NHA    .pdf
SGK NGẠT NƯỚC ĐHYHN RẤT LÀ HAY NHA .pdfHongBiThi1
 
A presentation on Thermal gravimetry analysis (TGA)
A presentation on Thermal gravimetry analysis (TGA)A presentation on Thermal gravimetry analysis (TGA)
A presentation on Thermal gravimetry analysis (TGA)1922Jaygohel
 
Employability skills, work experience presentation
Employability skills, work experience presentationEmployability skills, work experience presentation
Employability skills, work experience presentationmarwaahmad357
 
CONNECTIVE TISSUE (ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY).pdf
CONNECTIVE TISSUE (ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY).pdfCONNECTIVE TISSUE (ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY).pdf
CONNECTIVE TISSUE (ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY).pdfDolisha Warbi
 
ayurvedic formulations herbal drug technologyppt
ayurvedic formulations herbal drug technologypptayurvedic formulations herbal drug technologyppt
ayurvedic formulations herbal drug technologypptPradnya Wadekar
 
Trustworthiness of AI based predictions Aachen 2024
Trustworthiness of AI based predictions Aachen 2024Trustworthiness of AI based predictions Aachen 2024
Trustworthiness of AI based predictions Aachen 2024EwoutSteyerberg1
 
Forensic Nursing powerpoint presentation
Forensic Nursing powerpoint presentationForensic Nursing powerpoint presentation
Forensic Nursing powerpoint presentationKavitha Krishnan
 
SGK ĐIỆN GIẬT ĐHYHN RẤT LÀ HAY TUYỆT VỜI.pdf
SGK ĐIỆN GIẬT ĐHYHN        RẤT LÀ HAY TUYỆT VỜI.pdfSGK ĐIỆN GIẬT ĐHYHN        RẤT LÀ HAY TUYỆT VỜI.pdf
SGK ĐIỆN GIẬT ĐHYHN RẤT LÀ HAY TUYỆT VỜI.pdfHongBiThi1
 
SGK RỐI LOẠN KALI MÁU CỰC KỲ QUAN TRỌNG.pdf
SGK RỐI LOẠN KALI MÁU CỰC KỲ QUAN TRỌNG.pdfSGK RỐI LOẠN KALI MÁU CỰC KỲ QUAN TRỌNG.pdf
SGK RỐI LOẠN KALI MÁU CỰC KỲ QUAN TRỌNG.pdfHongBiThi1
 
Physiology of Smooth Muscles -Mechanics of contraction and relaxation
Physiology of Smooth Muscles -Mechanics of contraction and relaxationPhysiology of Smooth Muscles -Mechanics of contraction and relaxation
Physiology of Smooth Muscles -Mechanics of contraction and relaxationMedicoseAcademics
 
DNA nucleotides Blast in NCBI and Phylogeny using MEGA Xi.pptx
DNA nucleotides Blast in NCBI and Phylogeny using MEGA Xi.pptxDNA nucleotides Blast in NCBI and Phylogeny using MEGA Xi.pptx
DNA nucleotides Blast in NCBI and Phylogeny using MEGA Xi.pptxMAsifAhmad
 
High-Performance Thin-Layer Chromatography (HPTLC)
High-Performance Thin-Layer Chromatography (HPTLC)High-Performance Thin-Layer Chromatography (HPTLC)
High-Performance Thin-Layer Chromatography (HPTLC)kishan singh tomar
 
AI in Action: Elevating Patient Insights
AI in Action: Elevating Patient InsightsAI in Action: Elevating Patient Insights
AI in Action: Elevating Patient InsightsEmily Kunka, MS, CCRP
 
Breast cancer -ONCO IN MEDICAL AND SURGICAL NURSING.pptx
Breast cancer -ONCO IN MEDICAL AND SURGICAL NURSING.pptxBreast cancer -ONCO IN MEDICAL AND SURGICAL NURSING.pptx
Breast cancer -ONCO IN MEDICAL AND SURGICAL NURSING.pptxNaveenkumar267201
 
Arthroscopic Surgery in Indore : A Minimally Invasive Guide to Joint Health
Arthroscopic Surgery in Indore : A Minimally Invasive Guide to Joint HealthArthroscopic Surgery in Indore : A Minimally Invasive Guide to Joint Health
Arthroscopic Surgery in Indore : A Minimally Invasive Guide to Joint HealthGokuldas Hospital
 
