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     "A map says to you, 'Read me carefully, follow
     me closely, doubt me not.' It says, 'I am the
     Earth in the palm of your hand. Without me, you
     are alone and lost.'"—Beryl Markham (West With
                    lost.'"—                 (West
     the Night, 1946 )




                            Vocabulary
aerial photograph (p. 44)             remote sensing (p. 44)
conformality (conformal projection)   representative fraction (p. 31)
(p. 35)                               rhumb line (p. 36)
conic projection (p. 37)              small-scale map (p. 31)
cylindrical projection (p. 35)        sonar (p. 48)
elevation contour line (p. 39)        verbal scale (p. 31)
equal area projection (p. 35)         global positioning system (GPS)
equivalence (equivalent projection)   (p. 41)
(p. 35)                               graphic scale (p. 30)
fractional scale (p. 31)              isoline (p. 39)
geographic information systems        large-scale map (p. 31)
(GIS) (p. 48)                         loxodrome (p. 36)
orthophoto map (p. 44)                map (p. 29)
photogrammetry (p. 44)                map projection (p. 33)
plane projection (p. 37)              map scale (p. 30)
pseudocylindrical projection          Mercator projection (p. 36)
(elliptical projection) (p. 38)       multispectral scanning system
radar (p. 48)                         (MSS) (p. 46)




               The Nature of Maps
• Map—a two-dimensional
  representation of the spatial
  distribution of selected
  phenomena.
• Basic attributes of maps,
  making them indispensable:
• Their ability to show distance,
  direction, size, and shape in
  horizontal (two-dimensional)
  spatial relationships.
• They depict graphically what is
  where and they are often
  helpful in providing clues as to
  why such a distribution occurs.




                                                                        1
The Nature of Maps
• Basic fault of maps:
   – No map can be
     perfectly accurate:
   – Maps are trying to
     portray the
     impossible—taking
     a curved surface
     and drawing it on a
     flat piece of paper.


                                 http://www.zanzibarmagic.com/english2nd/maps.01.jpg




                     Map Scale
• Map Scale—gives the
  relationship between length
  measured on the map and
  corresponding distance on
  the ground. Essential for
  being able to measure
  distance, determine area,
  and compare sizes.
• Scale can never be
  perfectly accurate, again
  because of the curve of
  Earth’s surface.
• The smaller the area being
  mapped, the more accurate
  the scale can be.




                     Map Scale
• Scale Types
   – Several ways to portray
     scale, but only three are
     widely used:
• Graphic Map Scales
   – Uses a line marked off in
     graduated distances;
     remains correct when
     map is reproduced in
     another size, because
     both the graphic scale
     line and the map size
     change in same
     dimension.




                                                                                       2
Map Scale
 • Fractional Map Scales
     – Uses a ratio or fraction, called a representative
       fraction, to express the comparison of map
       distance with ground distance on Earth’s surface.
     – 1/63,360 is commonly used because the number in
       denominator equals the number of inches in one
       mile.
     – Often, no units are given in a fractional scale, so
       the dimensions translate whether one is using
       inches, millimeters, or some other unit of
       measurement.




                            Map Scale
 • Verbal Map Scales
     – Also called word scale; uses words to give
       the ratio of the map scale length to the
       distance on Earth’s surface.




                            Map Scale
• Large and Small Scale
• The concepts of “large” and
  “small” are comparative, not
  absolute; it all depends on the
  frame of reference whether one
  considers something large or
  small.
   – Large-scale map—has a
     relatively large representative
     fraction, which means the
     denominator is “small”—1/10,000
     is large-scale as compared to
     1/1,000,000.
       • Portrays only a small portion of
         Earth’s surface, providing
         considerable detail.
   – Small-scale map—has a small
     representation fraction, which
     means the denominator is “large.”
       • Portrays a larger portion of
         Earth’s surface, but gives only
         limited detail.




                                                             3
Map Essentials
•   Maps should include a few essential components; omitting any of these
    components will decrease the clarity of the map and make it more difficult to
    read.
•   The eight essential components are Title, Date, Legend, Scale, Direction,
    Location, Data Source, and Projection Type.
     1. Title—should provide a brief summary of the map’s content or purpose and
        identify the area it covers.
     2. Date—should indicate the time span in which the map’s data were collected.
     3. Legend—should explain any symbols used in the map to represent features and
        any quantities.
     4. Scale—should provide a graphic, verbal, or fractional scale to indicate the
        relationship between length measured on the map and corresponding distance
        on the ground.
     5. Direction—should show direction either through geographic grid or a north arrow.
     6. Location—should have a grid system, either a geographic grid using latitude and
        longitude, or an alternative system that is expressed like the x and y coordinates
        of a graph.
     7. Data Source—should indicate the data source for thematic maps.
     8. Projection type—should indicate the type of projection, particularly for small-
        scale maps.




