1. SWITCHING THEORY AND LOGIC
DESIGN
Minimizing Boolean Logic
BELCY D MATHEWS
Electronics and communication Engineering

2. Review
•
•
•
•
•
•
Combinational logic
Truth Tables vs Boolean Expressions vs Gates
Minimal Operators
– And / Or / Not, NAND, NOR
New Friends
– XOR, EQ, Full Adder
Boolean Algebra
– +, *, ~, assoc, comm, distr., ….
Manipulating Expressions and Circuits
–
–
–
–
•
Proofs: Term rewriting & Exhaustive Enumeration
Simplifications
De Morgan’s Law
Duality
Canonical and minimal forms
– Sum of products
– Product of sums

3. Review: Relationship Among Representations
* Theorem: Any Boolean function that can be expressed as a truth table
can be written as an expression in Boolean Algebra using AND, OR,
NOT.
u n iq u e
?
not
u n iq u e
B o o le a n
E x p r e s s io n
[c o n v e n ie n t fo r
m a n ip u la tio n ]
T r u th T a b le
?
g a te
r e p r e s e n ta tio n
(s c h e m a tic )
not
u n iq u e
[c lo s e to
im p le m e n ta to n ]
How do we convert from one to the other?
Optimizations?

4. •
•
Review: Canonical Forms
Standard form for a Boolean expression - unique algebraic expression directly
from a true table (TT) description.
Two Types:
* Sum of Products (SOP)
* Product of Sums (POS)
• Sum of Products (disjunctive normal form, minterm expansion).
Example:
minterms
a’b’c’
a’b’c
a’bc’
a’bc
ab’c’
ab’c
abc’
abc
abc
000
001
010
011
100
101
110
111
f f’
01
01
01
10
10
10
10
10
One product (and) term for each 1 in f:
f = a’bc + ab’c’ + ab’c +abc’ +abc
f’ = a’b’c’ + a’b’c + a’bc’

5. Review: Sum of Products (cont.)
Canonical Forms are usually not minimal:
Our Example:
f = a’bc + ab’c’ + ab’c + abc’ +abc
(xy’ + xy = x)
= a’bc + ab’ + ab
= a’bc + a
(x’y + x = y + x)
= a + bc
f’ = a’b’c’ + a’b’c + a’bc’
= a’b’ + a’bc’
= a’ ( b’ + bc’ )
= a’ ( b’ + c’ )
= a’b’ + a’c’

6. •
Review: Canonical Forms
Product of Sums (conjunctive normal form, maxterm expansion).
Example:
maxterms
a+b+c
a+b+c’
a+b’+c
a+b’+c’
a’+b+c
a’+b+c’
a’+b’+c
a’+b’+c’
abc
000
001
010
011
100
101
110
111
f f’
01
01
01
10
10
10
10
10
One sum (or) term for each 0 in f:
f = (a+b+c)(a+b+c’)(a+b’+c)
f’ = (a+b’+c’)(a’+b+c)(a’+b+c’)
(a’+b’+c)(a+b+c’)
Mapping from SOP to POS (or POS to SOP): Derive truth table then
proceed.

7. Incompletely specified functions
• Example: binary coded decimal increment by 1
A
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
– BCD digits encode decimal digits 0 – 9 in bit patterns
B
C
D
W X
0000 – 1001 Y Z
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
X
X
X
X
X
X
0
0
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
X
X
X
X
X
X
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
X
X
X
X
X
X
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
X
X
X
X
X
X
off-set of W
on-set of W
don't care (DC) set of W
these inputs patterns should
never be encountered in practice
– "don't care" about associated
output values, can be exploited
in minimization

8. Outline
• Review
• De Morgan’s to transform SofP into simple 2-level
forms
• Uniting Law to reduce SofP
• N-cube perspective
• Announcements
• Karnaugh Maps
• Examples
• Reduction Algorithm

9. Putting DeMorgan’s to work
=
=
=
=
DeMorgan’s Law:
(a + b)’ = a’ b’
a + b = (a’ b’)’
(a b)’ = a’ + b’
(a b) = (a’ + b’)’
push bubbles or introduce in pairs or remove pairs.

