Online education, emotional intelligence, an

ONLINE EDUCATION, EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE,
AND INTERPERSONAL SKILLS FOR THE
21ST CENTURY WORKFORCE
by
NATASHA STOCKTON LINDSEY
MARGARET L. RICE, DISSERTATION CHAIR
ANGELA D. BENSON
VIVIAN H. WRIGHT
BOB L. JOHNSON, JR.
J. DOUG BARRETT

A DISSERTATION
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the
Department of Educational Leadership,
Policy, and Technology Studies
in the Graduate School of
The University of Alabama
TUSCALOOSA, ALABAMA
2014
All rights reserved
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ii
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this descriptive, cross-sectional, quantitative
study was to compare the
interpersonal abilities of online students to traditional student s
by evaluating their Emotional
Intelligence (EI) through the Situational Test of Emotional
Management (STEM). The study also
sought to determine if there is a relationship between various
demographic data and number of
online courses completed and EI abilities of online students.
The data collection occurred by utilizing a situational judgment
test known as the
Situational Test for Emotional Management (STEM) with
additional questions add for the
collection of demographic data. The sample for this study
included 865 students comprised of

765 undergraduate business majors and 91 undergraduate
business minors.
While the study found no significant difference existed in the EI
scores of students in the
online and traditional environment, one of the most interesting
findings to emerge from the data
was the significant difference of EI scores surrounding the
number of online courses completed.
Students who completed at least one online course scored
significantly higher on the STEM
survey than their counterparts who had not completed any
online courses. This finding implies
that students might benefit from the time, training, experience,
and practice of interpersonal
skills in an online environment. Furthermore, the results
demonstrated a significant difference in
the emotional intelligence of students on the basis of gender.
Females notably outscored males
on the STEM survey.
iii

DEDICATION
This dissertation is dedicated to my children, Ryan and Kyler.
There are times in my life
when I think I cannot possibly love your more, and then I do.
You will always be my greatest
accomplishment. As your mother, it is my job to teach you
about life; however, it is you who
have taught me what life is all about. Remember to dream big,
love deeply, laugh often, be slow
to anger, quick to forgive, and always have faith. Finally, be
determined in every way, even
when you don’t feel like it.
“Trust in the Lord with all your heart; and lean not on your own
understanding. In all
your ways acknowledge Him and He will make your path
straight.” Proverbs 3:5-6

iv
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
“A good dissertation is a done dissertation.” -Ancient Grad
Student Proverb
Now that I officially have a “good and done” dissertation, I
must offer my utmost
gratitude to those individuals who offered wisdom, support,
guidance and encouragement in
reaching my goal. The following individuals have offered
unwavering support throughout this
process for which I will be eternally grateful.
To my dissertation chair, Dr. Rice, thank you for the hours you
spent answering
questions, reading drafts, and providing feedback. Your kind
heart and encouraging spirit has
always been a bright spot for this weary grad student, wife,
mom of two, daughter, and teacher.
To my other committee members, Dr. Barrett, Dr. Benson, Dr.
Johnson and Dr. Wright, I am so
grateful for the time, interests, and wisdom that you have all so
graciously offered throughout

this endeavor.
To my friends and colleagues, thank you for constantly
encouraging me and believing in
my ability to pursue this degree. For those who forged on
before me, thanks for lending your ear
and offering insights along the way. To Dr. Carolyn Lovett
thanks for that awe-inspiring
moment of clarity that restarted my momentum.
To my wonderful family, you are my “glue,” the ones who held
me together to the end.
Mom & Dad, thanks for everything. Your faith in my abilities,
and your ever-present willingness
to step-in and help out with the boys made this goal possible.
To my boys, you bring joy and
happiness to my life. Thanks for understanding when school
came before fun. I hope I have set
v
an example for which you may follow. To my husband, Matt,
words cannot express the love and
gratitude I have for you. While I consider myself to be a strong

person, I need someone to take
my hand and say everything will be alright. I am so blessed to
have you. Now, let us find a new
journey, a new adventure, and a new experience together.

vi
CONTENTS
ABSTRACT
...............................................................................................
..................................... ii
DEDICATION
...............................................................................................
................................ iii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
...............................................................................................
.............. iv
LIST OF TABLES

...............................................................................................
............................x
LIST OF FIGURES
...............................................................................................
........................ xi
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION
...............................................................................................
......1
Introduction
...............................................................................................
...........................1
Statement of the Problem
...............................................................................................
......3
Purpose of the Study
...............................................................................................
.............5
Significance of the Study
...............................................................................................
......5
Research Questions
...............................................................................................
...............6
Theoretical Framework
...............................................................................................
.........7
Assumptions of the Study

...............................................................................................
...10
Limitations of the
Study......................................................................................
...............10
Operational Definition of Terms
........................................................................................11
CHAPTER II: REVIEW OF LITERATURE
................................................................................13
Introduction
...............................................................................................
.........................13
Marketplace
Needs......................................................................................
.......................14
Interpersonal Skills
...............................................................................................
.............15
Emotional Intelligence
...............................................................................................
........16
vii
Trait vs. Ability Emotional Intelligence

................................................................17
Models of Emotional Intelligence
..........................................................................17
Salovey, Mayer, and Caruso’s Model of Emotional Intelligence
..............18
Bar-on’s Model of Emotional Intelligence
................................................23
Goldman’s Model of Emotional Intelligence and Social
Competence
Intelligence
...............................................................................................
..25
Emotional Intelligence and
Age.............................................................................26
Emotional Intelligence and Gender
.......................................................................27
Emotional Intelligence and Teamwork
..................................................................28
Situational Judgment Test
...............................................................................................
...29
Online Learning
...............................................................................................
..................32

Merging Marketplace Needs, Interpersonal Skills, and Online
Learning .........................36
Summary
...............................................................................................
.............................37
CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY
...............................................................................................
39
Introduction
...............................................................................................
.........................39
Research
Design....................................................................................
.............................39
Participant Population
...............................................................................................
.........39
Sampling
...............................................................................................
.............................40
Instrumentation
...............................................................................................
...................42
Data Collection
...............................................................................................
...................43
Data Analysis

...............................................................................................
......................44
CHAPTER IV: RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
..............................................................................46
Introduction
...............................................................................................
.........................46
Descriptive Statistics
...............................................................................................
...........47
viii
Quantitative Results
...............................................................................................
............50
Reliability and Validity
..........................................................................................50
Research Question 1
..............................................................................................
51
Research Question 2
............................................................................................. .
52
Research Question 3

..............................................................................................
54
Research Question 4
..............................................................................................
55
Research Question 5
..............................................................................................
57
Research Question 6
..............................................................................................
58
Research Question 7
..............................................................................................
60
CHAPTER V: DISCUSSION
...............................................................................................
.........63
Introduction
...............................................................................................
.........................63
Discussion of Findings
...............................................................................................
........63
Descriptive Statistics
..............................................................................................
63
Research Question 1

..............................................................................................
64
Research Question 2
..............................................................................................
65
Research Question 3
..............................................................................................
67
Research Question 4
..............................................................................................
68
Research Question 5
..............................................................................................
69
Research Question 6
..............................................................................................
70
Research Question 7
..............................................................................................
72
Conclusions
...............................................................................................
.........................73
Implications of the Study
...............................................................................................
....74
Recommendations for Further Study

.................................................................................79
ix
REFERENCES
...............................................................................................
...............................82
APPENDICIES
...............................................................................................
...............................91
x
LIST OF TABLES
1. Survey Respondents by Classification
.....................................................................................48
2. Number of Courses Completed Online
....................................................................................49
3. Respondents by Department

...............................................................................................
.....49
4. Respondents by Major
...............................................................................................
..............51
5. Group Statistics for EI Scores by Type of Student
..................................................................52
6. t-test for Equality of Means based on EI Scores by Type of
Student ......................................54
7. Group Statistics for the Number of Online Classes Completed
..............................................53
8. ANOVA Table by Number of Online Classes Completed
........................................................54
9. Group Statistics by Age of Student
..........................................................................................54
10. t-test for Equality of Means based on EI Scores by Student
Age ...........................................55
11. Group Statistics by Student Gender
.........................................................................................56
12. t-test For Equality of Means based on EI Scores by Student
Gender ......................................56
13. Group Statistics by Student Classification
...............................................................................57
14. ANOVA Table for the EI Scores of Students by
Classification ...............................................58

