1.
Introduction to the Lambda Calculus
Alonzo Church
1932, “A set of postulates for the foundation of logic”, a formal system
with the aim of providing a foundation for logic which would be more
natural than Russell’s type theory or Zermelo’s set theory, and would
not contain free variables
1936 Church isolated and published just the portion relevant to
computation, what is now called the untyped lambda calculus
1940, he also introduced a computationally weaker, but logically
consistent system, known as the simply typed lambda calculus
Re-discovered as a versatile tool in Computer Science by people like
McCarthy, et al. in the 1960s

2.
Operational Semantics -- Syntax
t ::=
x /* variable */
λx.t /* abstraction */
t t /* application */
v ::=
λx.t /* abstraction value */

3.
Operational Semantics -- Evaluation
t1 t1'
/* congruence rule 1 */
t1 t2 t1' t2
t2 t2'
/* congruence rule 2 */
v1 t2 v1 t2'
(λx.t) v [x ↦ v]t /* computation rule */

4.
That’s it!
No data structures
No control flow statements
No strings, numbers, or even booleans
Any questions?

5.
Any questions?
Like, how do you do anything?

6.
Church encoding
representing data and operators in the lambda calculus

7.
Let’s start with the booleans
true = λt. λf. t
false = λt. λf. f
not = λa. a false true

8.
Applying not
(λa. a false true) true
(λa. a false true) (λt. λf. t)
(λt. λf. t) false true
false
(λx.t) v [x ↦ v]t
(from operational semantic rules)

9.
β-reduction
applying functions to their arguments
Normal order reduction – most well-known languages work
from the leftmost, outermost, redex and work in, halting when
the outermost argument can no longer be applied
Redex – reducible expression
Full β-reduction – reduce available redexes in any desired order

10.
Full β-reduction
λs.λz. (λs'.λz'. (λb. b) s' ((λt.λb. b) s' z')) s ((λs'.λz'.
(λs''.λz''. (λb. b) s'' ((λt.λb. b) s'' z''))
s' ((λt.λb. b) s' z'))
s z)

11.
Full β-reduction
λs.λz. (λs'.λz'. s' z') s ((λs'.λz'. (λs''.λz''. s'' z'') s' z') s z)

12.
Full β-reduction
λs.λz. s ((λs'.λz'. (λs''.λz''. s'' z'') s' z') s z)

13.
Full β-reduction
λs.λz. s ((λs'.λz'. s' z') s z)

14.
Full β-reduction
λs.λz. s (s z)

15.
Back to the booleans
and = λa. λb. a b fls
or = λa. λb. a tru b
nand = λa. λb. not (and a b)
xor = λa. λb. and (nand a b) (or a b)
cond = λp. λt. λf. p t f /* i.e. if else */

16.
and
(λa. λb. a b fls) tru fls
(λt. λf. t) (λt. λf. f) (λt. λf. f)
λt. λf. f
(λa. λb. a b fls) tru tru
(λt. λf. t) (λt. λf. t) (λt. λf. f)
λt. λf. t

17.
Hooray!
xnor = λa. λb. not (xor a b)

18.
Now we have assertions!
xnor = λa. λb. not (xor a b)
xnor tru (cond fls fls tru)
xnor fls (cond fls tru fls)

19.
Tuples
pair = λf. λs. λb. b f s
fst = λp. p tru
snd = λp. p fls

20.
Numbers
c0 = λs. λz. z
c1 = λs. λz. s z
c2 = λs. λz. s (s z)
c3 = λs. λz. s (s (s z))
…
Just like Peano arithmetic

21.
Operations on numbers
iszro = λm. m (λx. fls) tru
plus = λm. λn. λs. λz. m s (n s z)
mult = λm. λn. m (plus n) c0
exp = λm. λn. n (mult m) c1
scc = λn. λs. λz. s (n s z) /* number successor */
/* number predecessor */
prd = λm. fst (m (λp. pair (snd p) (plus c1 (snd p))) (pair c0 c0))
eql = λm. λn. and (iszro (m prd n)) (iszro (n prd m))

22.
Automating assertions
/* it is true that ... */
xnor tru (eql c1 (exp c1 c1))
xnor tru (eql c6 (plus c2 c4))
xnor tru (eql c1 (fst (pair c1 tru)))

23.
Lists
Lists follow from tuples and numbers
(more on that another time)

24.
Recursion
fix (a.k.a the Y-combinator)
= λf. (λx. f (λy. x x y)) (λx. f (λy. x x y))
takes recursive abstraction
λf. λx. __f__
Haskell Curry

25.
Recursion
(λf. (λx. f (λy. x x y)) (λx. f (λy. x x y))) (λf. λx. __) (bar)
(λx. (λf. λx'. __) (λy. x x y)) (λx. (λf. λx'. __) (λy. x x y)) (bar)
(foo)
(λf. λx'. __) (λy. foo foo y) (bar)
λx'. __ (bar)

26.
Recursion
fact = λf. λx. cond (iszro x) c1 (mult x (f (prd x)))
(λf. (λx. f (λy. x x y)) (λx. f (λy. x x y))) fact c3
/* successive interations */
(λy. (λx. f (λy'.x x y')) (λx. f (λy'.x x y')) y) (/* prev recurs*/)