1. Detecting Deception
Using behavioral cues and emotion displays to
detect deception in interpersonal communication
David A. Berglund, 2010
2. Goals of Presentation
To inform you about the role of deception in interpersonal
communication
The primary concepts covered will include:
1. non-verbal communication
2. vocalics
3. lie-detection theory
3. Benefits of Lie Detection
Lies are common in interpersonal communication (B. M. DePaulo & Kashy,
1998)
Being able to detect deception at work, home, and in social
situations is beneficial because it allows individuals to ascertain
other’s true (in contradiction to implicit) beliefs and thoughts
While some lies are told to comply with social norms (“you
look great in that hat!”), others can be deleterious to society or
the lie’s receiver
4. Deception: Definition
“Deception is an intentional conscious act that fosters in another person
a belief or understanding which the deceiver considers false”(Zuckerman, et al.,
1981)
This presentation will extend this definition to also include any
concealment, omission, or exaggeration of information
The term deception and lying (lies) will be interchanged throughout this
presentation, as their functional definitions are much the same
5. Lies: Motivation
Lying is a common communication strategy (Bok, 1978; Zuckerman et al., 1981)
It is often used to help minimizing costs and maximizing rewards in
interpersonal communication
It can be an adaptive strategy for survival
For many, honesty is not always the best policy (Turner et al, 1975)
Turner et al. 1975 - led a study with a group of individuals to monitor
conversations and found that only one-third were totally honest
6. 5 Motivations for Lying
1. Save face (one’s self/other’s)
2. Maintain/maximize/terminate a relationship
3. Establish, maximize, maintain power or influence over the partner
4. Avoid tension/conflict
5. Maintain, redirect, or terminate social interactions
(Turner et al., 1975)
7. Deception Detection Theories
Many theories on deception detection have been postulated.
The most popular theory focuses on role of emotion in
interpersonal communication
8. Assumptions of Deception Detection
1. Individuals do not want to get caught lying
Sub-premise: People try to not give clues as to when they
are lying
2. Emotional Reactions automatically occur in people when they
lie
3. Emotional Reactions cause physiological reactions and lead to
behavioral cues in individuals
4. Behavioral cues can be decoded to determine when people are
lying
9. Autonomic Emotional Arousal .
Deceivers have affective/physiological reactions from lies which are
then reflected in non-verbal behavior (Zuckerman et. al., 1981)
Possible causes:
The question that evokes one to tell a lie, or the lie itself, is linked
with unpleasant or traumatic experiences that took place during
previous deceptions
Anxiety/guilt about potential detection
Overeagerness to be conclude communication
“Duping delight” about not being caught
Generalized arousal
Conflicting desire to tell truth/not tell truth
Anticipation of punishment
10. Leakage of Emotion
Ekman and Friesen (1969) came up with leakage hypothesis of
deception:
deceivers attempt to hide their nonverbal presentations during
deception for fear of being detected, but behavioral cues continue to
manifest
Displays of emotion are not necessarily signs of deception, but in
concert with other behavioral clues, can indicate deceptive intent
Examples:
Less pleasant facial reactions and vocalic reactions
More nonverbal adapters
Less immediacy (decrease in eye contact, less direct body
orientation, decreased proximity, less illustrators)
Increased Pupil dilation
Increased blinking rate
Increased vocal pitch
Increased speech disturbances
11. Polygraphy Concepts
The science of polygraphy utilizes these theories of emotion expression
and deception
Theory: Deviation from autonomic physiologic baseline established
by truthful answers indicates that respondent is lying
Polygraph machines (lie detectors) monitor the physiological
waveforms of:
1. Blood Pressure
2. Heart Rate
3. Respiration
4. Palmar Sweating Response
12. Limbic Roots of Emotion
Limbic system:
Set of brain structures (hippocampus, thalamus, and amygdala
among others) which moderates emotional expression (Mega et. al.,
1997).