15. Group Statistics based on Teamwork
......................................................................................59
16. ANOVA Table for the EI Scores of Students based on
Teamwork ..........................................60
17. Group Statistics by Department
...............................................................................................
61
18. ANOVA Table for the EI Scores of Students by Department
...................................................62
xi
LIST OF FIGURES
1. The Ability Model of Emotional Intelligence
............................................................................8
2. The Hierarchical Model of Emotional Intelligence
.................................................................19

1
CHAPTER I:
INTRODUCTION
Introduction
As the trend of online education expands, professors have
questioned whether an online
education provides students with the proper development of
interpersonal relationships and
social skills (Allen & Seaman, 2011). At a time when education

is vital to economic success,
there is growing evidence of a skills gap which suggests that
young adults lack interpersonal
skills needed for success in today’s marketplace (Glenn, 2003;
Harvard, 2011; James & James,
2004; Perreault, 2004; Sharma, 2009; Wilhelm, 2004). With
such a tremendous use of online
resources for communicating in not only social settings, but
also in the educational realm, one
might question whether interpersonal skills gaps are more likely
to occur with online college
students rather than those participating in the traditional college
experience. Students completing
courses online are not studying in a traditional classroom and
might miss face-to-face (FtF) time
with other students. This experience might deprive students of
networking opportunities as well
as basic social interactions.
Research has shown that employers want new hires to possess
strong interpersonal skills
(Glenn, 2003; Harvard, 2011; James & James, 2004; Mitchell,
Skinner & White, 2010; Perreault,
2004; Sharma, 2009; Wilhelm, 2004). “Interpersonal skills are
tied to social conscientiousness

and interpersonal relationships and measure the extent to which
users know how to recognize the
emotions and feelings of others, and their ability to establish
and maintain cooperative and
satisfying relationships” (Casale, Tella & Fioravanti, 2013, p.
525). Emotion is defined as, “a
2
conscious mental reaction (as anger or fear) subjectively
experienced as strong feeling usually
directed toward a specific object and typically accompanied by
physiological and behavioral
changes in the body” (Merriam-Webster, 2012, ¶1). It has
previously been identified as a critical
component of social interaction within the field of
communication (Andersen & Guerrero, 1998;
Burleson & Planalp, 2000; Planalp & Fitness, 1999). Within the
academic settings, emotions
help shape student engagement and learning (Linnenbrink-
Garcia & Pekrun, 2011). By
understanding and managing emotions, individuals are able to
regulate personal intellectual

growth and social relational growth (Mayer & Salovey, 1997).
Emotional intelligence (EI) is a salient theme in a diverse array
of circles including the
scientific, education, and business realms that addresses
elements of interpersonal skills. The
term is defined by Mayer and Salovey (1990) as “the subset of
social intelligence that involves
the ability to monitor one's own and others' feelings and
emotions, to discriminate among them
and to use this information to guide one's thinking and actions”
(p. 185). Later, the definition
was revised as follows:
Emotional intelligence involves the ability to perceive
accurately, appraise and express
emotion; the ability to access and/or generate feelings when
they facilitate thought; the
ability to understand emotion and emotional knowledge, and the
ability to regulate
emotions to promote emotional and intellectual growth. (Mayer
& Salovey, 1997, p. 10)
Daniel Goldman furthered momentum related to this concept
upon publishing a best

seller, Emotional Intelligence, in which he argued that EI was
sometimes more significant than
Intelligence Quotients (IQ) and strongly linked to job
performance (Goleman, 1995). Media
outlets such as Time and USA Today Weekend Magazine
bestowed EI stories with publications
and pronounced it to be a strong predictor of school, work
performance and life success. EI is
the ability to acquire and apply knowledge related to one’s
emotions and the emotions of others
utilizing interpersonal skills and social interactions (Sen, 2008).
3
Statement of the Problem
Academic leaders at institutions with online offerings currently
hold a more favorable
opinion of the learning outcomes of online education than
academic leaders at institutions that do
not currently provide online educational opportunities (Allen &
Seaman, 2011). Furthermore,
over two-thirds of post-secondary professors rate the online
educational environment to be either

the same or superior to the traditional face-to-face setting.
While many of the academic leaders
perceive online education to be at least as good as face-to-face
instruction, one dimension falls
short of this attitude. Interpersonal skills are perceived to be
inferior in the online atmosphere
when compared with the FtF environment (Allen & Seaman,
2011). With the understanding that
colleges must better prepare tomorrow’s workforce, it is
essential to explore whether or not
online education diminishes students’ interpersonal skills.
However, there is no measure to
assess these skills within the online environment (Loader,
2007).
Interpersonal skills research rarely occurs despite its
significance to the individual’s life
as it is difficult to distinguish interpersonal skills from other
cognitive, psychomotor, or affective
components like personalities (Doo, 2006). Additionally, some
individuals are likely to presume
that interpersonal skills will not increase through educational
opportunities. Personality and
interpersonal or social skills are related, yet, personality is not
easily changed while interpersonal

skills can be developed and improved upon through training
(Ferris, Whitt, & Hochwarter, 2001;
Geher, 2004). Interpersonal skills are one of the factors present
in the analyses of the social
aspect of learning, and are closely related to communication
skills. They are integral to
interpersonal interaction and precede the emergence of social
presence. In 1999, Gardner
explained that “interpersonal intelligence denotes a person’s
capacity to understand the
intentions, motivations, and desires of other people and,
consequently, to work effectively with
4
others” (p. 43). Improving interpersonal skills/intelligence helps
enrich individuals relationships,
cope better at work and in social situations, and especially when
dealing with difficult or
challenging individuals. Some faculty question whether an
online education provides students
with the proper development of interpersonal relationships and
social skills (Allen & Seaman,

2011). Individuals who have a self-perception of social
incompetence demonstrate a preference
for online social interaction (POSI) (Casale, Tella & Fioravanti,
2012). POSI is defined as, “a
cognitive individual difference construct characterized by
beliefs that one is safer, more
efficacious, more confident, and more comfortable within online
interpersonal interactions and
relationships then with traditional FtF social activities”
(Caplan, 2003, p. 629). One research
study’s results illustrated, “Self-reported emotional intelligence
(both Intrapersonal and
Interpersonal component) is negatively associated with the
preference for online social
interaction” (Casale, Tella, & Fioravanti, 2013). Turkle (2011)
described today’s connective
technologies as a means to promote always being elsewhere
emotionally and socially. Online
interpersonal interactions offer the perception of decreased
social threats and increase the
tendency to escape from FtF interactions (Amichai-Hamburger
& Furnham, 2007).
Graduates must display foresight in navigating a rapidly
shifting economic landscape.

They will need to reassess the skills they need and quickly put
together the right resources to
develop and update skill sets (Glenn, 2003; Harvard, 2011;
James & James, 2004; League for
Innovation in the Community College, 1995; Mitchell, Skinner
& White, 2010; Perreault, 2004;
Sharma, 2009; Wilhelm, 2004). The career-minded graduate is
one who can adapt, manage
stress, incorporate teamwork, and help others. Yet, a 2010
University of Michigan study
collecting data from fourteen thousand college students over the
past thirty years, from 1979
through 2009, has shown that over the past nine years, young
people have demonstrated a
5
dramatic decline in interest in other people (University of
Michigan, 2010). Additionally, the
report suggested that college students do not understand the
value of viewing a situation from
another person’s perspective.