Cure of patients which terminally ill.pdf
Cure of patients which terminally ill.pdfCure of patients which terminally ill.pdf
Cure of patients which terminally ill.pdfrg0000009
 

Recently uploaded (20)

Transport across cell membrane (passive, active, vesicular)
Transport across cell membrane (passive, active, vesicular)Transport across cell membrane (passive, active, vesicular)
Transport across cell membrane (passive, active, vesicular)
 
Understanding AIDS:a roadmap to well ess
Understanding AIDS:a roadmap to well essUnderstanding AIDS:a roadmap to well ess
Understanding AIDS:a roadmap to well ess
 
Unit I herbs as raw materials, biodynamic agriculture.ppt
Unit I herbs as raw materials, biodynamic agriculture.pptUnit I herbs as raw materials, biodynamic agriculture.ppt
Unit I herbs as raw materials, biodynamic agriculture.ppt
 
SGK NGẠT NƯỚC ĐHYHN RẤT LÀ HAY NHA .pdf
SGK NGẠT NƯỚC ĐHYHN RẤT LÀ HAY NHA    .pdfSGK NGẠT NƯỚC ĐHYHN RẤT LÀ HAY NHA    .pdf
SGK NGẠT NƯỚC ĐHYHN RẤT LÀ HAY NHA .pdf
 
A presentation on Thermal gravimetry analysis (TGA)
A presentation on Thermal gravimetry analysis (TGA)A presentation on Thermal gravimetry analysis (TGA)
A presentation on Thermal gravimetry analysis (TGA)
 
Employability skills, work experience presentation
Employability skills, work experience presentationEmployability skills, work experience presentation
Employability skills, work experience presentation
 
CONNECTIVE TISSUE (ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY).pdf
CONNECTIVE TISSUE (ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY).pdfCONNECTIVE TISSUE (ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY).pdf
CONNECTIVE TISSUE (ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY).pdf
 
ayurvedic formulations herbal drug technologyppt
ayurvedic formulations herbal drug technologypptayurvedic formulations herbal drug technologyppt
ayurvedic formulations herbal drug technologyppt
 
Trustworthiness of AI based predictions Aachen 2024
Trustworthiness of AI based predictions Aachen 2024Trustworthiness of AI based predictions Aachen 2024
Trustworthiness of AI based predictions Aachen 2024
 
Forensic Nursing powerpoint presentation
Forensic Nursing powerpoint presentationForensic Nursing powerpoint presentation
Forensic Nursing powerpoint presentation
 
SGK ĐIỆN GIẬT ĐHYHN RẤT LÀ HAY TUYỆT VỜI.pdf
SGK ĐIỆN GIẬT ĐHYHN        RẤT LÀ HAY TUYỆT VỜI.pdfSGK ĐIỆN GIẬT ĐHYHN        RẤT LÀ HAY TUYỆT VỜI.pdf
SGK ĐIỆN GIẬT ĐHYHN RẤT LÀ HAY TUYỆT VỜI.pdf
 
SGK RỐI LOẠN KALI MÁU CỰC KỲ QUAN TRỌNG.pdf
SGK RỐI LOẠN KALI MÁU CỰC KỲ QUAN TRỌNG.pdfSGK RỐI LOẠN KALI MÁU CỰC KỲ QUAN TRỌNG.pdf
SGK RỐI LOẠN KALI MÁU CỰC KỲ QUAN TRỌNG.pdf
 
Physiology of Smooth Muscles -Mechanics of contraction and relaxation
Physiology of Smooth Muscles -Mechanics of contraction and relaxationPhysiology of Smooth Muscles -Mechanics of contraction and relaxation
Physiology of Smooth Muscles -Mechanics of contraction and relaxation
 
DNA nucleotides Blast in NCBI and Phylogeny using MEGA Xi.pptx
DNA nucleotides Blast in NCBI and Phylogeny using MEGA Xi.pptxDNA nucleotides Blast in NCBI and Phylogeny using MEGA Xi.pptx
DNA nucleotides Blast in NCBI and Phylogeny using MEGA Xi.pptx
 
High-Performance Thin-Layer Chromatography (HPTLC)
High-Performance Thin-Layer Chromatography (HPTLC)High-Performance Thin-Layer Chromatography (HPTLC)
High-Performance Thin-Layer Chromatography (HPTLC)
 
How to master Steroid (glucocorticoids) prescription, different scenarios, ca...
How to master Steroid (glucocorticoids) prescription, different scenarios, ca...How to master Steroid (glucocorticoids) prescription, different scenarios, ca...
How to master Steroid (glucocorticoids) prescription, different scenarios, ca...
 