10. Transformation to Simple Gates
Sum of Products
=
De Morgans
Involution: x = (x’)’

11. Implementations of Two-level Logic
• Sum-of-products
– AND gates to form product terms
(minterms)
– OR gate to form sum
• Product-of-sums
– OR gates to form sum terms
(maxterms)
– AND gates to form product

12. Two-level Logic using NAND Gates
• Replace minterm AND gates with NAND gates
• Place compensating inversion at inputs of OR
gate

13. Two-level Logic using NAND Gates (cont’d)
• OR gate with inverted inputs is a NAND gate
– de Morgan's: A' + B' = (A • B)'
• Two-level NAND-NAND network
– Inverted inputs are not counted
– In a typical circuit, inversion is done once and
signal distributed

14. Two-level Logic using NOR Gates
• Replace maxterm OR gates with NOR gates
• Place compensating inversion at inputs of AND
gate

15. Two-level Logic using NOR Gates
(cont’d)
• AND gate with inverted inputs is a NOR gate
– de Morgan's: A' • B' = (A + B)'
• Two-level NOR-NOR network
– Inverted inputs are not counted
– In a typical circuit, inversion is done once and
signal distributed

16. The Uniting Theorem
• Key tool to simplification: A (B' + B) = A
• Essence of simplification of two-level logic
– Find two element subsets of the ON-set where
only one variable changes its value – this single
F = A'B'+AB' =
varying variable can (A'+A)B' = B'
be eliminated and a single
A
B
F
product term used the same value in both on-set rows
to represent both elements
B has
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
1
1
0
– B remains
A has a different value in the two rows
– A is eliminated

17. Boolean cubes
• Visual technique for identifying when the
uniting theorem can be applied
• n input variables = n-dimensional "cube“
11
01
0
1
•1-cube
Y
Neighbors “address” differs by one bit flip
2-cube
X
00
X
111
3-cube
Y Z
000
101
10
0111
1111
4-cube
Y
X
0000
Z
W
X
1000

18. Mapping truth tables onto Boolean
cubes
• Uniting theorem combines two "faces" of a
cube into a larger "face"
two faces of size 0 (nodes)
F
• Example:
A
B
F
combine into a face of size 1(line)
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
1
1
0
11
01
B
00
A
10
A varies within face, B does not
this face represents the literal B'
ON-set = solid nodes
OFF-set = empty nodes
DC-set = ×'d nodes

19. Three variable example
• Binary full-adder carry-out logic
A
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
B
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
Cin
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
Cout
0
0
0
1
0
1
1
1
(A'+A)BCin
111
B C
000
AB(Cin'+Cin)
101
A
A(B+B')Cin
the on-set is completely covered by
the combination (OR) of the subcubes
of lower dimensionality - note that “111”
is covered three times
Cout = BCin+AB+ACin

20. Higher dimensional cubes
• Sub-cubes of higher dimension than 2
F(A,B,C) = Σm(4,5,6,7)
011
111
110
010
B C
000
001
A
101
100
on-set forms a square
i.e., a cube of dimension 2
represents an expression in one variable
i.e., 3 dimensions – 2 dimensions
A is asserted (true) and unchanged
B and C vary
This subcube represents the
literal A

21. m-dimensional cubes in a ndimensional Boolean space
• In a 3-cube (three variables):
– 0-cube, i.e., a single node, yields a term in 3 literals
– 1-cube, i.e., a line of two nodes, yields a term in 2
literals
– 2-cube, i.e., a plane of four nodes, yields a term in
1 literal
– 3-cube, i.e., a cube of eight nodes, yields a
constant term "1"
• In general,
– m-subcube within an n-cube (m < n) yields a term
with n – m literals

22. Karnaugh maps
• Flat map of Boolean cube
– Wrap–around at edges
– Hard to draw and visualize for more than 4 dimensions
– Virtually impossible for more than 6 dimensions
• Alternative to truth-tables to help visualize
adjacencies
– Guide to applying the unitingAtheorem
B
F
A
0
1
B
– On-set elements with only one variable changing value
0
0
1
0 1
1
0
0
are adjacent0unlike the situation1 in a linear truth-table
2
1
1
0
3
0
1
0
1
1
1
0

23. Karnaugh maps (cont’d)
• Numbering scheme based on Gray–code
– e.g., 00, 01, 11, 10
– 2n values of n bits where each differs from next by
A
AB
00 bit flip
C one 01 11 10
A
0
C 1
0
6
4
2
• Hamiltonian circuit through n-cube
12
8
0
4
5
1
3
– Only a 7single bit changes in code9 forDadjacent map
13
1
5
B
cells
15
11
3
7
A
0
C
2
6
4
1
3
7
5
B
C
2
6
14
B
10
13 = 1101= ABC’D