Humans have innate response to fear-inducing stimuli:
1. Freeze
2. Flight
3. Fight
Other emotions (joy, anger, sadness) produce categorically different
behavioral/physiological reactions that can be categorized by various
classifications
Researchers postulate that these innate reactions are evolutionary
responses that allows species to both cope with their environment (e.g.,
predators, other threats) as well as to interact effectively as social groups
(provide comfort, pacify)
13. Primary Emotions
According to Paul Ekman (2007) there are five primary emotions
1. Sadness
2. Joyful emotions
3. Disgust
4. Fear/surprise
5. Anger
The ability to recognize these emotions is critical in deception detection,
as many times individuals attempt to conceal their true emotions (and
autonomic behavioral cues)
Answers to specific questions in an interview can then reveal genuine
opinions/thoughts that one is otherwise trying to conceal
14. Emotional Expressions
Ekman (2007) postulates that their are four ways for people to express
emotions
1. Full
2. Microexpression
3. Restricted
4. Slight
15. Emotional Expressions
Ekman (2007) postulates that their are four ways for people to express
emotions
1. Full:
standard emotional response without suppression
2. Microexpression
3. Restricted
4. Slight
16. Emotional Expressions
Ekman (2007) postulates that their are four ways for people to express
emotions
1. Full
2. Microexpression:
immediate and autonomic emotional response that lasts for less
than a second
3. Restricted
4. Slight
17. Emotional Expressions
Ekman (2007) postulates that their are four ways for people to express
emotions
1. Full
2. Microexpression
3. Restricted:
emotional reaction that individual attempts to conceal or disguise
4. Slight
18. Emotional Expressions
Ekman (2007) postulates that their are four ways for people to express
emotions
1. Full
2. Microexpression
3. Restricted
4. Slight:
Beginning/end of emotional reaction
Weak emotion
Diminished emotion
Failed attempt to conceal emotion
19. Microexpressions
Microexpressions stem from two conditions:
Deliberate attempt to conceal emotion
Unconscious suppression of emotion
Unlike regular facial expressions, they are difficult to mask
They utilize same facial muscles as regular emotions and are
expressed in the same manner, but are very brief in nature (up to
1/25th of a second)
The popular television series “Lie to Me” focuses on these types of
expression
(Ekman, 2007)
20. Types of Liars
Liars express deception in different ways depending upon their type
Occasional liar: will display standard emotional response (most
common, and discussed in this presentation)
Frequent liar: lie more often than occasional liars and are less
uncomfortable with lying; therefore, they show restricted
behavioral cues
Habitual liar: rare; show very few behavioral indicators of
deception, though can be easy to catch due to carelessness in the
stories/lies told
Professional liar: “lie for a purpose” (Dimitrius, & Mazzarella, 1999)
well-versed in lying; prepare for lies; hardest to identify; rarely
display emotional reactions
21. Behavioral Expectations of Honesty
General responses accompanying honest communication:
1. Relaxed posture
2. Open orientation
3. Good eye contact
4. Stable physiology
Habitual and professional liars cues:
have been modified over time and may not display emotional cues
expected by the answers provided
Keep in mind that nonverbal cues displayed by a particular subject are
a function of personality, motivation, planning, and age
22. Behavioral Signs of Dishonesty
Shifting eyes/wandering eyes Action that obscures eyes, face,
mouth
Fidgeting
Running tongue over teeth
Rapid speech
Leaning forward
Changes in voice
Inappropriate familiarity -
Shifting back and forth on backslapping, other touching
feet or in chair
Sweating
Signs of nervousness
Shaking
Exaggerated version of
“sincere, furrowed-brow Licking lips
look”
(Dimitrius, & Mazzarella, 1999)