AI in Action: Elevating Patient Insights
AI in Action: Elevating Patient InsightsAI in Action: Elevating Patient Insights
AI in Action: Elevating Patient Insights
 
Breast cancer -ONCO IN MEDICAL AND SURGICAL NURSING.pptx
Breast cancer -ONCO IN MEDICAL AND SURGICAL NURSING.pptxBreast cancer -ONCO IN MEDICAL AND SURGICAL NURSING.pptx
Breast cancer -ONCO IN MEDICAL AND SURGICAL NURSING.pptx
 
Arthroscopic Surgery in Indore : A Minimally Invasive Guide to Joint Health
Arthroscopic Surgery in Indore : A Minimally Invasive Guide to Joint HealthArthroscopic Surgery in Indore : A Minimally Invasive Guide to Joint Health
Arthroscopic Surgery in Indore : A Minimally Invasive Guide to Joint Health
 
Cure of patients which terminally ill.pdf
Cure of patients which terminally ill.pdfCure of patients which terminally ill.pdf
Cure of patients which terminally ill.pdf
 

Holozoic nutrition

  • 1. HOLOZOIC NUTRITION Most of the nutrient contained in food such as protein, lipid and carbohydrates are relatively large molecules, which do not dissolve in water and cannot enter cell membrane. This nutrient must be broken down to smaller unit, which can be absorbed and transported by blood to the whole body. This is achieved through mechanical, chemical and enzymatic reaction. How food is process to extract its nutrient is call digestive system and occur in alimentary canal. In human, alimentary canal is divided into six region: mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine and anal region. 1
  • 2. PROCESSES IN HOLOZOIC NUTRITION In general, holozoic nutrition involved the following processes : a) Ingestion Ingestion involved intake of complex organic food (solid and liquid) 2
  • 3. b) Digestion Digestion is a process of breaking large compl and insoluble molecules into simple, small and soluble molecules. Digestion is achieved through mechanical means (chewing) of food into smaller particles and hydrolysis by digestive enzymes. c) Absorption Soluble smaller molecules move from digestion zone to the absorption zone where it crosses the epithelial lining of small intestine. There molecules either enter the body tissues or transported to other part of the body by blood. d) Assimilation Assimilation is a process where the molecules absorbed is used to generate energy or used for growth and repairs. e) Defecation Defecation is a process where undigestible food, residue, bacteria is expelled from the body. Function of human digestive tract Nutrient can only be absorbed into the body when complex foods are broken down by mechanical action of teeth and digestive tract muscle followed by enzymatic digestion (chemical digestion) to produce simple and small molecules that can be absorbed into the blood capillaries surrounding the small intestine. Enzymetic digestion for three food classes (polysaccharide, protein and fat) is shown in table 4.1 Table 4.1 Enzymetic digestion for three food classes (polysaccharide, protein and fat) in human digestive tract. Polysaccharide Amylase Disaccharide Disaccharase monosaccharide Protein Endopeptidase Polypeptide Exopeptidase Dipeptide Dipeptidase Ami aci Breaking long Aminopeptidase Breaking 3
  • 4. chain of carboxypeptidase down protein reacted on the dipeptide end of carboxil into polypeptidase amino acid Bile salts Lipase Fat Colloidal fat Fatty acid + glycerol For emulsification Each part of the digestive system have a specific function as shown in table 4.2 Table 4.2 Summary of function in human digestive system Specific region Function Mouth cavity Ingestion, mechanical digestion Pharyngx To swallow Esophagus Linking pharyngx to stomach Stomach Storing food and digestion of protein Duodenum: Liver (gall bladder) Fat emulsification Pancreas (pancreatic secretion) Carbohydrate, protein and fat digestion Illeum End of digestive process and start of absorption process Colon Absorption of water Rectum Formation and storage of fecal matter Anus Defecation Stomach Stomach surface lining is creased or crinkeled known as rugae Permukaan dalam perut mempunyai lipatan-lipatan vang disebut rugae. Rugae membolehkan perut mengembang untuk menampung kemasukan makanan. Fungsi perut termasuklah : (1) Place for temporary storage of food (2) Secretion of gastric juice (HCl) and enzymes (3) Mechanical food mixing (4) Control entry of food to small intestine. 4