24. Adjacencies in Karnaugh maps
• Wrap from first to last column
• Wrap top row to bottom row
011
A
000 010 110
100
C 001 011 111
101
B
111
110
010
B C
000
001
A
101
100

25. Karnaugh map examples
• F=
A
1
B
1
0
0
B’
• Cout =
• f(A,B,C) = Σm(0,4,6,7)
A
0
0
1
0
Cin 0
1
1
1
B
A
1
C
0
0
1
0
0
1
1
B
AB + ACin + BCin
AC + B’C’ + AB’
obtain the
complement
of the function
by covering 0s
with subcubes

26. More Karnaugh map examples
A
0
C
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
G(A,B,C) = A
B
A
1
C
0
0
1
0
0
1
1
F(A,B,C) =
Σm(0,4,5,7) = AC + B’C’
B
A
0
C
1
1
0
1
1
0
0
B
F' simply replace 1's with 0's and vice versa
F'(A,B,C) =
Σ m(1,2,3,6) = BC’ + A’C

27. K-map: 4-variable interactive quiz
• F(A,B,C,D) = Σm(0,2,3,5,6,7,8,10,11,14,15)
F=
A
1
0
1
0
C
0
1
0
0
0111
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
D
C
0000
D
A
B
1111
1000
B
find the smallest number of the largest possible
subcubes to cover the ON-set
(fewer terms with fewer inputs per term)

28. Karnaugh map: 4-variable example
• F(A,B,C,D) = Σm(0,2,3,5,6,7,8,10,11,14,15)
C + A’BD + B’D’
F=
A
1
0
1
0
C
0
1
0
0
0111
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
D
C
0000
D
A
B
1111
1000
B
find the smallest number of the largest possible
subcubes to cover the ON-set
(fewer terms with fewer inputs per term)

29. Karnaugh maps: don’t cares
• f(A,B,C,D) = Σ m(1,3,5,7,9) + d(6,12,13)
– without don't cares
A’D + B’C’D
• f=
A
0
X
0
1
C
0
1
X
1
1
1
0
0
0
X
0
0
B
D

30. Karnaugh maps: don’t cares (cont’d)
• f(A,B,C,D) = Σ m(1,3,5,7,9) + d(6,12,13)
– f = A'D + C'D
A'D + B'C'D
cares
–f=
A
0
X
0
1
C
0
1
X
1
1
1
0
0
0
X
0
0
B
D
without don't
with don't cares
by using don't care as a "1"
a 2-cube can be formed
rather than a 1-cube to cover
this node
don't cares can be treated as
1s or 0s
depending on which is more
advantageous

31. Design example: two-bit comparator
A B
0 0
N1
N2
A
B
C
D
LT
EQ
GT
AB<CD
AB=CD
AB>CD
1
1
block diagram
and
truth table
0
0
1
1
C
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
D
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
LT
0
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
EQ
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
GT
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
1
0
we'll need a 4-variable Karnaugh map
for each of the 3 output functions

32. Design example: two-bit comparator
(cont’d)
A
A
0
0
0
1
C
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
1
1
1
0
0
A
1
C
0
0
0
D
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
C
1
1
0
D
1
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
B
B
B
K-map for LT
K-map for EQ
D
K-map for GT
LT = A' B' D + A' C + B' C D
EQ = A'B'C'D' + A'BC'D + ABCD + AB'CD’
= (A xnor C) • (B xnor D)
GT = B C' D' + A C' + A B D'
Canonical PofS vs minimal?
LT and GT are similar (flip A/C and B/D)

33. Design example: two-bit comparator
(cont’d)
A
B C
D
two alternative
implementations of EQ
with and without XOR
EQ
EQ
XNOR is implemented with
at least 3 simple gates

34. Design example: 2x2-bit multiplier
A1
A2
B1
B2
P1
P2
P4
P8
block diagram
and
truth table
A2 A1 B2
0 0 0
0
1
1
0 1 0
0
1
1
1 0 0
0
1
1
1 1 0
0
1
1
B1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
P8
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
P4
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
0
P2
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
1
0
4-variable K-map
for each of the 4
output functions
P1
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
1