                       Map Essentials




                The Role of Globes
• Globes have several
  advantages:
    – Can maintain the correct
      geometric relationships of
      meridian to parallel, of
      equator to pole, of
      continents to oceans.
    – Can show comparative
      distances, comparative
      sizes, and accurate
      directions.
    – Can represent, essentially
      without distortion, the
      spatial relationships of
      features on Earth’s surface.




                                                                                             4
Map Projections

 • Map projection—the
   system used to transform
   the rounded surface of
   Earth to a flat display.
      – The fundamental problem
        with mapping is how to
        minimize distortion while
        transferring data from a
        spherical surface to a flat
        piece of paper.




                      Map Projections
 • The Major Dilemma: Equivalence versus
   Conformality
      – Central problem in constructing and choosing a map
        projection:
      – Impossible to perfectly portray both size and shape,
        so must strike a compromise between equivalence
        and conformality.
 A map which portrays shape accurately
  is called a conformal map. Conformal
 maps are useful in that they help us
 understand the true shape of the items
 on the map. However, these maps have
 many drawbacks. A conformal map
 tends to get quite distorted, especially
 towards the top and bottom of the map.
 This creates problems with scale. The
 scale may be accurate near the equator,
 but the further one travels form the
 equator, the less accurate the scale
 becomes.




                     Map Projections
• Equivalence—the property of a map projection that
  maintains equal areal relationships in all parts of the map.
• Conformality—the property of a map projection that
  maintains proper angular relationships of surface features.
    – Can only closely approximate both equivalence and conformality in
      maps of very small areas (e.g., large-scale maps).
    – Mapmaking must be an art of compromise.
         • Robinson projection in Figure 2–11 is one of the most popular methods
           for compromising between equivalence and conformality.




                                                   Robinson Projection




                                                                                   5
Map Projection
• Equivalent projection—portrays equal areal relationships
  throughout, avoiding misleading impressions of size.
• Disadvantages:
   – Difficult to achieve on small-scale maps, because they must display
     disfigured shapes:
   – Greenland and Alaska usually appear squattier than they actually are on
     equivalent projections.
       • Even so, most equivalent world maps are small-scale maps.




                    Map Projection
• Conformal projection—
  maintains proper angular
  relationships in maps so
  the shape stays accurate
  (e.g., Mercator projection).
• Disadvantages:
   – Impossible to depict true
     shapes for large areas like
     continents.
   – Biggest problem is that they
     must distort size (e.g.,
     usually greatly enlarges
     sizes in the higher latitudes




  Families of Map Projections
• Cylindrical projections are created by
  mathematically “wrapping”a globe in a
  cylinder.
   – The paper touches, or is tangent to, the globe
     only along the equator. This forms a circle of
     tangency.
   – The resulting map is a rectangular surface
     possessing a grid of lines of latitude and
     longitude.




                                                                               6
Families of Map Projections
• Mercator: The Most Famous Projection
• The Mercator projection—a special-purpose projection
  that was created more than 400 years ago as a tool for
  straight-line navigation.
    – Prime advantage: shows loxodromes as straight lights.
        • Loxodrome—also called rhumb line, is a curve on the surface of
          a sphere that crosses all meridians at the same angle. They
          approximate the arcs of a great circle but consist of constant
          compass headings.




 Families of Projections
    • Cylindrical
        – Mercator Projection
            • The most famous
              projection




        - Fig. 2-7                               – Fig. 2-12




    Families of Map Projections
•   How do navigators use Mercator projection?
    1. First, navigators must use another type of projection that shows
       great circles as straight lines; they draw a straight line between
       their starting point and destination.
    2. They then transfer that straight-line route to a Mercator
       projection by marking spots on the meridians where the
       straight-line route crossed them.
    3. They then draw straight lines between the meridian points,
       which are loxodromes or rhumb lines.
    4. The navigator can use these loxodromes to chart when
       periodic changes in compass course are necessary to
       approximate the shortest distance between two points.




                                                                            7
Families of Map Projections
• Why does the Mercator projection distort size?
   – It is a conformal projection. Although it is accurate in its portrayal
     of the equator and relatively undistorted in the low latitudes, it
     must distort size in the middle and high latitudes in order to
     maintain conformality, that is, approximate the shapes of
     landmasses.
   – It shows the meridians as straight, parallel lines instead of
     having them converge at the poles as they actually do. This
     causes east–west stretching. To compensate for this stretching
     and keep shapes intact, the Mercator projection must also
     stretch north–south, so it increases the spacing between
     parallels of latitude as one goes further from the equator. Thus
     landmasses further away from the equator appear larger than
     they actually are.




  Families of Map Projections
• The Mercator projection has been misused and
  so creates many misconceptions about the size
  of landmasses, as it makes those landmasses in
  the high latitudes appear much larger than they
  actually are.
   – For example, Greenland appears much larger than
     Africa, South America, and Australia, although
     Greenland is actually smaller than them.
   – Indeed, Africa is 14 times larger than Greenland.