  • 5. Thick mucosal layer are supplied with gastric gland and goblet cells. Gastric gland consists of three type of cells i) zymogen cells ii) oxintic cells iii) argentafin cells These cells produced intrinsic factor which assist in the absorption of vitamin B12 complex molecules. Goblet cells produced copius mucous to protect intestinal lining against corrosive nature of HCl and digestive protein enzyme. Collective secretion of gastric gland and goblet cells is also known as gastric secretion. Stomach muscle will churned (mixed) foods with gastric secretion and turned it into semi- liquid state called chyme. After about 2-3 hours the chyme is released to the duodenum. Small Intestine Chyme enter small intestine in stages and mixed together with small intestine’s secretion. There are three types of small intestine secretion: i) intestinal secretion ii) bile secretion iii) pancreatic secretion Most of the digestion and absorption processes taken place in small intestine. Chyme will remain in small intestine for about 4-5 hours. When most of the nutrient are absorbed, the remaining mixture will move to the large intestine by peristaltic action. Table 3.2 Summary of chemical/enzymatic digestion in human. Site where Optimum Secretion Enzyme reaction Substrates End product pH takes place Salivery Mouth Salivary amylase 6.5-7.5 Starch (amylose) malthose secretion cavity Gastric Pro(renin) Stomach 2.0 Caseinogen Casein secretion Pepsin (ogen) 2.0 Protein Polypeptide HCl (non 2.0 Pepsinogen Pepsin enzymatic) Intestinal Small Malthase 8.5 Malthose Glucose secretion intestine Small Glucose + Lactase 8.5 Lactose intestine galactose Small Glucose + Sucrase 8.5 Sucrose intestine fructose Small Exopeptidase Aminopeptidase 8.5 Polypeptide and Amino acid intestine Small Dipeptidase 8.5 Dipeptide Amino acid intestine 5
  • 6. Small Enterokinase 8.5 Trypsinogen Trypsin intestine Bile salt Small Bile secretion 7.0 Fat Fat droplet (Non enzymatic) intestine Pancreatic Small Amylase 7.0 Starch (Amylose) Malthose secretion intestine Small Fatty acid + Lipase 7.0 Fat intestine glycerol Small Protein Amino acid Trypsin(ogen) 7.0 intestine Chemotrypsinogen chemotrypsin Small (Endopeptidase) Chemotrypsin(ogen) 7.0 Casein Amino acid intestine Small (Exopeptidase) Carboxypeptidase 7.0 Polypeptide aminoacid intestine Large intestine In overall digestive gland secrete about 5-6 liters of water daily on the food mixture. From that amount only 0.2 liter that is not reabsorb by the large intestine. There are symbiotic bacteria living in the large intestine synthesizing amino acid and vitamins especially vitamin K from the remaining (residue). The synthesize amino acids and vitamin K is absorb into the blood stream. Reabsorption of water and the presence of bacteria turned the “residue” into solid mass known as fecal matter. It is estimated that about 50% of the solid fecal matter consist of bacteria. The epithelial mucosal lining of the large intestine secrete mucous to lubricate fecal matter. Fecal matter can remain in large intestine for 36 hours before sending it to temporarily to rectum. It will expelled through anus by anal sphincter muscle. 6
  • 7. Absoption and transport of nutrient The structure of small intestine is optimized for nutrient absorption. Internal small intestine can be increased by the following methods: (a) Small intestine is a long slender tube. (b) The internal surface is folded to increase surface area. (c) The folded internal surface has papilae outgrowth called villus. (d) Numerous hair like projection on each villus called microvillus. Figure 4.4 How the internal surface area of intestine is increased In each villus is supplied with blood capillaries network and lacteal to absorb and transport nutrient. Monosaccharide and amino acid is absorbed through simple diffusion or active to the blood capillaries. These nutrient is sent to the liver. Most of the monosaccharides (glucose) is stored in liver or muscle as glycogen and fats. Part of the absorbed glucose is distributed to the rest of the body and oxidised in cellular respiration for energy generation. Amino acid is used to synthesis new protoplasm, replacement of dead body tissues, manufacturing enzymes and hormones. Excess amino acid cannot be stored in liver but deaminated that is the amino group is removed and turned into urea, uric acid and other nitrogenous excretory product. These materials is removed through urine and remaining amino acid is converted into stored glycogen. 7
