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Running head: MUSIC AND GENDER: WOMEN PORTRAYAL
IN RAP 1
MUSIC AND GENDER: WOMEN PORTRAYAL IN RAP
15
Music and Gender: Women Portrayal in Rap Music
Student’s Name:
Course:
Music and Gender: Women Portrayal in Rap Music
The introduction of rap music in the 1980s was welcomed with
a lot positivity. However, this genre of music has on many
occasions been considered as being controversial. Rap music
has been accused of advancing messages and themes that deal
with sexism, violence, gender stereotyping and materialism.
Previous studies on rap music have indicated the content found
in rap music promotes negative behavior. Moreover, research
has shown that rap music videos generally differ in their
portrayals of men and women in music videos. Males are often
cast in positive light compared to females who are depicted in
positions that portray them as a submissive gender to males.
The scope of this research narrows down on rap music produced
from the years 2016 to 2018.The songs selected for this research
are songs with lyrics that have misogynistic themes on women.
Rap songs are observed in normalizing, objectifying, glorifying,

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victimizing and even exploiting women. Moreover, the rap
songs are observed in defaming women through using innuendos
and stereotypical language which portray misogynistic and
sexist perspectives. The main area of focus for this paper is on
the kind of nouns that are used in rap music to refer to the
concept of woman and ways in which these nouns depict
women. It is critical for this project to investigate the lyrics and
its representations, as rap music has in the past years been
under criticism for increasingly presenting a negative and
controversial image of women in the society. A theological
perspective on these issues is undertaken at understanding and
criticizing the misogynistic and sexist culture of rap music
generally.
Men in rap music have a higher probability of perpetuating
violence on women. A review done on the common rap images
found out that women were more likely to be dressed in images
which portrayed them in provocative ways, especially in videos
that had sexual content. Research has suggested that the
perpetuation of gender in the media is a theme which has been
occurring for eons of time[footnoteRef:1]. Specifically, music
and gender and the portrayal of women in rap music has not
been extensively studied previously. It is essential to consider
the differences of gender in rap music and the portrayal of
women in this genre of music. [1: Ronald Weitzer and Charis
E Kubrin, “Articles Misogyny in Rap Music A Content Analysis
of Prevalence and Meanings,” accessed October 23, 2018,
https://doi.org/10.1177/1097184X08327696.]
Although scholars have attempted examining the interactions
between rap music and religion, there has been a gap in regard
to how artists frame religious messages within their lyrics.
However, this lack of sufficient research does not reflect on the
continued fascination of rap music with religion. The roots of
rappers attempting to integrate rap music into Christianity can
be traced down to rappers from the 1980s such as Rakim and
KRS One. These rappers rhymed occasionally on the need of

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adhering to Muslim and Christian teachings. By the early 1990s,
this era ushered in rappers the likes of 2pac who presented
lyrics which conflicted religion and the concept of higher power
that had never been occasioned in rap music. Before his death,
the rapper 2pac would be considered as a catalyst who played a
critical role in the manner in which rappers and artists allied to
rap music addressed religion. Even though little research has
been done on analyzing how the lyrical content of rap music has
changed from the time 2pac become an established rapper, the
influence played by succeeding rappers on matters of religion
and spirituality can be observed as one that has waned off
significantly.
Undertaking a critical evaluation of the current rap music
images would enable in filling the gap within literature that had
overlooked positive and negative portrayals of women in rap
music. The manner in which the structure of lyrics and words of
a song are composed plays an impact in regards to how the
themes sang are perceived. Interpretation and appearance of
songs depends on the images and choice of words that have
been used by the artist[footnoteRef:2]. Song writers are often
affected by the cultural circumstances that surround them, hence
when writing or composing songs, the genres are affected by the
cultures. The genre of rap music is considered as one of the four
building blocks in the music culture of hip hop. [2: Kalmar.
Vaxjo, “The Depiction of Women in Rap and Pop Lyrics,” n.d.]
The beliefs and customs of a society are generally reflected in
music. In a patriarchal society, music generated from this epoch
may have effects on the subcultures existing in this culture,
which may in turn lead to inequalities distortions of identities
of individuals. Any kind of music that asserts the above points
may be regarded as being sexist and as such, it would
potentially lead into making the listeners supporting sexist
ideologies. A particular study found out that young black
women who were exposed to nonviolent sexist music tended to
accept violence that was directed towards them, then were their