  Families of Map Projections
• Planar Projections
   – Planar projections (AKA azimuthal
     projections or zenithal projections)
     are created by projecting the
     markings of a center-lit globe on a
     flat piece of paper.
   – There is only a point of tangency
     that is usually located on one of the
     poles, and distortion increases as
     distance increases from this point.
       • The disadvantage of this projection
         is that no more than one
         hemisphere can be displayed.




                                                                              8
• Plane Projections
       – Azimuthal or Zenithal
         projections (correct
         direction from point
         of tangency)
       – One-hemisphere
         view




                                                           – Fig. 2-13
        - Fig. 2-9




  Families of Map Projections
• Conic Projections
   – A conic projection is created by projecting the markings of a center-lit
     globe onto a cone wrapped tangent to, or intersecting, a portion of the
     globe.
   – The apex of the cone is usually positioned above a pole, resulting in the
     circle of tangency coinciding with a parallel.
   – Distortion increases with distance from this circle. As such, conic
     projections are best used with landmasses possessing great east–west
     orientations.
       • Because of the distortion associated with them, they are better suited for
         mapping smaller regions (i.e., a single country).




   • Conic Projections
       – Small-area maps




                 – Fig. 2-8




                                                                                      9
Families of Map Projections
 • Pseudocylindrical
   Projections
    – Pseudocylindrical
      projections (AKA elliptical
      projections of oval
      projections) are generally
      designed to show the
      entire globe.
    – These projections usually
      employ a central parallel
      and a central meridian
      that cross at right angles
      in the middle of the map.
    – Distortion usually
      increases in all directions
      away from the point
      where these lines cross.




   Families of Map Projections
 • Interrupted Projections
    – The interruption of a projection is a technique used to
      minimize distortion.
    – Ocean regions are usually split apart or “interrupted”
      so that the distortion over landmasses is minimized.
    – The result is a map with very little distortion over land
      and great “gaps” over the oceans.




        Computer Cartography
• Computer technology
  has provided several
  great benefits to
  cartography:
• Improved speed and
  data-handling ability;
• Reduced time involved
  in map production;
• Ability for cartographer
  to examine alternative
  map layouts.




                                                                  10
Isolines
• Isoline—commonly used cartographic device for portraying the
  spatial distribution of some phenomenon. Also called isarithm,
  isogram, isopleth, and isometric line.
• Refers to any line that joins points of equal value.
• Isolines help to reveal spatial relationships that otherwise might go
  undetected.
• They can significantly clarify patterns that are too large, too abstract,
  or too detailed for ordinary comprehension.




Isolines
•   Most relevant types of
    isolines to this course:
    1. Elevation contour line—
       joins points of equal
       elevation;
    2. Isotherm—joins points of
       equal temperature;
    3. Isobar—joins points of equal
       atmospheric pressure;
    4. Isohyet—joins points of equal
       quantities of precipitation;
    5. Isogonic line—joins points of
       equal magnetic declination.




                            Isolines
• Basic characteristics of isolines:
    – They are always closed lines, having no ends;
    – They represent gradations in quantities, so only touch
      or cross one another in very rare and unusual
      circumstances;
    – Interval—the numerical difference between one
      isoline and the next;
        • Size of interval is up to the cartographer’s discretion, but it is
          best to maintain a constant interval thorough a map;
    – Their proximity depends on the gradient (that is, the
      change in the interval).
        • The closer they lie together, the steeper the gradient; the
          further apart they lie, the more gentle the gradient.




                                                                               11
• Basic characteristics
         – Closed lines
         – Lines never touch
         – Contour interval




   Source: U.S.G.S. Marble
   Colorado Topographic
   Quadrangle Map




         – Spacing (shows steepness of the land)




   Source: U.S.G.S. Marble Colorado Topographic Quadrangle Map




  The Global Positioning System
• Global Positioning System (GPS)—a satellite-based
  system for determining accurate positions on or near
  Earth’s surface. High-altitude satellites (24) continuously
  transmit both identification and position information that
  can be picked up by receivers on Earth. Clocks stored in
  both units help in calculating the distance between the
  receiver and each member of a group of four (or more)
  satellites, so one can then determine the three-
  dimensional coordinates of the receiver’s position.
   – Military units allow a position calculation within about 30 feet (10
     meters).
   – Also used in earthquake prediction, ocean floor mapping,
     volcano monitoring, and mapping projects.
   – Because of accuracy of GPS units, latitude and longitude are
     increasingly being reported in decimal form.




                                                                            12
 The Global Positioning System (GPS)
    • Satellite-based
    • Accuracy
        – Commercial/private
          users
        – Military




              Global positioning
                       satellites
            - Fig 2-18




                  Remote Sensing
• Remote sensing—study of an object or surface
  from a distance by using various instruments.
    – Sophisticated technology now provides remarkable
      set of tools to study Earth, through precision
      recording instruments operating from high-altitude
      vantage points.
    – Different kinds of remote sensing:
        • Aerial photographs, color and color infrared sensing, thermal
          infrared sensing, microwave sensing, radar, sonar,
          multispectral, and SPOT imagery.