35. Design example: 2x2-bit multiplier
(cont’d)
A2
0
0
0
0
B2
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
K-map for P8
B1
K-map for P4
P4 = A2B2B1'
+ A2A1'B2
P8 = A2A1B2B1
B2
A2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
1
A1
A1
A2
0
0
0
0
0
B2
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
1
0
A1
B1
K-map for P2
K-map for P1
P1
= A1B1
B1
P2 = A2'A1B2
+ A1B2B1'
+ A2B2'B1
+ A2A1'B1
B2
A2
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
A1
B1

36. Design example: BCD increment by 1
I1
I2
I4
I8
O1
O2
O4
O8
block diagram
and
truth table
I8
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
I4
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
I2
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
I1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
O8
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
X
X
X
X
X
X
O4
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
X
X
X
X
X
X
O2
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
X
X
X
X
X
X
4-variable K-map for each of
the 4 output functions
O1
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
X
X
X
X
X
X

37. Design example: BCD increment by 1
(cont’d)
I8
0
X
1
0
I2
0
0
X
0
0
1
X
X
0
0
X
O8
X
I1
0
X
0
1
I2
0
1
X
0
0
0
X
X
1
1
X
X
I4
O8 = I4 I2 I1 + I8 I1'
O2 = I8’ I2’ I1 + I2 I1'
O2
O1 = I1'
0
1
X
0
0
O4 = I4 I2' + I4 I1' + I4’ I2 I1 I2
I4
I8
O4
I8
1
X
0
1
0
X
X
0
1
X
X
I1
I4
O1
I8
I2
1
X
1
0
I1
1
0
X
0
0
0
X
X
1
1
X
X
I4
I1

38. Definition of terms for two-level
simplification
• Implicant
– Single element of ON-set or DC-set or any group of these elements that can
be combined to form a subcube
• Prime implicant
– Implicant that can't be combined with another to form a larger subcube
• Essential prime implicant
– Prime implicant is essential if it alone covers an element of ON-set
– Will participate in ALL possible covers of the ON-set
– DC-set used to form prime implicants but not to make implicant essential
• Objective:
– Grow implicant into prime implicants (minimize literals per term)
– Cover the ON-set with as few prime implicants as possible
(minimize number of product terms)

39. Examples to illustrate terms
A
0
1
1
1
0
1
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
6 prime implicants:
A'B'D, BC', AC, A'C'D, AB, B'CD
0
1
C
X
B
D
essential
minimum cover: AC + BC' + A'B'D
A
5 prime implicants:
BD, ABC', ACD, A'BC, A'C'D
essential
minimum cover: 4 essential implicants
0
1
0
1
C
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
1
0
1
0
0
B
D

40. Algorithm for two-level simplification
• Algorithm: minimum sum-of-products expression from a Karnaugh
map
– Step 1: choose an element of the ON-set
– Step 2: find "maximal" groupings of 1s and Xs adjacent to that element
• consider top/bottom row, left/right column, and corner adjacencies
• this forms prime implicants (number of elements always a power of 2)
– Repeat Steps 1 and 2 to find all prime implicants
– Step 3: revisit the 1s in the K-map
• if covered by single prime implicant, it is essential, and participates in final cover
• 1s covered by essential prime implicant do not need to be revisited
– Step 4: if there remain 1s not covered by essential prime implicants
• select the smallest number of prime implicants that cover the remaining 1s

41. Algorithm for two-level simplification
(example)
A
A
X
0
1
1
1
0
X
X
0
0
1
0
X
1
D
C
1
1
1
1
0
X
X
0
0
1
0
X
1
C
1
0
0
1
1
1
0
X
X
0
0
1
0
X
1
D
3 primes around AB'C'D'
C
1
0
1
1
1
0
X
X
0
0
1
0
1
B
2 essential primes
1
1
1
1
0
X
X
0
0
1
0
1
D
2 primes around ABC'D
A
1
0
1
0
B
A
X
1
0
D
2 primes around A'BC'D'
A
B
0
B
B
C
1
0
1
0
C
1
A
X
C
0
1
0
D
1
1
1
1
0
X
X
0
0
1
0
1
B
D
minimum cover (3 primes)

42. Summary
• Boolean Algebra provides framework for logic
simplification
• De Morgans transforms between gate types
• Uniting to reduce minterms
• Karnaugh maps provide visual notion of simplifications
• Algorithm for producing reduced form.
• Question: are there programmable logic families that
are simpler than FPGAs for the canonical forms?