4.
counterparts who were never exposed to such kind of rap
music[footnoteRef:3]. [3: Teresa A Treat et al., “Influence of
Sexually Degrading Music on Men’s Perceptions of Women’s
Dating-Relevant Cues; Influence of Sexually Degrading Music
on Men’s Perceptions of Women’s Dating-Relevant Cues,”
2014, https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.3084.]
In yet another study, it found out that men who listened to
gangster rap music tended to view relationships with women as
being adversarial unlike men who did not listen to gangster rap
music. From a theological standpoint, the above perspectives
are due to the society alienating itself from morals which had in
the past served as the yardstick in guiding the societies into
living harmoniously. Rap music does not borrow any form of
theological perspectives in its subculture and this points out
why this genre of music employs a lot of foul language towards
women in its lyrics.
Most rap songs are identified as having subtle themes of sexism
in their lyrics. Sexism should in the context of rap music should
be understood as being beyond the typical dislike of women.
Instead, it is regarded as taking three main subtypes, ambivalent
sexism, hostile sexism and benevolent sexism. Hostile sexism
entails dominative paternalism and it is thought that men are
supposed to have more power than women. Hostile sexism
comprises hostile attitudes and actions towards the women.
Moreover, in this subcategory, men are seen exerting their
powers over women mostly in sexual relationships. This kind
power that is exerted by men towards women often makes the
men view women as sexual objects and may even use violence
against them[footnoteRef:4]. Benevolent sexism is on the other
hand considered as a subtype which entails protective
paternalism and that it is thought out that there are periods in
time when men depend on women to a certain
extent[footnoteRef:5]. Although the gestures of providing and
protecting women may be observed as being nice, it is
considered as being sexist due to it portraying women as

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needing protection from men. This implies that women must
depend on men as their protectors and providers. Hostile sexism
and benevolent sexism are both viewed as leading the
perception of women being ready to accept the dominance of
men instead of challenging this dominance. Hence, women are
observed as challenging the dominance of men, they are
punished with hostile sexism while women who are observed as
complying into the conventional gender rules they are rewarded
with the benevolent sexism. [4: William T. Hoston, “We All
Came from a Woman: Rap Music and Misogyny,” in Black
Masculinity in the Obama Era (New York: Palgrave Macmillan
US, 2014), 41–65, https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137430472_3.]
[5: Ellen S Nikodym, “The Effects of Objectifying Hip-Hop
Lyrics on Female Listeners,” 2013,
http://digitalcommons.macalester.edu/psychology_honorshttp://
digitalcommons.macalester.edu/psychology_honors/31.]
The above assertions on sexism from various literature reviews
reinforce the idea that sexist lyrics such as those that are
composed in rap music affect their listeners adversely. Some
researchers suggest that the lyrical content found in a song is
equally significant as the responses the song receives due to the
lyrics may indirectly and directly affect the response. Hence,
the there is a high likelihood of the potential lyrical impact
becoming an issue when factors such as stereotyping priming
and spreading activation are considered. Stereotyping priming is
regarded to occur whenever a stimulus leads into information of
a group or category being activated in the memory.
Spreading activation does add the idea that bits of information
are interconnected in the memory, and as such, depending on
the relatedness of bits of information to another, an activation
of one bit of information in the memory would lead into the
activation of related bits of information in the memory. This
process is replicated in the activation of sexism. Studies have
suggested that lyrics of songs do not necessarily have to have
sexist theme to expose individuals into sexism[footnoteRef:6].