24. Behavioral Signs of Dishonesty cont.
It is too general of a statement to say that all signs of deception stem
from increases in anxiety
we know that other emotions take place (e.g., fear of being detected,
guilt from telling lie)
It is important to look for other emotions besides anxiety
Strategic anxiety (as a feigned emotion) can be confused with
inadvertently leaked anxiety
this can make it difficult to gauge cue display
In monitoring affective reactions, also monitor for masking or simulated
emotions (exaggerated reactions to questions)
Channel discrepancies
inconsistent messages being transmitted through various channels
25. Concealing Leakage
Many people attempt to conceal leakage with goal of evading detection
Three factors that shape communications between individuals
1. Internal feedback
emotion response/regulation in individuals
2. Sending capacity
standard magnitude/style of expressed emotion
3. External feedback
reactions of environment/persons to answers provided
Each factor affects presentation of subject throughout the give and take
of an interview
26. Four Factors Affecting Leakage
1. Attempted control
does the subject try to convince you of his innocence?
2. Affective reactions
how strongly one feels the level of emotional during the point in
question
3. Arousal
a general excited response or physical stimulation before questioning
4. Cognitive processing
capacity for intellectual thought and ability to evaluate the questions
posed and potential outcomes of specific answers
27. Machiavellianism
Person’s with Machiavellianism personality type:
1. see lying as justified means to end
2. do not have same strength of negative emotional reactions
3. are more skilled at controlling spontaneous reactions
4. are less likely to confess when pressured
Trait does not consistently affect deception, but when it does it results in
more successful nonverbal presentations
Presentation: more eye contact, larger benefit is in “hamming”
28. Traits Affecting Cue Display cont.
Self-monitoring
Personality type in which individuals focus intently on
regulating their behavior to influence others’ perception of
themselves in a positive manner
There is inconsistent whether those scoring high in the self-
monitoring trait are more capable at avoiding detection
Character traits
dominance, extroversion, and exhibitionism: individuals less
likely to control nervous movements and increase facial
animation relative to deceivers
Demeanor Bias
some people are consistently successful at deception (Kraut, 1978)
29. Traits Affecting Cue Display cont.
Planning
Planning deception increases individuals control over
nonverbal display
Response latency is typically shorter than unplanned lies
Age
Ability to deceive increases with age (DePaulo et al., 1985)
Ability increases significantly during 4th/5th grade, and then
through high school
First major development is ability to display naturalistic
emotion known as “hamming”
30. How to Assess for Deception
Based on the premises established earlier (slide 8), and by
determining when emotional reactions take place during interview
and decoding the nonverbal cues, it is possible to make informed
judgements about a respondents veracity
First goal: Establish Baseline
31. Establishing Baseline
There is no definite length of time required to establish a
baseline
The more time you spend with a respondent in varying
environments (e.g., controlled, amiable, non-confrontational),
the easier it will be to notice when their behavior deviates from
the “norm”
For instance, you spend more time with close family and friends
than strangers, thus you are more likely to notice when they are
acting “differently”
32. Establishing Baseline
Establishing baseline can be done before actual contact takes
place
have other individuals provide you with details on their
appearance/behavior
if possible, view respondent from a distance without their
knowing that you are observing them
In establishing baseline, be sure to observe each of the qualities
used in final assessment: facial, body, and vocalic
33. Building a Therapeutic Alliance
to Establish Baseline
The clinical approach to establishing a baseline requires the evaluator
to use “micro-skills of therapy”:
1. match posture and movements
2. match rate of speech
3. provide feedback
“I noticed that you are checking your watch, are you in a
hurry?”
4. match key words - reflect certain aspects of subject’s behavior or
speech
“So what you’re saying is...”
Placing emphasis on key words to display your recognition of
their statements
Once an amiable rapport has been established, the subject should be
displaying stable physiological and emotional reactions to your
questions
34. Polygraphy: Monitoring
Waveforms
Note the Baseline established on the EEG waveform
above
This evenness is indicative of stable physiology/
emotionality
35. Polygraphy: Monitoring
Waveforms
(t)
Note the distinct change in the waveform above.
The x-axis of this graph denotes time, thus at the noted
point in the questioning (t), a physical reaction took
place.
36. Polygraphy: Monitoring
Waveforms
(t)
What question was asked when reaction took place?