Individuals with good interpersonal skills are more likely to
improve their ability to
determine appropriate self-behavior, cope with undesirable
behavior, absorb stress, deal with
ambiguity, structure social interaction, share responsibility, and
interact more easily with others
(Bar-On, 2005). An individual’s ability to be a team player, to
collaborate with individuals from
different cultures and backgrounds, to interact with diverse
personalities, and to work on projects
with strict deadlines is required in the marketplace. EI has been
found to gauge the skills
necessary to safeguard interpersonal relationships as they are
related to social adaptation within
the environment (Bar-On, 2005). Furthermore, EI predicts
positive relations with others and is
negatively associated with interpersonal problems (Ghiabi & Ali
Besharat, 2011).
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to compare the interpersonal
abilities of online students to
traditional students by evaluating their EI through the
Situational Test of Emotional Management
(STEM). The study sought to determine if there is a relationship

between the number of online
courses completed and EI abilities of students. Additionally,
the study examined demographic
data such as age, gender and classification for any relationships
associated with EI abilities of
students. Finally, the study evaluated whether a relationship
exists between teamwork
components of courses and students’ EI abilities.
Significance of the Study
Interpersonal skills research rarely occurs; as such, this study
was unique in that it
examined whether or not there is a relationship between online
education and interpersonal skills
6
of students. Pedagogical practices associated with interpersonal
skills and online education could
be improved upon to help individuals cultivate relationships,
and cope better at work and in
social situations based on the results of this study. Additionally,
this research endeavor has the

potential to add to scholarly literature as it is the first in a new
line of studies.
Research Questions
There are several research questions addressed within this
study:
1) Is there a significant difference in the emotional intelligence
of online students
and traditional students;
of students based on
the number of online courses completed;
of students on the
basis of age;
of students on the
basis of gender’
5) Is there a significant difference between EI abilities of
students based on student
classifications;
6) Is there a significant difference in the EI abilities of students
who participate in

course teamwork activities and those who do not; and
7) Is there a significant difference in the EI abilities of students
among the four
departments within the college of business?
7
Theoretical Framework
The concept of EI began with the works of Thorndike (1920) in
the form of “social
intelligence” and the ability to get along with others. Wechsler
(1935) furthered suggested that
affective components of intelligence were likely to life success.
Maslow (1959) described the
ability of people to build emotional strength. In 1975, Gardner
introduced the concept of
multiple intelligences and Wayne Payne introduced the actual
term EI in his doctoral dissertation

in 1985. One of the most significant moments in EI occurred
in 1990 with the work of Mayer
and Salovey. However, it was the work of Daniel Goldman in
1995 that …
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ABSTRACT
BROOKS, JONI KING. Emotional competencies of leaders: A
comparison of
managers in a financial organization by performance level.
(Under the direction of James
Burrow)
As companies increasingly are required to do more with less,
seemingly “soft”
skills, based on emotions, are associated with leadership
effectiveness and organizational
success. Research suggests that emotional “competencies,” such
as those related to
empathy, adaptability, self-control, emotional self-awareness,
ability to develop others, and

so forth, contribute significantly to leader effectiveness.
The purpose of this study is to determine if differences in EI
levels exist among high
performers in one organization. Specifically, the study assesses
whether managers in this
financial organization who are deemed most effective according
to their performance
ratings exhibit higher emotional intelligence competencies than
managers with lower
performance ratings. The researcher also compared EI levels
and various demographic
characteristics of the sample.
The data were gathered from a sample of 57 from the study
population—79 members
of the management team of a large regional financial
organization selected to participate in
an internal study on emotional intelligence. The participating
managers completed self-
report versions of the Emotional Competence Inventory 2.0
(ECI 2.0) (Hay/McBer, 2002).
They, in turn, asked others with whom they work closely to
complete 360-degree versions
of the instrument, providing feedback on the participants.

Participants also completed an
instrument that gathered demographic data, including title,
position, area, management
tenure, gender, educational level, and type of degree, and their
most recent performance
ratings (three, four, or five on a five-point scale).
The researcher analyzed the ECI scores provided by the Hay
Group, performance
ratings, and demographic data via a statistical analysis
computing system, SAS 8. She
employed the general linear model (GLM) version of analysi s of
variance (ANOVA), T-
test, and union-intersection test methods.
Findings indicated that high ratings and high emotional
intelligence were not
significantly related at a 95 percent confidence level. They
were significantly related on
three competencies—Achievement, Adaptability, and
Optimism—at a 90 percent
confidence level. The EI average scores of the sample differed
significantly from the
average scores of other groups in the ECI North American

Database on three competencies:
Achievement, Accurate Self-assessment, and Emotional Self-
control. Statistically
significant differences between Sales and Support functions
were evident in three
competencies: Empathy, Emotional Self-awareness, and
Transparency. For all three,
Support EI levels were greater than Sales EI levels. Position,
title, gender, and management
tenure did not significantly impact the emotional intelligence of
the sample.
While educational level did not significantly impact the
emotional intelligence of
the sample, statistically significant differences existed between
those with a Bachelor of
Science degree and those with a Bachelor of Arts degree on four
competencies: Conflict
Management, Emotional Self-awareness, Initiative, and
Organizational Awareness. EI
levels of those with BS degrees were greater than EI levels of
those with BA degrees in
Conflict Management, Initiative, and Organizational Awareness
while EI levels of those
with BA degrees were greater than EI levels of those with BS

degrees on one competency:
Emotional Self-awareness.
Results of the self versus total others ratings indicated that
statistically significant
differences exist in four competencies: Emotional Self-control,
Influence, Inspirational
Leadership, and Self-confidence. For each of the four
competencies, EI levels of total
others were greater than self-reported EI levels.
Emotional Competencies of Leaders:
A Comparison of Managers in a Financial
Organization by
Performance Level
By
Joni King Brooks

A dissertation submitted to the Graduate Faculty of North
Carolina State University in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Education
Adult and Community College Education
Raleigh
2002
Approved by:
____________________________
_____________________________
Dr. James L. Burrow Dr. Paula Berardinelli
Chair of Advisory Committee
____________________________
_____________________________
Dr. John Pettitt Dr. Michael Vasu
UMI Number: 3073312

_____________________________________________________
___
UMI Microform 3073312
Copyright 2003 by ProQuest Information and Learning
Company.
All rights reserved. This microform edition is protected against
unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code.
_____________________________________________________
_______
ProQuest Information and Learning Company
300 North Zeeb Road
PO Box 1346
Ann Arbor, MI 48106-1346

ii
Biography
Joni King Brooks earned a bachelor’s degree in journalism, with
a double major in
speech communications, at the University of North Carolina at
Chapel Hill (1981). She holds a
master’s degree in public administration from North Carolina
State University (1992). Her
research interests include leadership and workplace
performance.
Ms. Brooks works as a manager of public relations and
marketing communications with
a telecommunications solutions provider. She has 20 years of
experience in communications,
marketing, and public relations. Her career, which began in the
news media, has encompassed
roles in a number of organizations, including those focused in
non-profit, health-care, education,
research, banking, and high tech.
Ms. Brooks is the daughter of Carolyn Riggs King and the late
William E. (Eddie)

King. She resides in Raleigh, N.C., with her husband, Ricky,
and son, Austin.
iii
Acknowledgements
Along the long and curving road that I have traveled to
complete this degree, I have
been very fortunate to have the support of numerous family
members, friends, and
acquaintances. I sincerely appreciate all who have encouraged
and assisted me.
In particular, I am indebted to the members of my advisory
committee. Each has
offered support and guidance, helping me attain this ultimate
academic goal. Dr. Michael Vasu
has been a part of my entire post-graduate academic life. He
taught my very first graduate class
and served as my advisor during my master’s program. I
sincerely appreciate his guidance and
support. Dr. Paula Berardinelli kindly stepped in to fill the
void left by a committee member

who retired before I completed the degree. She has offered
much encouragement when I was
discouraged and assistance, even trying to help me find a
company to participate in my study
after one backed out far into the process. Dr. John Pettitt has
served as a helpful advisor both as
an instructor and committee member.
Dr. James Burrow, the chair the advisory committee, has
provided constant guidance
and aid. Dr. Burrow steered me through the doctoral
requirements, helping me succeed along
the way. He gave willingly of his time and expertise, and his
efforts are most appreciated.
My friends and family have provided support to enable me to
achieve this goal. First, I
want to thank my parents, Carolyn Riggs King and the late
William E. (Eddie) King, who
provided me with the foundation to achieve and instilled in me
the value of education and
success. My parents taught me perseverance and to roll with the
punches, reminding me that life
is not always fair. My mother is a source of continuous
encouragement, support, and love. I

know my late father and late brother, Edwin, would be proud of
this accomplishment.
I sincerely appreciate all who helped me identify a company to
participate—which
proved to be an arduous task. I am very grateful to those in the
participating organization who
contributed greatly to the completion of the research study.
iv
Finally, to my husband, Ricky, and son, Austin, thank you for
loving, supporting, and
inspiring me. Ricky, you have given unselfishly and are always
there to pick up the pieces,
enabling me to achieve this dream.
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES
...............................................................................................
............................... IX
CHAPTER