                  Remote Sensing
• Aerial Photographs
• First form of remote sensing.
• Aerial photograph—photograph
  taken from an elevated “platform”
  such as a balloon, airplane, rocket,
  or satellite.
    – Either oblique or vertical:
        • Oblique—camera angle is less
          than 90°, showing features from a
          relatively familiar point of view.
        • Vertical—camera angle is
          approximately perpendicular to
          Earth surface (allows for easier
          measurement than oblique
          photographs).
        • Photogrammetry—science of
          obtaining reliable measurements      http://kaznowski.blox.pl/resource/strangemaps.JPG
          from photographs and, by
          extension, the science of mapping
          from aerial photographs.




                                                                                                   13
Remote Sensing
• Orthophoto Maps
   – Orthophoto maps—multi-
     colored, distortion-free
     photographic maps
     produced from
     computerized rectification
     of aerial imagery.
   – Show the landscape in
     much greater detail than a
     conventional map, but are
     like a map in that they
     provide a common scale
     that allows precise
     measurement of distances.
       • Particularly useful in flat-
         lying coastal areas
         because they can show
         subtle topographic detail.




                 Remote Sensing
• Color and Color Infrared Sensing
   – Color—refers to the visible-light region
     of the electromagnetic spectrum.
   – Color infrared (color IR)—refers to the
     infrared region of the spectrum.
       • Color IR film is more versatile; uses
         include evaluating health of crops and
         trees.
       • Color IR film cannot detect much of the
         usable portion of the near infrared.
• Scanner systems have come to aid,
  by being able to sense much further
  into infrared.
• Landsat—a series of satellites that
  orbit Earth and can digitally image
  all parts of the planet except the
  polar regions every nine days.




       – Color infrared film




              Color infrared image of
                    Mississippi River



                             – Fig. 2-23




                                                   14
• Multispectral Remote Sensing
       – Landsat (Mosaic)




                        – Fig. 2-25




                Remote Sensing
• Thermal Infrared Sensing
   – Thermal Infrared Sensing
     (thermal IR)—middle or far
     infrared part of electromagnetic
     spectrum; can’t be sensed with
     film.
   – Thermal scanning is used for
     showing diurnal temperature
     differences between land and
     water and between bedrock and
     alluvium, for studying thermal
     water pollution, for detecting
     forest fires, and, its greatest use,
     for weather forecasting.




                Remote Sensing
• Microwave Sensing
   – Microwave
     radiometry—senses
     radiation in the 100-
     micrometer to 1-
     meter range.
   – Useful for showing
     subsurface
     characteristics such
     as moisture.




                                            15
Remote Sensing
•   Multispectral Remote Sensing
•   These systems image more than one region of the electromagnetic
    spectrum simultaneously from the same location.
•   Landsat
•   The early Landsat was the multispectral scanning system (MSS)—a
    system that images Earth’s surface in several spectrum regions.
•   Landsat Sensory Systems use an MSS; can gather more than 30 million
    pieces of data for one image 183-by-170 kilometers (115-by-106 miles).
•   Thematic mapper—uses seven bands to improve resolution and greater
    imaging flexibility.
•   Images in eight spectral bands with a resolution of 15 meters became
    available with the launching of Landsat 7 in 1977.
•   In 1999, Landsat 7 was launched, carrying an enhanced thematic mapper
    plus (ETM+)
•   It uses eight spectral bandwidths with a resolution of 15 meters in the
    panchronic band, 30 meters in the visible and infrared network, and 60
    meters in the thermal infrared.




                  Remote Sensing
• Earth Observing System Satellites
     – NASA’s Earth Observing System (EOS) satellite
       Terra was launched in 1999.
         1. The satellite contains a moderate resolution imagery
            spectroradiometer (MODIS) that gathers 36 spectral bands.
         2. The latest device is a multiangle image spectroradiometer
            (MIS) that is capable of distinguishing various types of
            atmospheric particulates, land surfaces, and cloud forms.
         3. The most recent EOS satellite Aqua monitors water vapor,
            precipitation, clouds, glaciers, and soil wetness.
         4. Aqua also includes the atmospheric Infrared Sounder
            (AIRS), which permits accurate atmospheric temperature
            measurements.




                  Remote Sensing
• Radar and Sonar Sensing
     – Radar—(radio detection and ranging) senses
       wavelengths longer than 1 millimeter and now
       provides images in photo-like form.
         • Radar is unique in its ability to penetrate atmospheric
           moisture, so it can analyze wet tropical areas that can’t be
           sensed by other systems.
         • Radar is particularly useful for terrain analysis.
• Sonar—(sound navigation ranging) permits
  underwater imaging.