This same methodology is used in behavioral analysis
described herein, requiring a keen eye for behavioral
disjunction
37. Big Picture
Look for patterns
Don’t make judgements based on one predictor
The interview and observation time should be considered
clues - not truths
Even if you feel you have established a point of deception, look
for more signs by allowing more information to flow
38. Channel Accuracy
Channel accuracy is a measurement of the degree to which various
channels are true reflections of emotional/affective reactions
Body and vocalic cues display more deception than facial cues
Accuracy:
body > facial
vocalic > facial
Because people have greater control over facial channels, deception
detection accuracy is lower when facial cues are used as primary channel
for deception detection
(Burgoon, 1989)
39. Channel Discrepancy
Take note of inconsistent nonverbal displays
When body language from one channel contradicts another
When verbal message varies with nonverbal message
Example: the statement “I’m not mad,” while red-faced, rigid
body, clenching fists, and displaying furrowed brow
While saying yes - shaking head from left to right
While reporting feeling bad - smiling
Keep in mind that there are other explanations of this phenomenon
subjects may be embarrassed to be feeling certain emotions
subjects might not have required insight to recognize current feelings
(more common in younger people or those with developmental
delays)
subjects may be feeling ambivalence or uncertainty in regards to the
questions posed
40. Channel Discrepancy
Be aware of synchrony in emotion/statements/space
any deviation from synchrony may be indicative of pressured
behavior due to emotional reaction or a manipulated
response
Consider American Sign Language (ASL) - intensity of terms
are communicated through facial expression
In this instance, two channels are intended to be in sync with
one another with the visual channel (as opposed to verbal)
providing emphasis and clarification
41. Timing of Responses
Observe the timing of responses and the buildup of expression
If expressive behaviors (illustrators: hand waving for emphasis) take
place after statement, it is often an afterthought to give impression of
intensity
Imagine a patient saying “I am so angry” with semi-blunted expression
and upon conclusion of statement, patient displays intense anger
This is clear sign that emotion expressed is purposeful rather than
intrinsic
In same context, watch for rhythm of speech patterns and mechanical
expression
natural or comfortable expression should be displayed as fluid and in
accordance with statements
Initial reaction expression - initial expressed emotion (usually lasts less
than 1 second) generally perceived to be true before it is able to be
masked
43. Hospital Effects
Always consider how the environment of interaction can affect
the emotional response of the subject
In a hospital environment, patients are already out of their
comfort zone which might cause an increase in overall
emotionality and can increase response magnitude.
Additionally, on a mental health unit, the recognition that staff
are assessing behaviors will likely cause changes in behavior.
this change in behavior is known as “demand
characteristics” and are a common error in psychological
research
Demand Characteristics take place when participants
(patients) change their behavior after forming a judgment of
the experimenter’s purpose
44. Biases in Assessing Deception
Over attribution effect- truth bias due to relational context is consistent
with general bias
Initial impressions of source can anchor subsequent attributions
about a message that is inconsistent with or contradicts initial
impression
Problem: Interpretations change less than they should from an
objective analysis
Example: close friends/family judged more trustworthy
45. Feedback
Receivers do not always learn through experience
Feedback is often rare and it does not provide evaluator with necessary
info to tell them if they were accurate in their judgement with detection
Does not mean you should just be more suspicious of others
Suspicious receivers often rely on imperfect theories and are less
accurate in judgements
46. Type 1 Errors
Type I error, also known as an “error of the first kind” or a “false
positive”: the error of rejecting a null hypothesis when it is actually
true.
In this context, it occurs when we say that someone is lying when
they are not.
It proves that standards used for test have poor specificity.
Can be viewed as the error of excessive credulity.
This reminds us of importance of watching for patterns and
establishing baseline
Question to ask: Is person simply nervous?
They might be nervous throughout interview process when this
type of behavior is not expected
47. Type II Error
Type II error, also known as an “error of the second kind” or a “false
negative”: the error of failing to reject a null hypothesis when it is in
fact not true.