I.............................................................................................
...............................................1
INTRODUCTION AND PROBLEM
STATEMENT..........................................................................
...............1
Emotional
Intelligence.............................................................................
.......................................4
EI and IQ
...............................................................................................
.........................................6
EI and Leadership
...............................................................................................
...........................7
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
...............................................................................................
........................8
ANALYSIS
...............................................................................................
.............................................9
Research Questions and Hypotheses
..............................................................................................
9
Applicability
...............................................................................................
..................................15
TERMS

DEFINED................................................................................
.................................................16
RESEARCH DESIGN
...............................................................................................
..............................16
DELIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
...............................................................................................
...........17
Population
...............................................................................................
.....................................18
Sample Selection and Identification of Managers
........................................................................18
Gathering of Survey Information
...............................................................................................
...18
SUMMARY
...............................................................................................
...........................................19
CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
...........................................................................20
ORGANIZATION OF THE LITERATURE
...............................................................................................
..20
LEADERSHIP
...............................................................................................
........................................21

Leadership Behavior Theory
...............................................................................................
.........22
Leadership versus Management
...............................................................................................
....23
EMOTIONS
...............................................................................................
...........................................27
EMOTIONAL
INTELLIGENCE.....................................................................
...........................................29
vi
EI competencies
...............................................................................................
.............................32
EI and EQ
...............................................................................................
......................................34
Moving
Ahead.....................................................................................
..........................................35
EI History
...............................................................................................

......................................36
EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AND LEADERSHIP
...................................................................................38
Johnson & Johnson Emotional Competencies and Leadership
Study ..........................................39
EI Training
...............................................................................................
....................................41
EI AND DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS
........................................................................................43
EI and Functional and Position Differences
................................................................................43
EI and Gender
...............................................................................................
...............................43
EI AND PERFORMANCE IN THE FINANCE SECTOR
...............................................................................45
MEASURING
EI...........................................................................................
........................................45
COMPARING SELF AND OTHERS’
RATINGS...............................................................................
..........47
PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL AS A MEASURE OF
EFFECTIVENESS .........................................................48

SUMMARY
...............................................................................................
...........................................49
CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY....................................................................
.................................51
METHODS AND PROCESSES
...............................................................................................
.................53
Research Design
...............................................................................................
............................53
Data Needs and Collection
Steps.......................................................................................
...........53
Instrumentation.......................................................................
......................................................54
Reliability
...............................................................................................
......................................56
Validity
...............................................................................................
..........................................58
Scale Design
...............................................................................................
..................................60
PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL SYSTEM OF PARTICIPATING

COMPANY ...................................................60
Sales Performance Analysis
...............................................................................................
..........61
Support Performance Analysis
...............................................................................................
......62
Demographic Form
...............................................................................................
.......................63
vii
Population and
Sample....................................................................................
.............................64
Sample Selection and Identification of Managers
........................................................................65
Gathering of Survey Information
...............................................................................................
...65
2002 Performance Summary
...............................................................................................
.........67
Data collection
procedures...............................................................................

............................67
RESEARCH QUESTIONS, HYPOTHESES, AND DATA
ANALYSIS............................................................69
Analysis of Research Question
One.........................................................................................
.....69
Analysis of Research Question
Two........................................................................................
......71
Analysis of Research Question Three
...........................................................................................73
CHAPTER IV FINDINGS
...............................................................................................
...................78
PURPOSE OF THE
STUDY...................................................................................
..................................78
RESEARCH QUESTIONS, NULL HYPOTHESES, AND
ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESES ...................................78
Research Question One
...............................................................................................
.................79
Research Question Two
...............................................................................................
.................81
ANALYSIS

...............................................................................................
...........................................85
Detailed Research Questions and Null and Alternative
Hypotheses Review................................87
2002 Performance Summary
...............................................................................................
.........88
ADDITIONAL FINDINGS: SELF VERSUS OTHERS
RATINGS...................................................................106
SUMMARY
...............................................................................................
.........................................108
CHAPTER V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND
RECOMMENDATIONS ...........................113
SUMMARY
...............................................................................................
.........................................113
RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES
.................................................................................... ...114
KEY
FINDINGS..............................................................................
....................................................120
DISCUSSION OF KEY
FINDINGS..............................................................................
...........................122
LIMITATIONS

...............................................................................................
.....................................128
RECOMMENDATIONS
...............................................................................................
.........................129
viii
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
.................................................................................131
FINAL
COMMENTS...........................................................................
.................................................133
REFERENCE LIST
...............................................................................................
............................135
APPENDIX A EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE LEADERSHIP
COMPETENCIES. ..............143
APPENDIX B ECI
...............................................................................................
..............................147
APPENDIX C CHRONBACH’S ALPHA
COEFFICIENTS.........................................................157
APPENDIX D TEST-RETEST STABILITY
..................................................................................158

APPENDIX E SALES APPRAISAL FORM
...................................................................................159
APPENDIX F SUPPORT APPRAISAL
CHECKLIST..................................................................168
APPENDIX G
DEMOGRAPHICS...................................................................
................................173
APPENDIX H STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
....................................................................................174
APPENDIX I CONSENT FORMS
...............................................................................................
....190
ix
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE 2.1 EMOTIONS: CONVENTIONAL VS. HIGH-
PERFORMANCE
........................................................................28
TABLE 2.2 ADDITIONAL CONVENTIONAL VS. HIGH-
PERFORMANCE EMOTIONS
.....................................................28
TABLE 4.1 MEAN SCORES FOR EACH COMPETENCY BY
RATING .............................................................................89

TABLE 4.2 RELATIONSHIP OF HIGH RATINGS TO HIGH EI
SCORES..........................................................................91
TABLE 4.3 RELATIONSHIP OF EI COMPETENCIES AND
PERFORMANCE RATINGS AT 95 PERCENT CONFIDENCE
......92
TABLE 4.4 EI COMPARISONS OF BANK SAMPLE WITH
OTHER
SAMPLES..................................................................94
POSITIONS AT 95 PERCENT CONFIDENCE LEVEL
.................95
TITLES AT 95-PERCENT CONFIDENCE
LEVEL.......................96
TABLE 4.7 RELATIONSHIP OF GENDER AND EI A 95
PERCENT CONFIDENCE LEVEL
...............................................98
TABLE 4.8 MEANS SCORES BY GENDER IN DESCENDING
ORDER ............................................................................99
TABLE 4.9 SIGNIFICANT RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN EI
AND AREA
.......................................................................100
TABLE 4.10 SUPPORT MANAGERS’ HIGHEST- AND
LOWEST-RATED COMPETENCIES
............................................101
TABLE 4.11 SALES MANAGERS’ HIGHEST- AND LOWEST-

RATED COMPETENCIES ................................................101
TABLE 4.12 COMPARISONS OF EI MEANS FOR SALES
AND SUPPORT FUNCTIONS
................................................102
TABLE 4.13 RELATIONSHIP OF EI AND TENURE A 95-
PERCENT CONFIDENCE LEVEL
...........................................103
TABLE 4.14 RELATIONSHIP OF EI AND EDUCATIONAL
LEVEL AT 95 PERCENT CONFIDENCE LEVEL
.....................104
TABLE 4.15 EI SCORES SIGNIFICANTLY RELATED TO BA
VERSUS BS DEGREES ..................................................106
TABLE 4.16 STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCES
.....................................................................................107
TABLE 4.17 EI COMPETENCY SCORES FOR SELF AND
TOTAL OTHERS’ RATINGS FROM HIGHEST TO LOWEST
.......107
TABLE 4.18 SUMMARY OF NULL AND ALTERNATIVE
HYPOTHESIS
TESTING.........................................................109
TABLE A1 SELF-AWARENESS COMPETENCIES
...............................................................................................
......143
TABLE A2 SELF-MANAGEMENT
COMPETENCIES....................................................................
..............................144