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However, if the genre of music is strongly related into having
themes of sexism, then it is apparent that issues pertaining to
sexism would be activated in the minds of the listeners. [6:
Sandra C Zichermann, “The Effects of Hip-Hop and Rap on
Young Women in Academia,” 2013,
https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/bitstream/1807/36081/1/Zicher
mann_Sandra_C_201306_EDD_thesis.pdf.]
The priming paradigm may elaborate on the misogynous
messages that are found in rap music. The perspective on
priming argues out that the musical themes of rap music are
actually structured around social constructs which are
schematically represented in the memory. During viewing and
listening to rap music, the social schemas which are primed in
the memory are observed being activated the more and the
thoughts created are subsequently used in consequent
interactions and judgements. This explains why the misogynous
themes that are prevalent in rap music often find themselves
being presented in the minds of artists and would be artists
because of the exposure to early rap songs. This in turn leads
into the listeners likely being positively oriented into forming
aggressive thoughts as well as anti-women attitudes which are
subsequently manifested in various rap music
The nouns that are employed in rap songs have misogynistic and
sexist themes. An interpretation of the context in which the
nouns in these songs has been used requires to undertake
presumptions of what the general interpretation of these songs
means. The most common nouns that are employed in several
selected rap songs are bitch/bitches, babe, girl/girls, baby girl,
baby hoe and whore. The singular and plural form of these
nouns are observed in a number of songs. However, in most
songs the plural form of the derogatory nouns about women are
seen recurring. For instance, the noun bitches is markedly more
frequent in most rap songs. The song by Drake Kiki Do You
Love me is for instance observed using the noun bitch referring
to a woman. His lyrics mention that two bad women who go

7.
kissing each other. The other noun that is often used in rap
music to denote women is the noun baby. This noun can be used
positively or negatively towards denoting women. There are
other times when this noun is ambiguous and drawing the line
between being negative or positive becomes
challenging[footnoteRef:7]. The song by Drake, Kiki Do You
Love Me the lyrics are as below. [7: Vincent C Bates, Brent C
Talbot, and Evan S Tobias, “A Refereed Journal of the Action
for Change in Music Education Flipping the Misogynist Script:
Gender, Agency,Hip Hop and Music Education,” Criticism &
Theory for Music Education I S S N 1, vol. 5, 2014,
http://act.maydaygroup.org/articles/Tobias13_2.pdf.]
Two bad bitches and we kissin' in the Wraith
Kissin'-kissin' in the Wraith, kiss-kissin' in the Wraith
I need that black card and the code to the safe
It is evident that this song, the usage of the noun bitches
denotes two women The artist is seen degrading the women he
refers in the song by indicating that he can go on two have two
women whom he can kiss with no feelings of infidelity.
Critiquing this from a theological perspective, it is evident that
rap music advances the notion that men can have as many
concubines or women with no repercussions from the society.
This is contrary to several theological beliefs which teach on
relationships between the opposite gender being limited
between one partner only. This may mean that using vulgar
words in rap songs may necessarily not be used in determining
the context of the songs as being either positive or negative
whenever referring to women. For instance, in the lyrics below
by Sheck Wes on Mo Bamba, the artist sings that
I got hoes calling a young n---a phone
Where's Ali with the motherfucking dope? (bitch, bitch)
I be ballin' like a mo'fuckin' pro
The instance above depicts the artist using sexist and
misogynistic terms towards portraying women in his
songs[footnoteRef:8]. Furthermore, the artist in this song

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clearly raps about hitting on women with no potential
consequences that would befall him. The lyric above is further
sexual and vulgar and it portrays women as being somehow
light-footed women. [8: Kate Conrad, Travis Dixon, and
Yuanyuan. Zhang, “Controversial Rap Themes, Gender
Portrayals and Skin Tone Distortion: A Content Analysis of Rap
Music Videos. Media.,” Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic
Media, 2009.]
In a review of most rap songs, it was observed that most
females in the rap videos were dressed provocatively, especially
during sexual scenes. Additionally, it was found out that women
in these rap videos were more than likely to be associated with
themes of misogyny. This is evident in the rap song Bounce Out
With That by YBN Nahmir. In this song, the artist clearly
downgrades women by referring them to bitch and mentions that
he will take her to his clique. In the preceding lines, he
highlights that he has no time for bitches.
Take a nigga bitch and then I pass her to the clique (grra, pow,
pow, pow)
I say, see me, I don't got no time for no bitch (time for no bitch)
Fuck a bitch and then I put it in a bitch throat (bitch throat)
Never give a bitch yo' phone, that's a no no (hell nah)
This is because previous research pointed out that the themes
that are found in rap music encouraged an acceptance of
degrading actions towards the women. It can be argued out that
the prominence of misogyny as theme in rap music maybe as
well be related to the expressions of the viewers harboring
similar attitudes in their own lives, this may include
objectifying the women.
In yet other most viewed rap songs in YouTube in 2018, the
theme of misogyny is still palpable. For instance, the top rap
song Keke by 6ix9ine, the lyrics of the song are:
Bitches sucking dick, giving top, on the regular
Catch me water whipping straight drop, on the regular
On the other hand, female rappers are also observed continuing