  • 8. Fatty acid and glycerol enter epithelial cells where it is turned into fat. The fat will enter lacteal where it is surrounded by protein layer to form lipoprotein and known as cholymicron. Lipoprotein than enter the blood stream. In the blood, lipoprotein is hydrolyzes by enzymes to form fatty acids and glycerol. These two lipid componen (fatty acids and glycerol) will enter cells and used in cellular respiration or stored as fat in liver, muscles, adipose tissues underneath skin, around heart and kidney and mesentery. The mesentery is a structure that envelops the internal organs, such as the small intestine, lending support, blood supply, and lymph vessel drainage. Some of the lipoprotein is used as cell’s membrane and muclear membrane. Advantageous of fat as storage material. Fat is important as reserve energy. It contain significant amount of carbon-hydrogen bond which is rich in energy compared to carbohydrate. Fat produce 9.3 kcal energy per gram compared to 3.79 kcal for carbohydrates and 3.12 kcal for protein. Therefore more energy can be stored in compact package. The advantageous of fat as storage material Fat is an important source of reserve energy. Fat contain significant amount of high energy carbon-hydrogen bond compared to carbohydrates. Fats produce 9.3 kcal of energy /g compared to 3.79 kcal for carbohydrate and 3.12 kcal for protein. Therefore fat is a compact high-energy package, which is more suited for animal, which require mobility. Fat also produced 2 times more water during cellular respiration compared to carbohydrates and proteins. That is why it is an important for desert. Variation of digestive tract Digestive tract of higher organism consist of long elongated tube with one opening at one end (mouth) for entery of food and another opening at the end (anus) for excretion of undigested food. This tube is divided into specialized region with specific function as shown in table 3.2 Variation of the digestive tract in vertebrates is closely associated with the following: (1) Types of food : Whether the food is easily absorbed or requires extensive mechanical and enzymatic digestion. (2) Quantity of food : Its depends whether food supply or food source is easily available or otherwise. If food is difficult to obtain the animal must consume large quantity and digestive tract must be able to accommodate it until it can be digested later. 3) Body shape : If the body is long , it is most likely that the digestive tract is long. If the body is compact, the digestive can be short of in coiled form to provide increase absorption area. Cyclostoma : 8
  • 9. Cyclostoma is a primitive jawless fish, which has the simplest digestive tract. It is an elongated tube with esophagus and intestine. The intestine is equipped with spiral valve known as tiflosol to slows down food movement and increase absorption area. Ikan Shark : Digestive system of shark consist of esophagus, stomach and duodenum. Duodenum has spiral valve to slows down food movement and increase absorption area. Bird : The lower end of esophagus enlarge to from crop where food is stored and moistened. The stomact consist of two parts that is proventriculus and gizzard. Proventriculus secretes gastric secretion whereas gizzard is a thick wall and muscular which provide mechanical digestion. For grain eating bird, mechanical digestion is aided with small stone and sand. Cow. : A system that could process cellulose before food travelled through the main digestive organs would be more efficient. The ungulates - cows, deer sheep and their relatives - have found a way. The lower part of the oesophagus and the stomach of a cow are highly modified (the quot;four stomachsquot; of a cow). A large chamber, the rumen, is dedicated to storing grass and mixing it with a variety of symbiotic bacteria. This opens into a second chamber, the reticulum, with highly folded inner walls that provide a massive area for bacterial growth. The walls of this chamber are sold in grocery stores as quot;honeycomb tripequot; The bacteria feed on the cellulose and grow to massive populations. Hours later, the cow will regurgitate a combination of caked bacteria and undigested food called cud. It will chew the cud and swallow it, this time diverting it to the third chamber, the omasum. Here water is withdrawn for recycling. From the omasum the cud enters the true stomach, or abomasum, where chemical digestion begins. Because this all occurs before the food enters the stomach, digestive enzymes can now break down the various proteins, carbohydrates and lipids found in the bacteria. This extremely rich mixture of nutrients can sustain quite large animals on a diet mainly consisting of quot;indigestiblequot; grass. In fact, a cow is not living directly on grass, but an a diet of bacteria. It is little wonder, with this special design for getting the best out of an abundant resource, that the wildebeest, bison, antelopes and caribou have become the dominant large mammals of their respective environments. 9
  • 10. 10
  • 11. 11