In this context: reporting that subject was not lying when, in fact,
they were
This is the error of failing to observe a difference when in truth there
is one, thus indicating a test of poor sensitivity.
can be viewed as the error of excessive skepticism.
48. Familiarity with Deceiver
Prior experience with deceiver's truthful communication improves
accuracy in detecting deception (Knapp & Comadena, 1979):
Increase in experience makes it easier to see deviation from “honest
behavior” (baseline)
Increase in experience seeing minor fluctuations due to stress/fatigue
that otherwise might be decoded as deception
This increase in ability to detect deception with familiar partners is only
true in certain contexts
Intimate long term partners become biased towards honesty
attributions (“truth bias”) and display rigidity in appraisals, failing to
see signs that are in conflict with desired valuations (Bauchner 1978; Miller et al. 1981)
49. Age and Sex of Receiver
Young children don't have same understanding of moral values,
cultural, social and interpersonal norms, or experience with deception as
adults (Piaget, 1965)
They are unable to make same attributions of deception as adults.
Younger children (6 to 8th grade) distinguished deceptive messages
from truthful messages solely on the basis of the affect expressed in
them.
10th graders were able to discriminate between deceptive and truthful
messages on the presence or absence of mixed feelings
12th graders were able to discriminate between deceptive messages and
truthful messages in their judgement of deception, but were less accurate
than younger children at detecting leakage cues. maybe due to politeness
norm (younger children who may not be aware of this norm and and do
not possess the ability to decode mixed messages and deception cues,
decode the emotional content of the nonverbal cues more accurately).
(Burgoon, 1989)
50. Politeness Norm
The politeness norm is a bias in judgment that is rooted in the social
norm of believing others are being truthful in the messages they encode
This bias is strongest among children who do not have established
conceptualizations of deception.
Among adults, it is a more prevalent bias for women than men (Rosenthal,
DePaulo, 1979)
Cause?
Women are more likely than men to decode the meaning intended
by the source
Women display greater visual primacy especially when messages
encoded are positive (agreeableness, positive attitudes) (DePaulo et al. 1978)
51. Demand Characteristics
Behaviors typically follow one of four “roles” that shape their
behavior:
1. Good participant: attempt to follow along with supposed
experimenter hypothesis
2. Negative participant: attempt to refute experimenter
hypothesis
3. Faithful participant: participant follows instructions
provided by examiner to the letter
4. Apprehensive participant: participant is so concerned about
evaluation by experimenter that their behaviors are blunted
and fall in line with social norms
52. Other Biases and Errors
Fundamental Attribution Error:
An error that occurs when researchers give more weight to
the personality of a participant as a cause of behavior
modification than to the environment (Ross et. al, 1977)
Hawthorne Effect:
A form of reactivity whereby subjects change their
behaviors (typically in a positive manner) because they are
aware they are being observed
53. Heuristics
Heuristics are mental shortcuts that typically make decision making
more efficient
We often use “rules of thumb” to help make snap-judgements, however
these heuristics can often lead us off track in our assessments
This type of decision making occurs regularly when people compare one
person to another prototypical group based on key characteristics
Seeing a person with long hair and laid-back attitude and
categorizing them as a “Californian”
This heuristic can be evidenced in clinical assessment:
“Clinicians may have a natural inclination to compare patients to
prototypes, but given that they are supposed to attend to the
criteria contained in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of
Mental Disorders...they may attend to the criteria rather than
compare patients to prototypes” (Garb, 1996).
54. Heuristics cont.
When making judgements about observations, be sure to
monitor self-bias:
Accessories and individual style (sunglasses, long hair,
baggy pants, etc.) should not be viewed as unconditional
qualities that indicate deception
Rather, these qualities should be considered as part of
overall assessment and within the environmental context
55. Nonverbal Communication
Nonverbal communication is broken down among four lines:
1. Proxemics: social and physical space and interpersonal
distance used between multiple parties
use of space in room, physical distance, location in room,
use of other objects
2. Kinesics: body movements, including those of the face
3. Paralanguage: the “how” of a message - voice qualities, speech
errors, silent pauses, etc.