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the theme of misogyny and sexism in their song lyrics. The
artist Nicki Minaj in her song Chun-Li, she sings that:
Dunked on 'em, now I'm swingin' off the rim
Bitch ain't comin' off the bench
The artist Cardi B, YG also lyrics in her song She Bad:
Dat ass, dat ass, dat ass, dat ass
She bad, she bad, she bad, she bad
Damn daddy, you fine as hell
I hope your wallet got condoms in it
I'm up, she mad, I'm first, she's last (yeah
From these representations, it is evident that the theme of
misogyny is highly acceptable within the circles of rap culture.
The objectification of women in both male and female rap songs
is collectively done. The culture of rap music acceptance of
degrading women in the rap songs and videos is premised
occurring below consciousness. This in turn results in
heightened accessibility of sexist and misogynistic constructs
which are because of chronic activation of misogynistic rap
themes over time.
In as much various scholars have argued out against rap music
as being highly misogynistic and sexist, a body of other
scholars point out that this genre of music is portrayal of
cultural experience that is deeply rooted in the African
American culture. They point out that rap music is deeply
rooted in the African American traditions like toasting,
signifying and playing the dozens. It is also contented that rap
music rose from the oppressive culture African Americans had
underwent in the U.S. Accordingly, rap is seen as pointing out
the fingers towards the oppressive structures and used it as a
vehicle resisting unfair treatment. Media scholars who have
examined the relationship between media consumption and
African Americans found out that African Americans used a
cultural lens that allowed them to identify with the media
content as well as strengthen their collective self-esteem. In
doing so, it allows their self-esteem being positively managed.
Empirical research examining the role of collective self-esteem

10.
and culture in relation to the production and consumption of rap
music, has however indicated how this genre of music can be
used in advancing violent and misogynistic themes. One of the
strongest findings point out that violent and misogynistic
themes in rap music can prime misogynistic and violent
thoughts. An exposure towards rap music which is laden with
sexual imagery gravitated towards creating unfavorable
evaluations on black women. In a study, it was found out that
misogynous music particularly facilitated sexually aggressive
behaviors and supported relationships between sexual
aggression and cognitive distortions. Studies have also
suggested that women who viewed rap videos of women in
sexually subordinate roles were shown to have greater
acceptance than females who had not been exposed into these
types of music.
In other rap songs, such as the song by Kanye West &Lil Pump
I Love It, the lyrics of the song are as follows;
They had the fake orgasms and shit
We can tell n---as today "hey, I wanna cum, mothafucka"
You're such a fuckin' ho, I love it (I love it)
You're such a fuckin' ho, I love
Fucked that bitch up out in London (up out in)
Then I fucked up on her cousin
Or her sister, I don't know nothin' (uh-uh, woo)
And my n---as gettin' ignorant
Like a lighter, bitch, we ignant
The artists Tyga featuring Offset in their song Taste they sing
that:
And my bitch want the Fenty, not the Maybelline
I'm the black JB the way these bitches scream
Make these bitches scream
Pretty little thing
The artist Juice WRLD in his song Lucid Dreams he sings that
was tangled up in your drastic ways
Who knew evil girls have the prettiest face
You gave me a heart that was full of mistakes