TABLE A3 SOCIAL AWARENESS COMPETENCIES
...............................................................................................
..145
TABLE A4 RELATIONSHIP MANAGEMENT
COMPETENCIES
...................................................................................146
TABLE C CHRONBACH’S ALPHA COEFFICIENTS
...............................................................................................
....157
TABLE D TEST-RETEST STABILITY COEFFICIENTS
...............................................................................................
158
x
TABLE H1 ANOVA FOR RATINGS
...............................................................................................
.......................174
TABLE H2 ANOVA FOR POSITION
...............................................................................................
......................176
TABLE H3 ANOVA FOR TITLES
...............................................................................................
..........................178
TABLE H4 ANOVA FOR
GENDER................................................................................
.......................................180

TABLE H5 ANOVA FOR AREA
...............................................................................................
............................182
TABLE H6ANOVA FOR TENURE
...............................................................................................
.........................184
TABLE H7 T-TEST FOR EDUCATIONAL LEVEL
...............................................................................................
.....186
TABLE H8 T-TEST FOR BA AND BS
...............................................................................................
.....................188
TABLE H9 T-TEST FOR SELF AND TOTAL OTHERS
...............................................................................................
.189
1
Chapter I
Introduction and Problem Statement
The times, they are still “a changing.” Companies today are
very different from

those of the past. Globalization, increased competition, and
technology advances are
requiring organizations, management teams, and employees to
do more with less—while
retaining the flexibility to address changes.
According to Cherniss and Adler (2000), factors contributing to
the turbulence
resulting from changes in the marketplace include technical
innovation, global
competition, and pressures from institutional investors. Among
technical innovations,
they cite organizational downsizing. “As organizations shrink,
people who remain are
more accountable and more visible. They must interact with
more peers, more
subordinates, and more customers” (p. 4).
The highly competitive environment driving today’s
organizations has negative
effects. Cooper and Sawaf (1997) stated that the intellect
required to make companies
competitive has resulted in dramatic costs to employees. The
costs include “crumbling
trust, jarring uncertainty, greater distance between managers

and those they manage,
stifled creativity, festering cynicism, increasingly volatile
anger, and vanishing loyalty
and commitment” (pp. xi-xii).
Motivation, initiative, and cooperation also may be lacking
among today’s employees
and may be resulting in less-than-effective organizations.
Cherniss and Adler referred to
a 1991 study of American employers by Harris Education
Research. Their findings
indicated that more than half of employees in the surveyed
organizations “lacked the
2
motivation to continue learning and improving on the job. Four
of 10 were not able to
work cooperatively with fellow employees, and just 19 percent
of those applying for
entry-level jobs had enough discipline in their work habits” (p.
7).
Kouzes and Posner (1997) explained that both employees’
loyalties to institutions

and institutions’ loyalties to employees are diminishing. They
added that the power
within organizations has shifted from the top brass to the people
and to those with
technology and the skills to use it. Nearly half the population is
cynical, and cynics don't
participate in improving things. In such a climate, how can a
leader possibly mobilize a
seemingly unwilling constituency (p. xviii)? They added, “With
movement away from
the powerful bosses to the empowered people, organizational
structures are flattening.
Everyone is connected, and knowledge has become synonymous
with currency. Kouzes
and Posner contended that organizational success and the ability
to compete are
"dependent upon the mental fitness of the workforce" (p. xviii).
Further, they explained, because there are far more products and
services today
than were available a decade ago, the marketplace is
fragmented. Organizations are
reducing staffs and, what was once a permanent workforce is
changing to include
contingent and self-employed workers. "Loyalty and job

security, we're told, have gone
the way of the dodo bird" (p. xix).
However, the situation is not hopeless. "There's a new search
for meaning. With
today's cynicism, fragmentation, and shifting relationships has
come a yearning for a
greater purpose in our lives. … In the race of these new
realities, there are countless
opportunities to make a difference. …More than ever, there's a
need for people to seize
these opportunities to lead us to greatness" (Kouzes and Posner,
pp. xix-xx).
3
What separates the successful companies from others?
According to Rodriguez,
Patel, Bright, Gregory, and Gowing (2002), a distinguishing
element is superior
employees. “High-performing people are critical to high-
performing organizations” (p.
309). Gordon (1998) added, “Enlightened companies now look
for managers of

independent spirit, people with the courage of their convictions.
Enlightened companies
want up-and-coming leaders who will speak their minds, boldly
and openly” (p. 54).
Other sources, including Cherniss and Adler (2000), George
(2000), and Goleman
(1998b), pointed to social and emotional competencies, such as
feelings, emotions,
moods, and so forth—as differentiators in today’s competitive
and continually changing
work environment. As a manager of a telecommunications
company …
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further
reproduction prohibited without permission.
Linking emotional intelligence, spirituality and workplace ...
Tischler, Len;Biberman, Jerry;McKeage, Robert
Journal of Managerial Psychology; 2002; 17, 3; ProQuest One
Academic
pg. 203

International Journal of Management Vol. 29 No. 3 Part 2

Sept 2012 355
The Role of Emotional Intelligence in the Workplace:
A Literature Review
Ashkan Khalili
Multimedia University, Malaysia
Emotional intelligence has become a familiar issue between
educators, counselors and
business leaders due to a considerable role in the workplace.
Namely, accurate self-
assessment together with conflict management are just some
significant influences of
emotional intelligence within organisations that would result in
increasing organisational
effectiveness. Hence the purpose of this manuscript is to
provide a comprehensive
literature review on the emergence of emotional intelligence in
the workplace as well
as discussing main theories of emotional intelligence, based on
the relevant literature
and previous empirical studies.
Emotional Intelligence (EI) in the Workplace
Traditionally, negligence (Eriksson, 2004), avoidance
(Turnbull, 1999), irrational and
negation (Fineman, 1993), weakness and inability to control
oneself have been viewed in
emotional themes within organisational life. Recently, role of
emotions in the workplace
have started to exert positively through organisational scholars
(Fineman, 1997;
Domagalski, 1999; Turnbull 1999; Fisher & Ashkanasy, 2000;
Brief and Weiss, 2002;
Jordan and Troth, 2002). “texture” of organizing (Fineman,

1993) and also enterprise
impacts on individual’s thought, feeling in the workplace (Brief
& Weiss, 2002), belong to
emotion supposition (Fineman, 1993). Excellent organisations
are places where feelings
are managed, matured or removed. Feelings are perceived as
irrelevant to job activity
but emotions get in the way of effective performance (Fineman,
1996).
Many researches that have concentrated on emotion in the
workplaces have asserted
that organisations are “emotional places” (Armstrong, 2000),
“incubators of emotions”
(Muchinsky, 2000) or “emotional arenas” (Fineman, 2000) and
it always stimulates
doubt and commotion (French, 2001). That is to say, few
researches have concentrated
on how emotions are experimented in the workplace (Pekrun &
Frese, 1992), comprising
organisation psychic pressure and stress (Fineman, 2000). Since
emotions and feelings are
at the core of the human experiment (Muchinsky, 2000), very
nature of the “organisation”
of work pertain to what individuals do with their sensations
(Fineman, 1993).
One important aspect of work performance is work affect
(Kafetsios & Zampetakis,
2008). Muchinsky (2000) claimed that emotions have many
differences which cover
from pleasurable experiments of our existence which are
positive experiences to the
negative ones that are the most noxious. Individual’s job-related
behaviour is reflected
from affective or emotional experiments in the work place that

generate cognition (Weiss
& Cropanzano, 1996).
Brief and Weiss (2002) proposed that while firms can impact on
one’s feelings, thoughts
and actions, individual’s feelings, thoughts and actions likewise
can impress the enterprise
356 International Journal of Management Vol. 29 No. 3 Part 2
Sept 2012
which they are employed. Indeed, work environment is an
emotion-eliciting place;
therefore individuals are required to employ “emotional labor”.
Hochschild (1983) identified emotional labor as “the
management of feeling to create
a publicly observable facial and bodily display for a wage”.
Certainly, emotion in
the organisation is such a communicable phenomenon that
impact on other workers’
emotions. Sanchez-Burks and Huy (2007) claimed that due to
emotional contagion
which is an automatic, non-conscious psychological process,
people experiment shared
thrills. In other words, interaction in the workplace causes
spreading or transferring
thrills from an individual to others (Eriksson, 2004). Goleman
et al. (2001) stated that
when the group is more uninterrupted, emotions shared are
stronger.
Therefore, the rising testimony of this emotional side of work
exhibits one of the