4. Use of time
56. Body Language
Body Language: the means of communicating information
(typically thoughts/feelings) in a nonverbal manner through
conscious or unconscious gestures and patterns of movement
Body language can be considered to involve the proxemics
and kinesics of nonverbal communication
Two-thirds of human communication involves nonverbal
interaction (Birdwhistell, 1970; Okun, 2002)
58. Leakage: facial cues
Physiologists estimate that the face is capable of producing
20,000 expressions (Birdwhistell, 1970)
According to Burgoon (1989) facial cues are the least likely to
leak information about deception because:
encoders are highly aware of facial responses
cues are highly visible, and can send many different
messages
receivers are likely to attend to and react to facial cues due
to facial primacy and reading emotions (mixed messages)
59. Common Facial Cues
While facial cues can be easily manipulated, there are many
cues that can provide information about a subject given
analysis of context and behavior patterns
60. Signs of
Distress
Clenched jaw
Note President Obama’s
clenched jaw as he is meeting
with French President
Sarkozy
(Monsivais-Martinez, 2008)
69. Facial Cue Context
As in all behavioral analysis, be sure to note the context of a
facial cue
squinting may be a sign of inability to see
furrowing of brow can be a sign of anger/aggression or a
response to danger
licking lips may be a nervous habit and may not provide
information about a specific response unless noted as
such
70. The Smile
A smile is the most common mask of emotions
It conceals appearance in lower face of anger, disgust, sadness, and
fear (though closely resembles contempt)
Look for ‘real’ smile in the eyes - crows feet and restricted visibility of
eyes due to space between eyebrows and upper cheeks contracting
Fake Smile Real Smile
71. The Eyes
Poor eye contact is a classic sign of deception
can be related to guilt/shame
Theory: individuals have internal reaction of shame, and fear facing
others’ gaze which might amplify this emotional state
Strong/focused eye contact is often a sign of truth and intention
72. Facial Profiles of Emotion
The opening of the
eyes (as in eye flash) is
a limbic reaction
allowing a subject to
prepare for possible
action/defense
Note the slight opening
of the mouth. This
helps distinguish fear
from a simple
purposeful gaze
(Rups, 2009)
73. Facial Profiles of Emotion
Surprise has a similar
eye response to fear,
however the lower
eyelid is tensed in the
fear response and the
lips are generally more
open when one is
surprised
(Rups, 2009)
74. Facial Profiles of Emotion
The overall profile of
sadness and
depression shows a
general relaxed
muscle tone and
blunted orientation
(Rups, 2009)
75. Facial Profiles of Emotion
Happiness is generally
evidenced by the
raising of cheeks
Remember that a ‘real’
smile can be
differentiated from a
fake smile by the
crow’s feat around the
orbital region
Happiness is a gravity-
defying emotion
(Rups, 2009)
76. Commonly Confused Emotions
Certain emotions may be manifested in similar ways which may
lead to confusion in attempting to analyze responses
Contempt, Resentment, and Anger each have similar facial
profiles that could be confused by an inexperienced observer.