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I gave you my heart and you made heart break
You made my heart break
The artist Travis Scott in his song Sicko Mode, he sings that
Told her "hop in, you comin' too"
In the 305, bitches treat me like I'm Uncle Luke
(Don't stop, pop that pussy!)
From the above songs by Travis Scott, Juice WRLD, Tyga &
Offset, Kanye West and Lil Pump, the artists use vulgar and
derogatory nouns towards women. What is evident is the way
the adjoining lyrics of their songs are very vulgar and sexual
when portraying the women[footnoteRef:9]. The message used
in these rap songs is one which attempts to portray women as
being easy sexual objects who seem to be ready at accepting
whatever sexual actions the artists would want to perform on
them. Hence, the impression that is created from these songs
and rap music generally is that women are supposed to be
subordinate to what men say towards them. From the above
songs, women are supposed not to raise any issues in regard to
how they are portrayed by the male gender in rap
music[footnoteRef:10]. [9: Gretchen Cundiff, “The Influence
of Rap/Hip-Hop Music: A Mixed-Method Analysis by Gretchen
Cundiff-71 The Influence of Rap/Hip-Hop Music: A Mixed-
Method Analysis on Audience Perceptions of Misogynistic
Lyrics and the Issue of Domestic Violence,” accessed October
23, 2018,
https://www.elon.edu/u/academics/communications/journal/wp-
content/uploads/sites/153/2017/06/02CundiffEJSpring13.pdf.]
[10: Vaxjo, “The Depiction of Women in Rap and Pop Lyrics.”]
Undertaking a theological perspective in evaluating the above
rap songs, it is quite clear that the contemporary Christian
churches have attempted challenging the cultural experience
that is shared in the culture of rap music. Using the teachings of
Christianity in this paper, it is understandable that this religion
provides a diversity to its members. There are various Cristian
churches that have various differing beliefs and practices. Most

12.
of the Christian teachings attempt to teach and emphasize on the
need of respecting women in society. However, the themes that
are found in most rap songs as evidenced the songs analyzed
above portray a culture which continually leans towards
degrading women. Secular rap music has a tremendous influence
over the young generation, and the message that is imparted on
the individuals listening to this genre of music is one which is
skewed towards misogynistic and sexist leanings.
It is a fact that nouns that have negative value are very much
used within the circles of rap music, Hence, this likely
corresponds to the believe that rap music expresses the central
assumptions of the cultures they originate. It is no wonder that
the lyrics mentioned above in this paper depict and portray the
cultural message within the subculture of rap music. Most of the
nouns that highlight women in the songs are observed as having
negative value, these characterizes the genre of rap music and
carries the cultural message of misogyny and the degradation of
women as being an acceptable practice within the rap culture.
The culture in rap music is one which the artists tend to portray
themselves as being tough and powerful through super-
ordaining themselves towards women. Majority of the rap artists
use vulgar and expletive words such as hoe and bitch, a clear
indication of their super ordination. This means that the artists
perceive themselves as being superior to the women they are
rapping about. The rap culture and music are one which tends to
create the image of men as being the ruling gender and the
tendency is one in which the men artists subordinate women to
maintain tough and powerful image. Interactions between both
genders are ubiquitous with the male gender often manifesting
its powerful image[footnoteRef:11]. Men generally tend to
portray an image of being the ruling gender, in the presence of
media this tend to escalate into the men portraying women
around them being stupid. The rap subculture in most cases
manifests these characters in the media through the song lyrics
the male gender sing. [11: Weitzer and Kubrin, “Articles
Misogyny in Rap Music A Content Analysis of Prevalence and