fundamental motives of growth makes it worth looking into the
concept of emotional
intelligence (EI).
Indeed, emotional intelligence plays a considerable role in the
workplace. Within the
past 30 years research investigating factors that contribute to
success in workplace
have resulted in distinguishing factors that are affiliated to
workplace intelligence.
These researches used quantified data on performance from
countless organisations
and industries and have contributed to the knowledge base in
emotional intelligence
(Lynn, 2002).
Moreover, The 1990s showed increasing attention on the part of
researchers and
practitioners on the construct of emotional intelligence. This
interest reflects the theoretical
proposition that individuals who are high in emotional
intelligence are seemingly more
successful in work-related and non-work aspects of life than
low-emotionally intelligent
ones. Wolfe and Caruso (2004, p.3) asserted emotions include
essential information that
assists us “to be better at what we do”. In 1998, Goleman
reviewed analyses of studies
of about 500 organisations around the world, “point to the
paramount place of emotional
intelligence in excellence on the job—in virtually any job”
(Goleman, 1998, p. 6). He
indicates organisations become leaders and rise to the top
position while they have the
highest emotional intelligence measure. Another significant
finding that he discovered

during reviewing these studies is star employees have more
emotional intelligence (EI)
than other employees. He found emotional intelligence is
important twice as much as
analytic and technical skill for those organisations.
Emotional intelligence has been investigated since early 1990s,
but solely in recent years
become pertinent to the workplace. Weisinger (1998) proposed
the existence of a direct
linkage between emotional intelligence and success at work. In
accord with Bridget
Murray (1998), individuals who are at the top of their field are
not only good at their
works. This means that, emotional intelligence (EI) takes more
than intelligence quotient
(IQ) to achieve success at workplace (Goleman, 1995). That is
to say, besides bosses and
corporate leaders, employees also need high portion of
emotional intelligence, because
they present the organisation to the public. Cherniss (2000)
found several scholars
suggested that there is a positive and direct relationship
between the level of emotional
intelligence (EI) and workplace performance. Cooper (1997)
claimed that well managed
Sept 2012 357
emotions can assist ones to extend trust, loyalty and
commitment, with their selves, their
groups and their firms.

Various occupations call for different types of emotional
intelligence. For instance,
success in sales requires the empathic competency to identify
the mood of the customer
and the interpersonal skill to make a decision when to present a
product and when to
keep quiet. And also, success in painting or professional tennis
demands a more one
form of self-discipline and motivation. Thus emotional
intelligence affects just about
everything you do at work. “Even when you work in a solitary
setting, how well you
work has a lot to do with how well you discipline and motivate
yourself” (Goleman, as
cited in Murray, 1998, p. 3).
In 1993, Spencer and Spencer managed an analysis at L’Oreal
Company and discovered
that sales agents who were elected dependent on their emotional
competencies sold
significantly more than agents who were selected using standard
recruitment techniques.
The study exhibited that sales agents who were selected based
on emotional ability sold
an average of $91,370 more than those in the control group
annually. Continually, the
research also showed that salespeople selected based upon
emotional competence had
63% less turnovers in the first year than those selected in a
typical way (Spencer &
Spencer, 1993).
Another issue that must be considered in emotional intelligence
and workplace is gender
differences and acquisition of emotional intelligence which
found interesting results.

Goleman (1998, p. 285) claimed that “men and women seem
equally able to increase
their emotional intelligence”. In a study by Steven Stein (as
cited in Murray, 1998), 4,500
men and 3,200 women were assessed for their emotional
intelligence. He discovered that
women scored higher than men on empathy and social
responsibility while men surpassed
women on stress tolerance and self-confidence. His findings
suggested women and men
are equally emotionally intelligent, but they are different in
these spheres. Khalili (2011)
conducted an empirically investigation of emotional intelligence
within employees of
a private small and medium enterprise (SME) in Iran. He found
that women are more
emotionally intelligence than men but there is no significant
difference between them.
Age has been considered in emotional intelligence acquisition.
Goleman (1998, p.285)
said researches show that, “maturity remains an advantage; it
may be slightly harder to
‘teach young dogs new tricks’”. Mayer and Salovy (as cited in
Goleman, 1998) discovered
emotional intelligence increases significantly by age with an
apex happening in the forties.
Fariselli, Ghini and Freedman (2006) examined the relationship
between emotional
intelligence and age in the workplace. They chose 405 American
workers between 22-
70 years. They discovered that emotional quotient (EQ) score
increases slightly by age.
They concluded that while a slight majority of older individuals
are higher in EQ, there
are many young people with higher EQ scores than their older

counterparts. As well,
they discussed that emotional intelligence is an important and
crucial competence that
leaders require to take into consideration in the current work
context (Fariselli, Ghini
& Freedman, 2006).
Sept 2012
Another part that research in the emotional intelligence area has
concentrated considerably
is leadership which is a fundamental workplace quality.
Fleishman and Harris (1962)
noted that before commencing research in the field of emotional
intelligence, the Ohio
State Leadership investigations informed leaders who were
capable of establishing mutual
trust, respect, and certain warmth and close relationship with
members of their group
were more effective. This consequence is not surprising given
that many scholars have
debated that effective leadership is fundamentally contingent on
the leader’s competencies
to solve the composite social difficulties which can arise in
organisations (Mumford,
Zaccaro, Harding, Jacobs, & Fleishman, 2000).
Other field of interest in the workplace is the cost-effectiveness
of emotional intelligence.
Several researches have stated the economic value of employing
staff based on emotional
intelligence. Based on a report to Congress, the US General
Accounting Office (GAO)

(1998) indicated the amount saved when the United States Air
Force used Bar-On’s
Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i) to select program
recruiters. By choosing those
persons who scored highest in Bar-On’s Emotional Quotient
Inventory as recruiters, they
increased their ability to select successful recruiters by
threefold and saved $3 million
per year. Boyatzis (1999) discovered that when partners in a
multinational consulting
organisation were estimated on emotional intelligence
competencies, partners who scored
above the median on nine or more competencies delivered $1.2
million more profit than
did other partners. Industry in the United States is losing
between $5.6 and $16.8 billion
annually, by not following training guidelines established to
raise emotional intelligence
(EI) in the workplace (Cherniss & Goleman, 1998). They
discovered that the influence
of training employees in emotional and social skills with
programs which followed their
guidelines was higher than for other programs, and by not
executing these programs
enterprises were receiving less of an influence and as a result
losing money.
Emotional intelligence has formed a hypothesis as impacting a
myriad of workplace
variables such as performance, job satisfaction, absenteeism,
organisational commitment
and leadership (Rozell, Pettijohn & Parker, 2002).
Thi Lam and Kirby (2002) investigated the linkage between
emotional intelligence and
cognitive-based performance using US university graduates. Thi