77. Contempt
Contempt is an attitude that
one is better than another
Think of this as a form of
pretension/or snobbery
(Rups, 2009)
78. Contempt
Note the pursing
of lips with
cheeks curving
outward as in
smile reaction
79. Disgust
Contempt is an attitude that
one is better than another
Think of this as a form of
pretension/or snobbery
(Rups, 2009)
80. Anger
Focused look in eyes
along with narrowing
ridge between eyes
are classic sign of
anger
(Rups, 2009)
81. Leakage: body cues
Body cues are common channels of leakage because:
they are less controllable
they have lower sending capacity
subjects receive less external feedback
82. Kinesics
Kinesics: term derives from Greek term for “movement” and
refers to all body movements, excluding physical contact
between individuals
An estimated 700,000 different physical signs can be
produced by humans (Pei, 1965)
Primary focus of analysis should be on identifying several
key areas:
1. Subject’s spatial axis
2. Pacifying behavior
3. Territorial behaviors
4. Departure from subject norms
83. Spatial Axis
In monitoring subject, take note of their orientation in relation to you
Watch for feet and shoulders turning away from you
this often represents reluctance or a reduced belief in what they are
saying
One whom is passionate about what they are saying is more likely to
face/be squared away with speaker
Movement in the direction of an exit is also a sign of discomfort
Represents desire to leave ongoing communication
Most notable when questioner is “turning up the heat”
84. Spatial Axis and Emotion
Pay attention to when subject’s body posture is directed away from
evaluator, or if the subject crosses legs to block themselves from speaker
these are signs of discomfort
Shifting head (and body) with slight shoulder lean away from speaker is
indicative of a distancing behavior
distancing behaviors reduce the magnitude of emotional connection
and often indicate discomfort
be aware of the role of social norms - for certain cultures direct spatial
orientation is considered rude or hostile
This response is different from a head tilt which generally indicates
interest and is a display of comfort (opening up the neck is a vulnerable
position)
Subject will likely display additional cues to clarify the meaning of
this response
(Navarro, 2008)
85. Pacifying Behaviors
Touching face (nose, ears, mouth)
Often done to soothe or distract oneself
May represent the thought “I don't like what I'm hearing”
Behaviors are often gender-specific
Women often touch the base of the neck or necklaces
Men often touch nose/upper lip or necktie
Not the same as posture of deep thought (Rodin’s “the thinker”)
Rodin’s statue is holding a pose, whereas pacifying behaviors are
usually short distracters that last only a few seconds
86. Pacifying Behaviors cont.
Creating behavioral distractions is a sign of discomfort
Self-created distractions can be accomplished with with body
movements
Small movements: twitching, scratching, rubbing fingers/hand
(may also be indicative of sweaty palms - a common physiological
response to anxiety)
Global behaviors: like moving things, “doing” things when not
required or repeatedly
87. Territorial Displays
Territorial displays - can be signs of comfort or aggression (also, in
teenagers can be sign of disrespect)
Examples:
Large motions with arms
Taking up large amounts of space compared to norms
Spreading out over arms chairs
Legs splayed while seated
Arms extended overhead while seated
The opposite of a territorial display is closure: crossing arms/legs with
attempt to take up less space
is a sign of discomfort/anxiety
(Navarro, 2008)
88. Barriers/Roadblocks
Placing things in front of oneself is generally a sign of discomfort and is
related to creating a “safe zone” for oneself
Things placed in front of oneself can be tangible - pillows, chairs, jacket
or body parts such as arms, or, in extreme instances, subject may be
curled up in fetal position
Behavior is similar to that of pacifying behaviors - is intended to distract
self from emotional surge or to provide separation from evaluator
Taking center stage in room and facing evaluator head-on are a signs of
comfort
89. Lower Body Cues
Watch for Gravity Defying Behaviors (GDB): these are often indicative
of nervousness or excitement (and other positive/joyful emotions)
Examples - subject seated:
Happy feet aka bouncing feet while seated
Wiggling/bouncing in chair - you can usually see these
movements through torso if subject is seated behind table and
legs are hidden
Examples - subject standing:
Rocking on balls of feet
Walking with bounce in step
You must distinguish between nervous energy, excitement, and
impatience
Use contextual cues to determine the difference
Gravity Defying Behaviors are less common in subjects with
depression (Navarro, 2008)
90. Lower Body Cues
Note increases or stoppage of GDB after subject receives additional/
change of information
With crossed legs - foot jiggling increased to kicking - this may be
in response to change in emotional reaction
Foot freeze - from loose rapid movement to freeze - can be limbic
reaction to ‘danger’
Most subject don’t realize they are displaying these behaviors, so they
are highly accurate of internal emotional reactions
91. Lower Body Cues
Spatial orientation through lower body cues
Premise: We generally face things with which we are agreeable
Cue: Double-knee clasp while seated - signal that one is ready to
leave room
Cue: Feet pointed away while hips and shoulders are oriented to
other - another sign of disinterest or desire to leave conversation
92. Lower Body Cues
Spatial orientation through lower body cues:
Cue: One foot forward, back heel elevated (see below) - another cue
that observed person wants to leave conversation or is impatient
(The Saint Pete Project Daily, 2008)
93. Lower Body Cues
Spatial orientation through
lower body cues:
Cue:
We often cross legs in
favor or towards those we
like or are more
comfortable with
Otherwise there is a
barrier between
individuals
Mirroring behaviors
(isopraxism) displays are signs (Somodevilla, 2008)
of comfort between individuals
Note mirroring of hand
placement and legs in image
on the right.