13.
Meanings.”]
The construction of the social self is created when human
beings interact with each other. The perspective created depends
on the language and gender that is in play. The origins of hip-
hop culture, in which rap music is a prominent subculture is
considered as being from Bronx. The language that was being
used in this region during this time spread and had influence on
the music of this region. Hence, in consideration of the hip hop
culture and its subculture of rap music it is evident that a
significant part of these songs has employed foul language as
being a natural feature in the song lyrics[footnoteRef:12]. It is
argued out that individuals in this culture, the usage of vulgar
language in rap songs and in normal conversations may be
regarded as being a norm and is not seriously considered as
being offensive as when other individuals who do not belong to
this culture perceive it. [12: Sarah Neff, “Sexism Across
Musical Genres: A Comparison,” 2014,
http://scholarworks.wmich.edu/honors_theses.]
In summary, it is evident from the above arguments that the
usage of misogynistic, degrading and sexist language in rap
music towards women is a feature which has been practiced for
long. Rap music subculture falls under the culture of hip-hop
and it is observed that the usual intonation of language used by
male artistes whenever addressing women in their lyrical is
heavily concentrated with language which is foul and
derogatory towards women. From a theological viewpoint, the
patriarchal nature that is observed in most of teachings and
readings is extended into the secular culture and is worsened off
when subcultures within the main cultures employ the usage of
misogynistic and sexist language when communicating or
interacting with the female gender. Rap music generally leans
towards a subculture where women are addressed through names
and noun which are vulgar and sexist.

14.
Bibliography
Bates, Vincent C, Brent C Talbot, and Evan S Tobias. “A
Refereed Journal of the Action for Change in Music Education
Flipping the Misogynist Script: Gender, Agency,Hip Hop and
Music Education.” Criticism & Theory for Music Education I S
S N 1. Vol. 5, 2014.
http://act.maydaygroup.org/articles/Tobias13_2.pdf.
Conrad, Kate, Travis Dixon, and Yuanyuan. Zhang.
“Controversial Rap Themes, Gender Portrayals and Skin Tone
Distortion: A Content Analysis of Rap Music Videos. Media.”
Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 2009.
Cundiff, Gretchen. “The Influence of Rap/Hip-Hop Music: A
Mixed-Method Analysis by Gretchen Cundiff-71 The Influence
of Rap/Hip-Hop Music: A Mixed-Method Analysis on Audience
Perceptions of Misogynistic Lyrics and the Issue of Domestic
Violence.” Accessed October 23, 2018.
https://www.elon.edu/u/academics/communications/journal/wp-
content/uploads/sites/153/2017/06/02CundiffEJSpring13.pdf.
Hoston, William T. “We All Came from a Woman: Rap Music
and Misogyny.” In Black Masculinity in the Obama Era, 41–65.
New York: Palgrave Macmillan US, 2014.
https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137430472_3.
Neff, Sarah. “Sexism Across Musical Genres: A Comparison,”
2014. http://scholarworks.wmich.edu/honors_theses.
Nikodym, Ellen S. “The Effects of Objectifying Hip-Hop Lyrics
on Female Listeners,” 2013.
http://digitalcommons.macalester.edu/psychology_honorshttp://
digitalcommons.macalester.edu/psychology_honors/31.
Treat, Teresa A, Coreen A Farris, Richard J Viken, and Jodi R
Smith. “Influence of Sexually Degrading Music on Men’s
Perceptions of Women’s Dating-Relevant Cues; Influence of
Sexually Degrading Music on Men’s Perceptions of Women’s

15.
Dating-Relevant Cues,” 2014. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.3084.
Vaxjo, Kalmar. “The Depiction of Women in Rap and Pop
Lyrics,” n.d.
Weitzer, Ronald, and Charis E Kubrin. “Articles Misogyny in
Rap Music A Content Analysis of Prevalence and Meanings.”
Accessed October 23, 2018.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1097184X08327696.
Zichermann, Sandra C. “The Effects of Hip-Hop and Rap on
Young Women in Academia,” 2013.
https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/bitstream/1807/36081/1/Zicher
mann_Sandra_C_201306_EDD_thesis.pdf.
Introduction
Misogyny and degradation of women in music have become a
common phenomenon in the world today. Rap music is often the
most implicated music genre.
The research essay proposal
This proposal outlines the main areas of focus for the research
essay as well as the main parameters for the paper. The research
essay aims at investigating previous studies on the topic as well
as song lyrics within rap music from a theological perspective,
focusing on how women are portrayed in this type of music. The