                                                                              16
Geographic Information Systems
•   Geographic information systems (GIS)—automated systems for the
    capture, storage, retrieval, analysis, and display of spatial data.
•   Uses both computer hardware and software to analyze geographic location
    and handle spatial data.
•   Virtually, libraries of information that use maps instead of alphabet to
    organize and store data.
•   Allows data management by linking tabular data and map.
•   Mainly used in overlay analysis, where two or more layers of data are
    superimposed or integrated.
•   First uses were in surveying, photogrammetry, computer cartography,
    spatial statistics, and remote sensing; now being used in all forms of
    geographic analysis, and bringing a new and more complete perspective to
    resource management, environmental monitoring, and environmental site
    assessment.
•   GIS was also used to compile structural data on the rubble at Ground Zero
    at the World Trade Center disaster.
•   The technology allowed the building damage to be mapped and provided
    details on the outage of various utilities in the area.




 Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
     •    Example – Land Use on Cape Cod




               – Fig. 2-28




         – GIS work involves
           layers of data




                          – Fig. 2-29




                                                                                17
The Role of the Geographer
• In using remote sensing and its images, the
  geographer works as an interpreter.
• The new technologies provide new tools for the
  geographer, but they do not function as
  substitutes for field study, geographic
  description, and maps.
• No single sensing system works for all problems;
  each has its own use for particular purposes and
  so geographers must be careful in selecting and
  obtaining the best type of imagery for their
  individual needs.