Lam and Kirby placed
participants in stressful situations to replicate a modern work
environment and measured
emotional intelligence with the Multifactor Emotional
Intelligence Scale (MEIS).
Multifactor Emotional Intelligence Scale (MEIS) is a test of
ability rather than a self-
report measure. The test-taker performs a series of tasks that are
designed to estimate the
individual’s competency to be aware of, identify, understand,
and work with emotion.
However, they discovered that overall emotional intelligence,
emotional perception, and
emotional regulation uniquely describe person cognitive-based
performance over and
beyond the level attributable to general intelligence (Thi Lam &
Kirby, 2002).
Nikolaou and Tsaousis (2002) investigated the relevance of
and source of occupational stress on a sample of 200
professionals in mental health
Sept 2012 359
institutions in Greece. They found a negative relationship
among emotional intelligence
and stress at workplace, indicating that high scorers in overall
endured less stress identifying with occupational environment.
As well, they discovered
a positive relation between emotional intelligence and
organisational commitment,

which suggested that emotional intelligence is a determining
factor of employees’
loyalty to the organisations. Regarding overall emotional
intelligence score, they did not
address significant differences among males and females. An
important relationship was
discovered between emotional intelligence, age and education.
They also found job type
influences overall emotional intelligence scores, but no
influence was found among job
type and emotional intelligence subscales (Nikolaou &
Tsaousis, 2002).
Oginska-Bulik (2005) investigated a study in Poland with the
aim to see if emotional
intelligence plays an important role in forming the interaction
among individuals and
their work environment. The results approved a necessary role
of emotional intelligence
on being aware of occupational stress and intercepting
employees from negative health
outcomes. Oginska-Bulik (2005) indicated a higher degree of
emotional intelligence in
women rather than men.
David McClelland (1998) investigated division heads of a
global food and beverage
company and found that 50% of division directors hired using
standard methods left
within two years, mostly due to poor performance. When the
firm began selecting based
upon emotional abilities like initiative, self-confidence, and
leadership, only 6% left in
two years. He also discovered that the divisions conducted by
leaders strong in emotional
intelligence competencies exceed in performance yearly revenue

targets by a margin of
15-20% more high than divisions with leaders that did not show
abilities (McClelland, 1998).
In 1998, Daniel Goleman (1998) claimed by reviewing
researches of nearly 500
companies around the world concluded that leaders have high
degrees of emotional
intelligence. Goleman noted leaders are highly emotionally
intelligent because (1) they
present the company to the public, (2) act reciprocally with the
highest number of people
inside and outside the organisation, and (3) set the tone for staff
morale. In 1998, Goleman
conducted a research which took into consideration competence
models for 181 various
job positions from 121 companies. Management in each firm
was asked to agree on a
profile indicating which factors were required for an individual
to exhibit excellence
in a specific job. He discovered that 67% of the competencies
management outlined as
determining factors of excellence within a job was related to
emotional abilities. Just
few years later, he formed a hypothesis that emotional
competence is a learned capability
based on emotional intelligence that causes outstanding
performance at work. Dulewicz
and Higgs (2000) reported alike results. They researched one
thousand managers, over
a seven-year period, concentrating on their abilities and their
advancement through the
organisation. They discovered that emotional intelligence
factors contributed 36% to
an individual’s progression, while intellectual intelligence

contributed 27% through the
organisation.
Sept 2012
Major Theories of Emotional Intelligence (EI)
The increasing penchant in emotions as well as growing
awareness of the role that it
plays in business and in life is in great part due to the
propagation of research over the
past decade on emotions generally and EI specifically (Jamali,
D. et al., 2008). Generally,
emotional intelligence can be classified into two sets.
Firstly, it is the ability model matured by Mayer and Salovey
that concentrates upon
using intelligence to guide emotions (Weinberger, 2004).
Weinberger mentioned that as
of 2004, Mayer, Salovey, and Caruso were the only scholars
promoting a more limited
ability (cognitive) model. Mayer and Salovey (1997) thought
that emotional intelligence
is based initially in mental abilities. David Caruso was another
scholar that joined
Mayer and Salovey. Mayer, Salovey and Caruso (2004)
identified the diverging of the
foundational components of emotional intelligence based on the
specific “bent” of the
foundational theorists. They improved a measurement of
emotional intelligence called
the Mayer, Salovey, Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test
(MSCEIT).

Secondly, it is called the mixed-model (Bar-On, 1988 and
Goleman, 1998) where
emotional intelligence is not solely depending on cognition, but
upon a socio-emotion
centered in personality traits.
Precisely, Mayer and Salovey, (1997) focused upon the
relevance between emotion and
cognition, while Bar-On (2000) concentrated upon emotional
intelligence influences
on performance and well being, and Goleman (1995, 1998,
Goleman et al., 2002)
concentrated on emotional intelligence as a competency model.
Three theories that
have generated the most willingness in terms of research and
applications are namely
the theories of Bar-On (1988, 2000), Mayer and Salovey (1997),
and Goleman (1998).
Bar-On (1988, 2000)
The first theory which emerged is Bar-On theory in 1988. He
coined the term of
“emotional quotient” (EQ) in his doctoral dissertation which is
an analogue to intelligent
quotient (IQ).
Bar-On (1997) matured his own mixed-model construct of
emotional intelligence, which
is tested and appraised by the Bar-On Emotional Quotient
Inventory (EQ-I). His construct
follows a 1-5-15 breakdown of assessing individual’s level of
emotional intelligence.
There is an overall EQ score (1), with each of the five
compound scales receiving a
score (5), and likewise 15 subscales, each receiving its own
individual score. The five

social and emotional abilities subscales are sorted as
“intrapersonal”, “interpersonal”,
“stress management”, “adaptability”, and “general mood” which
all together impact an
individual’s ability to challenge with environmental demands
effectively.
Hence, his model framed emotional intelligence in the concept
of personality theory
that in case of general model of psychological well-being and
adaption is best viewed
(Goleman, 2001). That is to say, the 15 subscales are divided up
in accord with their
respective composite scales. All Bar-On EQ-I scales and the
competencies and skills which assessed by each scale are
addressed in Table 1.
Sept 2012 361
Mayer and Salovey (1997)
Mayer and Salovey (1997) framed emotional intelligence within
a developmental model
of intelligence which occurred as a result of a realization that
traditional measures
of intelligence was not capable to measure individual
differences in the emotional
intelligence ability to realize, process and effectively conduct
emotions. Thus, they
derived a model based on cognitive consideration which
outlines the specific mental
brilliance for distinguishing and culling emotions (Goleman,
2001).

Their model (Figure 1) is inclusive four tiers of abilities with
the elaboration of emotional
skill which is increased from basic emotional perception to
more complex processes of
unifying emotion and cognition.
The first tire includes abilities that allow one to perceive ,
estimate, and express emotions.
These types of abilities comprise identifying individual’s own
and other’s emotions,
manifesting one’s emotions and distinguishing the expressions
of emotion in others. In the
second tire skills involve using emotions to facilitate and
prioritize idea (Goleman, 2001).
That is to say, using the emotions to assist in judgment as well
as recognizing that mood
swings can lead to a thoughtfulness of alternative viewpoints,
and understanding that
Table 1: The Bar-On model of emotional-social intelligence
(ESI)
EQ-I SCALES The EI competencies and skills assessed by each
scale
Intrapersonal
Self-regard
Emotional self-
awareness
Assertiveness
Independence
Self-actualization
Self-awareness and self-expression:

To accurately perceive, understand and accept oneself
To be aware of and understand one’s emotions
To effectively and constructively express one’s emotions and
oneself
To be self-reliant and free of emotional dependency on others
To strive to achieve personal goals and actualize one’s potential
Interpersonal
Empathy
Social responsibility
Interpersonal
relationship
Social awareness and interpersonal relationship:
To be aware of and understand how others feel
To identify with one’s social group and cooperate with other s
To establish mutually satisfying relationships and relate well
with others
Stress management
Stress tolerance
Impulse control
Emotional management and regulation:
To effectively and constructively manage emotions
To effectively and constructively control emotions
Adaptability
Reality-testing
Flexibility
Problem-solving
Change management:
To objectively validate one’s feelings and thinking with
external reality

To adopt and adjust one’s feelings and thinking to new
situations
To effectively solve problems of a personal and interpersonal
nature
General mood
Optimism
Happiness
Self-motivation:
To be positive and look at the brighter side of life
To feel content with oneself, others and life in general
Sept 2012
a shift in emotional state and perspective can facilitate various
kinds problem solving.
The third tier comprises of abilities namely labeling and
discriminating among emotions,
understanding complex mixture of feelings and formulating
rules about feelings. The
last (forth) tire is the general skill to manage emotions to
uphold some social goals. This
level is more complex one of emotional intelligence, because
abilities at forth tire allow
individuals to selectively engage in or separate from emotions
to monitor and marshal
emotions in themselves and others (Goleman, 2001).
In 2002, Caruso and Salovey by using their ability-based
construct identified “Emotional
Blueprint” which equips managers in their emotional skills. In
their manuscript, they

identified an “Emotional Blueprint” through which managers
can appraise and mature
their emotional intelligence competencies. Their construct of
concentrates upon the cognitive abilities of an individual to be
capable of identify, use,
understand, and manage emotions. In other words, they posed
which combines feeling with thinking. What appear later are the
main themes of emotional
intelligence in Caruso and Salovey manuscript (Mayer, Salovey
& Caruso, 2002, p. 8):
1) “Read People: Identifying Emotions. Emotions contain data.
They are signals to us
about significant events going on in our world, whether it’s our
internal world, social
world, or the natural environment.”
2) “Get in the Mood: Using Emotions. How we feel influences
how we think and what
we think about. Emotions direct our attention to important
events; they ready us for a
certain action, and they help guide our thought processes as we
solve problems.”
3) “Predict the Emotional Future: Understanding Emotions.
Emotions are not random
events. They have underlying causes, they change according to
a set of rules, and they
Figure 1: Mayer and Saloveys’ EI Model