16.
scope of this study will cover rap music that toped the billboard
charts for the highest number of days for the past 4 years. Also,
it will include 5 most viewed rap videos ever on YouTube The
main area of focus for this investigation is on the kind of nouns
that are used in rap music to refer to the concept of WOMAN
and ways in which these nouns depict women. Focus will also
be placed on the images of rap music videos, as this can also
indicate how women are portrayed. It is critical for this project
to investigate the lyrics and its representations, as rap music has
in the past years been under criticism for increasingly
presenting a negative and controversial image of women in the
society.
The following activities will be crucial in writing the research
essay:
· Identify previous works of research relevant to this study
and present a literature review.
· Research and collect visual and audio texts relevant to the
study. This will also involve analyzing lyrics from several rap
songs.
· Analyze the findings of the research essay from a
theological perspective to support or refute existing literature
from previous studies regarding the research topic.
· Create a conclusion on the portrayal of women in rap
music based on the findings of the research.
Topic: Music & Gender
· Portrayal of women in rap music
-A half-page essay/project topic proposal should be submitted
to the instructors in advance. The proposal should briefly
describe the nature of the essay or project and its parameters. (
Attached the proposal too)

17.
-Length: 2700-3000 words (research essay)
Topics may be developed in the form of a research essay or they
may take the form of a project that may include field research,
visual or audio components, scrapbook, collages, murals, etc.
The project or essay may be done either individually or in a
group depending on the nature of the project or essay. While
many of the themes listed are “secular” in nature, all projects
and essays should include some theological reflection or
interaction with the subject matter (for example, a Biblical
perspective on the subject matter). A good essay/project is one
that is well-focused.
Essays must conform to university standards for academic
writing. All students must read the introductory guide
“Guidelines for Essay Writing” that is posted below. Various
academic writing manuals that provide more details.
Recommended: A Pocket Style Manual, by Diana Hacker,
(Bedford Books) (web-site supports:
http://www.bedfordstmartins.com/hacker/pocket/). In this
course instructors prefer that documentation be provided
according to the University of Chicago Style (Turabian). If
documentation/referencing is not included, the essay/projects
will be returned unmarked.

18.
Some Guidelines for Essay Writing
Listed below are a number of guidelines to help you as students
in the writing of your essays, so that you will be able to
communicate your ideas in a clear, concise, convincing, and
pleasing manner. Each of the points is a direct response to
problems that occur frequently. Because this handout is
distributed to a variety of classes, not all the individual
guidelines may be relevant to every essay assignment., A Pocket
Style Manual (6th edition; Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2012).
1. If you are choosing your own topic, be careful to define the
topic clearly. Be specific. Do not choose a topic so vague, or
general, or broad that it is difficult to get handles on it or make
any significant points about it.
2. Follow all the assignment instructions carefully. This
guideline seems so obvious, but is frequently neglected.
3. Before you start writing the essay review your research notes
and decide exactly what you wish to accomplish, or
demonstrate, or communicate in your essay. How you organize
the essay and what information you include and exclude, should
be determined by the basic purpose of the essay.
4. Start the essay with a brief introductory paragraph that
clearly outlines the purpose, focus, or thesis of the essay.
5. Conclude the essay with a paragraph or section that sums
things up in some way or brings the essay to a meaningful close.
6. Pay attention to paragraphing. Stick to onemajor idea per
paragraph. A change in topic is generally reason for starting a
new paragraph. Usually paragraphs should not be longer than
about half a page. Avoid short paragraphs of only one or two

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sentences. They lead to a choppy writing style lacking in
continuity.
7. Avoid run-on sentences, i.e., long complex sentences that go
on and on. Simply divide such sentences in two.
8. Organize your essay into sections. Use headings and/or sub-
headings where appropriate. If you have difficulty organizing
your material, then draw up an outline before beginning to
write. When you are done writing ask if someone reading your
paper for the first time could easily discern its outline, just by
skimming over the essay again. This should be possible even if
you have not written up an outline but only have one in your
head.
9. Make sure that the flow of material in the essay is logical. Do
the ideas of each sentence, paragraph, or section flow naturally
from the ideas of the previous one? Do they lead logically into
what follows? While writing always keep asking yourself if
what you are writing is relevant to the topic. Should certain
information be omitted, or would it fit better in another place?
10. Make sure to include enough information or discussion so
that your important ideas and points are explained in enough
detail.
11. Make sure that every pronoun has a clear antecedent, i.e.,
word or words that it refers back to. The lack of clear
antecedents is one of the most common grammatical errors.
Here is an example from an old assignment: “By the year 200
B.C.E. the books called the prophets had been edited and
grouped together by anonymous Jewish scribes. Theyseemed to
be important.” The last sentence is ambiguous because they
could refer to books, or prophets, or scribes.
12. Pronouns must agree with their antecedents in number, i.e.,