                                                     18

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Ch 2

  • 1. Title Page Photo "A map says to you, 'Read me carefully, follow me closely, doubt me not.' It says, 'I am the Earth in the palm of your hand. Without me, you are alone and lost.'"—Beryl Markham (West With lost.'"— (West the Night, 1946 ) Vocabulary aerial photograph (p. 44) remote sensing (p. 44) conformality (conformal projection) representative fraction (p. 31) (p. 35) rhumb line (p. 36) conic projection (p. 37) small-scale map (p. 31) cylindrical projection (p. 35) sonar (p. 48) elevation contour line (p. 39) verbal scale (p. 31) equal area projection (p. 35) global positioning system (GPS) equivalence (equivalent projection) (p. 41) (p. 35) graphic scale (p. 30) fractional scale (p. 31) isoline (p. 39) geographic information systems large-scale map (p. 31) (GIS) (p. 48) loxodrome (p. 36) orthophoto map (p. 44) map (p. 29) photogrammetry (p. 44) map projection (p. 33) plane projection (p. 37) map scale (p. 30) pseudocylindrical projection Mercator projection (p. 36) (elliptical projection) (p. 38) multispectral scanning system radar (p. 48) (MSS) (p. 46) The Nature of Maps • Map—a two-dimensional representation of the spatial distribution of selected phenomena. • Basic attributes of maps, making them indispensable: • Their ability to show distance, direction, size, and shape in horizontal (two-dimensional) spatial relationships. • They depict graphically what is where and they are often helpful in providing clues as to why such a distribution occurs. 1
  • 2. The Nature of Maps • Basic fault of maps: – No map can be perfectly accurate: – Maps are trying to portray the impossible—taking a curved surface and drawing it on a flat piece of paper. http://www.zanzibarmagic.com/english2nd/maps.01.jpg Map Scale • Map Scale—gives the relationship between length measured on the map and corresponding distance on the ground. Essential for being able to measure distance, determine area, and compare sizes. • Scale can never be perfectly accurate, again because of the curve of Earth’s surface. • The smaller the area being mapped, the more accurate the scale can be. Map Scale • Scale Types – Several ways to portray scale, but only three are widely used: • Graphic Map Scales – Uses a line marked off in graduated distances; remains correct when map is reproduced in another size, because both the graphic scale line and the map size change in same dimension. 2
  • 3. Map Scale • Fractional Map Scales – Uses a ratio or fraction, called a representative fraction, to express the comparison of map distance with ground distance on Earth’s surface. – 1/63,360 is commonly used because the number in denominator equals the number of inches in one mile. – Often, no units are given in a fractional scale, so the dimensions translate whether one is using inches, millimeters, or some other unit of measurement. Map Scale • Verbal Map Scales – Also called word scale; uses words to give the ratio of the map scale length to the distance on Earth’s surface. Map Scale • Large and Small Scale • The concepts of “large” and “small” are comparative, not absolute; it all depends on the frame of reference whether one considers something large or small. – Large-scale map—has a relatively large representative fraction, which means the denominator is “small”—1/10,000 is large-scale as compared to 1/1,000,000. • Portrays only a small portion of Earth’s surface, providing considerable detail. – Small-scale map—has a small representation fraction, which means the denominator is “large.” • Portrays a larger portion of Earth’s surface, but gives only limited detail. 3
  • 4. Map Essentials • Maps should include a few essential components; omitting any of these components will decrease the clarity of the map and make it more difficult to read. • The eight essential components are Title, Date, Legend, Scale, Direction, Location, Data Source, and Projection Type. 1. Title—should provide a brief summary of the map’s content or purpose and identify the area it covers. 2. Date—should indicate the time span in which the map’s data were collected. 3. Legend—should explain any symbols used in the map to represent features and any quantities. 4. Scale—should provide a graphic, verbal, or fractional scale to indicate the relationship between length measured on the map and corresponding distance on the ground. 5. Direction—should show direction either through geographic grid or a north arrow. 6. Location—should have a grid system, either a geographic grid using latitude and longitude, or an alternative system that is expressed like the x and y coordinates of a graph. 7. Data Source—should indicate the data source for thematic maps. 8. Projection type—should indicate the type of projection, particularly for small- scale maps. Map Essentials The Role of Globes • Globes have several advantages: – Can maintain the correct geometric relationships of meridian to parallel, of equator to pole, of continents to oceans. – Can show comparative distances, comparative sizes, and accurate directions. – Can represent, essentially without distortion, the spatial relationships of features on Earth’s surface. 4
  • 5. Map Projections • Map projection—the system used to transform the rounded surface of Earth to a flat display. – The fundamental problem with mapping is how to minimize distortion while transferring data from a spherical surface to a flat piece of paper. Map Projections • The Major Dilemma: Equivalence versus Conformality – Central problem in constructing and choosing a map projection: – Impossible to perfectly portray both size and shape, so must strike a compromise between equivalence and conformality. A map which portrays shape accurately is called a conformal map. Conformal maps are useful in that they help us understand the true shape of the items on the map. However, these maps have many drawbacks. A conformal map tends to get quite distorted, especially towards the top and bottom of the map. This creates problems with scale. The scale may be accurate near the equator, but the further one travels form the equator, the less accurate the scale becomes. Map Projections • Equivalence—the property of a map projection that maintains equal areal relationships in all parts of the map. • Conformality—the property of a map projection that maintains proper angular relationships of surface features. – Can only closely approximate both equivalence and conformality in maps of very small areas (e.g., large-scale maps). – Mapmaking must be an art of compromise. • Robinson projection in Figure 2–11 is one of the most popular methods for compromising between equivalence and conformality. Robinson Projection 5