Figure 1: Mayer and Saloveys’ EI Model
ADOPTED FROM: Bar-On and Parker (2000)
Emotional Perception
Registering and deciphering of
feelings and emotions
Emotional Integration
Integration of emotions into the
cognitive system, altering
cognition/thought
Emotional Management
Regulation of emotions and the

monitoring of their expression
Emotional Understanding
Assimilation, understanding,
reasoning with emotions
Emotional
Intelligence
Adopted from: Bar-On and Parker (2000)
Sept 2012 363
can be understood. Knowledge of emotions is reflected by our
emotion vocabulary and
our ability to conduct emotional what-if analyses.”
4) “Do It with Feeling: Managing Emotions. Because emotions
contain information and
influence thinking, we need to incorporate emotions
intelligently into our reasoning,
problem solving, judging, and behaving.”
Goleman (1998)
Goleman (1998) introduced his emotional intelligence based on
performance theory
(that is merit based) including a separable set of abilities that
integrate cognitive and
affective skills. He identified five dimensions of emotional

intelligence in his proposed
framework (Table 2), comprising self-awareness, self-
management, self-motivation,
social awareness (empathy) and social skills.
Goleman’s (1998) five dimensions model of emotional
intelligence are described as
below:
1) Self-Awareness is allied with the competency to be conscious
of which emotions,
moods, and impulses individual is experiencing and why. This
also comprises
individual’s consciousness of the results of his or her feelings
on others.
2) Self-Regulation pertains to the competency to keep
individual’s own emotions and
impulses in check, to remain calm in potentially volatile
conditions, and to maintain
composure notwithstanding individual’s emotions.
3) Motivation refers to the ability to remain concentrated upon
goals irrespective of
obstacles, to operate from hope of prosperity rather than fear of
inability to succeed,
delaying satisfaction, and to accept change to achieve goals.
4) Empathy represents individual’s competency to understand
the feelings transmitted
through verbal and nonverbal messages, to prepare emotional
support to people when
required, and to understand the linkages among others’
emotions and behaviour.
5) Social Skills is allied with individual’s competency to deal

with difficulties without
behaving those who work with him or her, to not permit own or
others’ negative
feelings to restrain collaboration, and to handle affective
conflict with tact and
diplomacy.
That is to say, his five dimensions of EI classified into two
broad categories (Figure 2),
which are personal competence and social competence in
dealing with one’s own self
and others respectively (Goleman, 1995).
Table 2 illustrates Goleman’s model of emotional intelligence
in 1998, which identified
five domains of emotional intelligence (EI). That earlier model
consists of twenty-five
competencies, which divided into two broad competencies.
First category is personal competencies which mean
understanding and conducting
emotions in oneself that comprise of three dimensions: Self-
Awareness, Self-Regulation,
and Motivation. Second category is social competencies which
mean knowing and
Sept 2012
managing emotions in others that include two dimensions:
Social-Awareness (Empathy)
and Social Skills (Bar-On & Parker, 2000; Kunnanatt, 2004).
The refinement model (Table 3) brings from latter statistical

analyses by his colleague
Richard Boyatzis that supported decomposing the five
dimensions into the four domains:
Self-Awareness which is being aware of what one feels, Self-
Management considers the
Table 2: Goleman’s Five Dimensions Model of EI
THE EMOTIONAL COMPETENCE FRAMEWORK
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Self-awareness
Emotional awareness
Accurate self-
assessment
Self-confidence
Knowing one’s internal states, preferences, resources and
intuitions
Recognizing one’s …
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Emotional Intelligence as an Important Asset for HR in
Organizations:
Leaders and Employees
Article in International Journal of Advanced Corporate
Learning (iJAC) · April 2019
DOI: 10.3991/ijac.v12i1.9637
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Paper— Emotional Intelligence as an Important Asset for HR in
Organizations: Leaders and
Employees
Emotional Intelligence as an Important Asset for HR in
Organizations: Leaders and Employees
https://doi.org/10.3991/ijac.v12i1.9637
Athanasios Drigas(*)
Net Media Lab, Institute of Informatics & Telecommunications,
National Centre for Scientific
Research “Demokritos,” Greece
[email protected]
Chara Papoutsi
Net Media Lab, Institute of Informatics & Telecommunications,
National Centre for Scientific
Research “Demokritos,” Greece
Abstract—Emotional intelligence (EI) is related to emotions and
emotional

information. It has attracted great attention among researchers
and Human
Resource (HR) practitioners because of its input for leaders and
employees and
its key role in organizational effectiveness and excellence.
Here, we describe the
models of EI and review the findings to show the positive
correlations between
EI, leaders and employees. We conclude by indicating thoughts
for future
research on the role of EI in organizations.
Keywords— Human Resources, Emotional Intelligence,
Organizations,
Leadership, Employees, Team, Performance, Effectiveness.
1 Introduction
EI is described as the perception, evaluation, and management
of emotions in
yourself and others [1]. It is a concept that tries to connect both
emotion and cognition
and metacognitive processes [2-3].
Nowadays, working environments are more demanding and
competitive due to a
world economy which becomes more global with the mass
influx of information and
new technologies. The competition and demands that leaders
and managers face today
is intense and the excellence they need to succeed in their
organizations hinges on
learning and teamwork, as well as good intrapersonal and
interpersonal relationships
[4]. As a set of significant abilities, EI is attractive to HR
specialists because it provides
a framework of skills, which preexist, and are responsible for

behaviors considered to
help people be successful and effective at work [5]. Emotionally
intelligent
organizations can tap the talents of their workforce and tackle
challenges more
effectively. Managers and employees must be able to cooperate,
to positively influence
others and find faster and creative ways to accomplish tasks [6].
Research shows that emotions, properly managed, can lead to
trust, faith and
commitment. Productivity, innovations, success as individuals,
groups or organizations
58 https://www.i-jac.org
Paper— Emotional Intelligence as an Important Asset for HR in
Organizations: Leaders and
Employees
can take place in such a context where EI plays a crucial role
[7]. Reynolds and Vince
(2004) comment on the centrality of emotion in the workplace:
“Every organization is
an emotional place because it is a human invention, serving
human purposes and
dependent on human beings to function… Emotion is what
creates and sustains a
system in its current form. Individuals and groups continually
organize themselves both
on the basis of their emotional responses to organizational
issues, and on the basis of

avoiding emotion” [8].
In a company or an organization leaders and employees
should have emotional skills
beyond technical ones. Leaders with EI can better understand
their employees, create a
friendlier and more accessible working environments, solve
problems and make
decisions based on having more self-management and self-
control. It is highly probable
that the performance of the company will grow under these
conditions. Leader’s with
EI will be an inspiration, and will be able to transmit their
thoughtfulness to their
employees making them feel more efficient, happier and
satisfied at work. Moreover,
employees who have EI have better social awareness and social
management skills, can
be integrated into a group, and show greater performance
results. Furthermore, they
exhibit greater satisfaction, and the ability to manage stress.
This paper outlines the importance of EI to an organization by
reviewing studies that
have made the link between EI Leadership and Team
Effectiveness. We point out how
EI is associated with these two variables to better understand
the role that EI can play
in a working environment and we provide a framework for
corporate effectiveness.
2 The Models of Emotional Intelligence
There are different approaches to model the concept of EI.
These include the ability
models, the mixed models (sometimes called emotional), social
competence models,
and the trait models [9].

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