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a singular noun takes a singular pronoun while a plural noun
takes a plural pronoun. Here is an example from an old
assignment: “Did a prophetspeak the thoughts of his own mind,
or did theyspeak only messages from God?” To correct this
error simply change they to he.
13. Generally, it is best to avoid contractions like, I’m, I’ll,
don’t, can’t, won’t. Use the full forms, I am, I will, do not,
cannot, will not.
14. Generally, the verb tense should not be changed within a
paragraph. Here is an example from an old assignment: “In
chapter seven Jeremiah is speaking to the people gathered at the
Jerusalem temple. [several sentences later] Jeremiah
condemnedhis listeners for their false worship.” The tense
should not be changed from present to past, and so in the latter
sentence condemned should be replaced by condemns.
15. Essays should always be double-spaced, with ca. 2.5 cm.
margins on all sides of the page.
16. The essay should be as neat and attractive as possible. A
sloppy essay is not pleasing to read and gives the impression
that the thinking behind the essay is also sloppy.
17. Always number all pages except the title page.
18. Use non-sexist inclusive language at all times. If you are
referring to human beings in general, use words like human,
persons, people, etc., instead of man and men. The meanings of
words change over time, and many people no longer feel that
words like man and men refer to all persons but only to males.
(Do men feel included when the term women is used?) Instead
of, “Man’s quest for meaning,” write, “The human quest for
meaning.”

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19. Important ideas, pieces of information, or quotations taken
from other sources must be cited. There are several reasons for
this. One is that borrowing important ideas or material without
giving credit to the originator of these ideas is considered a
form of theft called plagiarism. Another reason is that proper
documentation allows the readers of your work to consult for
themselves the important sources which you have utilized, and
to check the accuracy with which you have quoted or used facts
and opinions.
Diana Hacker, A Pocket Style Manual (6th edition; Boston:
Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2012), provides a helpful outline of how
to document your work properly. In the field of biblical studies
most scholarly works use what is called the Chicago style of
documentation, and so that is what you should use in your essay
for this course.
All the works which you have consulted in the writing of your
essay, except such common works as dictionaries and the Bible,
should be included in the bibliography. The bibliography should
appear on a separate page at the end of the essay. Entries should
be listed alphabetically according to the last name of the author.
20. When making important points about a biblical text, the
argument should be supported with either a reference to the text
or in some cases with a direct quotation. Biblical references
should appear in the body of the essay not in a footnote. E.g.:
On one occasion Jeremiah is instructed by God to proclaim a
message at the temple (Jer. 7:1-2). This message opens with a
plea for repentance, “Thus says the LORD of hosts, the God of
Israel, amend your ways and your doings, and I will let you
dwell in this place” (Jer. 7:3).
21. After writing the first draft of your essay re-read and edit it.
Revise and edit it again and again. Check grammar, spelling,
punctuation, etc. Ask if the material is organized in the most

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logical way; ask if certain points are irrelevant and should be
omitted; ask if certain points are unclear and need elaboration
or need to be expressed differently. Editing may be tedious but
it can make the difference between a mediocre and an excellent
essay.
22. Always proof-read your essay carefully, especially after you
have printed it, and make sure that the pages are in the correct
order.
23. As you struggle to master the sometimes frustrating details
of proper essay writing, remember that as you practice proper
techniques they become easier and eventually become second
nature. Also remember that you are not just striving to get a
good mark on one specific assignment, but you are acquiring
important writing skills that will be useful in a host of
involvements and careers in our contemporary society. The
ability to convey information and express ideas in a clear,
convincing, and appealing manner, is a valuable skill in and of
itself and is also highly sought after by many employers.