  • 6. Map Projection • Equivalent projection—portrays equal areal relationships throughout, avoiding misleading impressions of size. • Disadvantages: – Difficult to achieve on small-scale maps, because they must display disfigured shapes: – Greenland and Alaska usually appear squattier than they actually are on equivalent projections. • Even so, most equivalent world maps are small-scale maps. Map Projection • Conformal projection— maintains proper angular relationships in maps so the shape stays accurate (e.g., Mercator projection). • Disadvantages: – Impossible to depict true shapes for large areas like continents. – Biggest problem is that they must distort size (e.g., usually greatly enlarges sizes in the higher latitudes Families of Map Projections • Cylindrical projections are created by mathematically “wrapping”a globe in a cylinder. – The paper touches, or is tangent to, the globe only along the equator. This forms a circle of tangency. – The resulting map is a rectangular surface possessing a grid of lines of latitude and longitude. 6
  • 7. Families of Map Projections • Mercator: The Most Famous Projection • The Mercator projection—a special-purpose projection that was created more than 400 years ago as a tool for straight-line navigation. – Prime advantage: shows loxodromes as straight lights. • Loxodrome—also called rhumb line, is a curve on the surface of a sphere that crosses all meridians at the same angle. They approximate the arcs of a great circle but consist of constant compass headings.  Families of Projections • Cylindrical – Mercator Projection • The most famous projection - Fig. 2-7 – Fig. 2-12 Families of Map Projections • How do navigators use Mercator projection? 1. First, navigators must use another type of projection that shows great circles as straight lines; they draw a straight line between their starting point and destination. 2. They then transfer that straight-line route to a Mercator projection by marking spots on the meridians where the straight-line route crossed them. 3. They then draw straight lines between the meridian points, which are loxodromes or rhumb lines. 4. The navigator can use these loxodromes to chart when periodic changes in compass course are necessary to approximate the shortest distance between two points. 7
  • 8. Families of Map Projections • Why does the Mercator projection distort size? – It is a conformal projection. Although it is accurate in its portrayal of the equator and relatively undistorted in the low latitudes, it must distort size in the middle and high latitudes in order to maintain conformality, that is, approximate the shapes of landmasses. – It shows the meridians as straight, parallel lines instead of having them converge at the poles as they actually do. This causes east–west stretching. To compensate for this stretching and keep shapes intact, the Mercator projection must also stretch north–south, so it increases the spacing between parallels of latitude as one goes further from the equator. Thus landmasses further away from the equator appear larger than they actually are. Families of Map Projections • The Mercator projection has been misused and so creates many misconceptions about the size of landmasses, as it makes those landmasses in the high latitudes appear much larger than they actually are. – For example, Greenland appears much larger than Africa, South America, and Australia, although Greenland is actually smaller than them. – Indeed, Africa is 14 times larger than Greenland. Families of Map Projections • Planar Projections – Planar projections (AKA azimuthal projections or zenithal projections) are created by projecting the markings of a center-lit globe on a flat piece of paper. – There is only a point of tangency that is usually located on one of the poles, and distortion increases as distance increases from this point. • The disadvantage of this projection is that no more than one hemisphere can be displayed. 8
  • 9. • Plane Projections – Azimuthal or Zenithal projections (correct direction from point of tangency) – One-hemisphere view – Fig. 2-13 - Fig. 2-9 Families of Map Projections • Conic Projections – A conic projection is created by projecting the markings of a center-lit globe onto a cone wrapped tangent to, or intersecting, a portion of the globe. – The apex of the cone is usually positioned above a pole, resulting in the circle of tangency coinciding with a parallel. – Distortion increases with distance from this circle. As such, conic projections are best used with landmasses possessing great east–west orientations. • Because of the distortion associated with them, they are better suited for mapping smaller regions (i.e., a single country). • Conic Projections – Small-area maps – Fig. 2-8 9
  • 10. Families of Map Projections • Pseudocylindrical Projections – Pseudocylindrical projections (AKA elliptical projections of oval projections) are generally designed to show the entire globe. – These projections usually employ a central parallel and a central meridian that cross at right angles in the middle of the map. – Distortion usually increases in all directions away from the point where these lines cross. Families of Map Projections • Interrupted Projections – The interruption of a projection is a technique used to minimize distortion. – Ocean regions are usually split apart or “interrupted” so that the distortion over landmasses is minimized. – The result is a map with very little distortion over land and great “gaps” over the oceans. Computer Cartography • Computer technology has provided several great benefits to cartography: • Improved speed and data-handling ability; • Reduced time involved in map production; • Ability for cartographer to examine alternative map layouts. 10
  • 11. Isolines • Isoline—commonly used cartographic device for portraying the spatial distribution of some phenomenon. Also called isarithm, isogram, isopleth, and isometric line. • Refers to any line that joins points of equal value. • Isolines help to reveal spatial relationships that otherwise might go undetected. • They can significantly clarify patterns that are too large, too abstract, or too detailed for ordinary comprehension. Isolines • Most relevant types of isolines to this course: 1. Elevation contour line— joins points of equal elevation; 2. Isotherm—joins points of equal temperature; 3. Isobar—joins points of equal atmospheric pressure; 4. Isohyet—joins points of equal quantities of precipitation; 5. Isogonic line—joins points of equal magnetic declination. Isolines • Basic characteristics of isolines: – They are always closed lines, having no ends; – They represent gradations in quantities, so only touch or cross one another in very rare and unusual circumstances; – Interval—the numerical difference between one isoline and the next; • Size of interval is up to the cartographer’s discretion, but it is best to maintain a constant interval thorough a map; – Their proximity depends on the gradient (that is, the change in the interval). • The closer they lie together, the steeper the gradient; the further apart they lie, the more gentle the gradient. 11
  • 12. • Basic characteristics – Closed lines – Lines never touch – Contour interval Source: U.S.G.S. Marble Colorado Topographic Quadrangle Map – Spacing (shows steepness of the land) Source: U.S.G.S. Marble Colorado Topographic Quadrangle Map The Global Positioning System • Global Positioning System (GPS)—a satellite-based system for determining accurate positions on or near Earth’s surface. High-altitude satellites (24) continuously transmit both identification and position information that can be picked up by receivers on Earth. Clocks stored in both units help in calculating the distance between the receiver and each member of a group of four (or more) satellites, so one can then determine the three- dimensional coordinates of the receiver’s position. – Military units allow a position calculation within about 30 feet (10 meters). – Also used in earthquake prediction, ocean floor mapping, volcano monitoring, and mapping projects. – Because of accuracy of GPS units, latitude and longitude are increasingly being reported in decimal form. 12
  • 13.  The Global Positioning System (GPS) • Satellite-based • Accuracy – Commercial/private users – Military Global positioning satellites - Fig 2-18 Remote Sensing • Remote sensing—study of an object or surface from a distance by using various instruments. – Sophisticated technology now provides remarkable set of tools to study Earth, through precision recording instruments operating from high-altitude vantage points. – Different kinds of remote sensing: • Aerial photographs, color and color infrared sensing, thermal infrared sensing, microwave sensing, radar, sonar, multispectral, and SPOT imagery. Remote Sensing • Aerial Photographs • First form of remote sensing. • Aerial photograph—photograph taken from an elevated “platform” such as a balloon, airplane, rocket, or satellite. – Either oblique or vertical: • Oblique—camera angle is less than 90°, showing features from a relatively familiar point of view. • Vertical—camera angle is approximately perpendicular to Earth surface (allows for easier measurement than oblique photographs). • Photogrammetry—science of obtaining reliable measurements http://kaznowski.blox.pl/resource/strangemaps.JPG from photographs and, by extension, the science of mapping from aerial photographs. 13
  • 14. Remote Sensing • Orthophoto Maps – Orthophoto maps—multi- colored, distortion-free photographic maps produced from computerized rectification of aerial imagery. – Show the landscape in much greater detail than a conventional map, but are like a map in that they provide a common scale that allows precise measurement of distances. • Particularly useful in flat- lying coastal areas because they can show subtle topographic detail. Remote Sensing • Color and Color Infrared Sensing – Color—refers to the visible-light region of the electromagnetic spectrum. – Color infrared (color IR)—refers to the infrared region of the spectrum. • Color IR film is more versatile; uses include evaluating health of crops and trees. • Color IR film cannot detect much of the usable portion of the near infrared. • Scanner systems have come to aid, by being able to sense much further into infrared. • Landsat—a series of satellites that orbit Earth and can digitally image all parts of the planet except the polar regions every nine days. – Color infrared film Color infrared image of Mississippi River – Fig. 2-23 14
  • 15. • Multispectral Remote Sensing – Landsat (Mosaic) – Fig. 2-25 Remote Sensing • Thermal Infrared Sensing – Thermal Infrared Sensing (thermal IR)—middle or far infrared part of electromagnetic spectrum; can’t be sensed with film. – Thermal scanning is used for showing diurnal temperature differences between land and water and between bedrock and alluvium, for studying thermal water pollution, for detecting forest fires, and, its greatest use, for weather forecasting. Remote Sensing • Microwave Sensing – Microwave radiometry—senses radiation in the 100- micrometer to 1- meter range. – Useful for showing subsurface characteristics such as moisture. 15
  • 16. Remote Sensing • Multispectral Remote Sensing • These systems image more than one region of the electromagnetic spectrum simultaneously from the same location. • Landsat • The early Landsat was the multispectral scanning system (MSS)—a system that images Earth’s surface in several spectrum regions. • Landsat Sensory Systems use an MSS; can gather more than 30 million pieces of data for one image 183-by-170 kilometers (115-by-106 miles). • Thematic mapper—uses seven bands to improve resolution and greater imaging flexibility. • Images in eight spectral bands with a resolution of 15 meters became available with the launching of Landsat 7 in 1977. • In 1999, Landsat 7 was launched, carrying an enhanced thematic mapper plus (ETM+) • It uses eight spectral bandwidths with a resolution of 15 meters in the panchronic band, 30 meters in the visible and infrared network, and 60 meters in the thermal infrared. Remote Sensing • Earth Observing System Satellites – NASA’s Earth Observing System (EOS) satellite Terra was launched in 1999. 1. The satellite contains a moderate resolution imagery spectroradiometer (MODIS) that gathers 36 spectral bands. 2. The latest device is a multiangle image spectroradiometer (MIS) that is capable of distinguishing various types of atmospheric particulates, land surfaces, and cloud forms. 3. The most recent EOS satellite Aqua monitors water vapor, precipitation, clouds, glaciers, and soil wetness. 4. Aqua also includes the atmospheric Infrared Sounder (AIRS), which permits accurate atmospheric temperature measurements. Remote Sensing • Radar and Sonar Sensing – Radar—(radio detection and ranging) senses wavelengths longer than 1 millimeter and now provides images in photo-like form. • Radar is unique in its ability to penetrate atmospheric moisture, so it can analyze wet tropical areas that can’t be sensed by other systems. • Radar is particularly useful for terrain analysis. • Sonar—(sound navigation ranging) permits underwater imaging. 16
  • 17. Geographic Information Systems • Geographic information systems (GIS)—automated systems for the capture, storage, retrieval, analysis, and display of spatial data. • Uses both computer hardware and software to analyze geographic location and handle spatial data. • Virtually, libraries of information that use maps instead of alphabet to organize and store data. • Allows data management by linking tabular data and map. • Mainly used in overlay analysis, where two or more layers of data are superimposed or integrated. • First uses were in surveying, photogrammetry, computer cartography, spatial statistics, and remote sensing; now being used in all forms of geographic analysis, and bringing a new and more complete perspective to resource management, environmental monitoring, and environmental site assessment. • GIS was also used to compile structural data on the rubble at Ground Zero at the World Trade Center disaster. • The technology allowed the building damage to be mapped and provided details on the outage of various utilities in the area.  Geographic Information Systems (GIS) • Example – Land Use on Cape Cod – Fig. 2-28 – GIS work involves layers of data – Fig. 2-29 17
  • 18. The Role of the Geographer • In using remote sensing and its images, the geographer works as an interpreter. • The new technologies provide new tools for the geographer, but they do not function as substitutes for field study, geographic description, and maps. • No single sensing system works for all problems; each has its own use for particular purposes and so geographers must be careful in selecting and obtaining the best type of imagery for their individual needs. 18