94. Lower Body Cues
Note the crossing
of legs in opposite
direction and
body lean away
from one another
in image on right.
(CNN, 2008)
95. Lower Body Cues
Again, note the
barrier created by
crossing legs away
from those around
us.
(Gosselin2.jpg, 2009)
96. Lower Body Cues
Territorial Lower Body Displays:
Cue: leg splay (right) - often used
to dictate control/authority of
others; also, when socially
inappropriate can convey
message of rebelliousness
Territorial imperative (Hall, 1969) -
those with higher SES status,
more confidence, and self-
assurance take up more space
(Celebrity Feet, 2009)
97. Lower Body Cues
Restraining Behaviors
Cue: While seated, foot lock
underneath seat or feet
wrapped under chair legs
is a sign of distress
The restriction of leg
movements (and arm
movements) is related to
deception and anxiety (Vrij,
2003)
This is a limbic-type
response related to fear.
98. The Torso
Shoulders -
A partial(abridged) shrug has numerous explanations
If shrug is reduced/partial or half-shrug, it may indicate a
pacifying-type behavior
Displays that subject does not have confidence or commitment in
what they are saying
May be that subject is trying to convince others that they are
relaxed in their answer
Could be that subject’s shoulder's are unconsciously coming up as
if trying to protect self (like a turtle hiding in shell) - sign of high
discomfort
Full and fluid shrug often represents “I don't know” or “I don’t
care”(Navarro, 2008)
99. The Torso
Torso lean- distancing oneself from undesired things
also known as ventral denial
from evolutionary perspective, denying the ventral portion
of yourself shows your desire to protect or hide the
vulnerable portion of one’s body
Torso shield -crossing arms, using objects (notebook, folder,
etc.) to cover chest as protection
note if subject is gripping object tightly as indicator of
discomfort
100. The Torso
Note the Gerhard
Schröder’s torso lean away
from President George
Bush in the image on the
right.
Schröder was known to
have campaigned on an
anti-American sentiments
and had several
disagreements with Bush
during his term. (BBC, 2003)
101. The Torso
Torso splays (O’Neil, 2009)
A sign of control/authority
When conducted by those not in positions of authority is a
sign of disrespect
Chest puffing
An assertion of territorial dominance (e.g., Muhammad Ali)
Baring of torso
Sign of impending violence.
102. Arms
Cue: arms moving freely
Imagine children playing in a care-free manner with arm
movements defying gravity
This is a sign of comfort
Cue: arms down to sides or locked in front
Done to protect the core and vulnerable portion of body
Relates to survival instinct; a limbic response
Cue: arm freeze
Sign of nervousness or fear
Is a limbic response of freezing to avoid detection
103. Arms
Cue: arms behind back
This makes the statement “I am
of higher status” and “don’t
come near me/touch me”
Note that hands are hidden
which disallows hand shake
Is a withdrawal type behavior
for when around people or
things we do not like
Also called “regal stance”
(John Ensign Nevada Senator)
104. Arms
Territorial Displays:
Arm spreading behavior - we often take up space to assert
control and to display confidence (Hall, 1969; Knapp and
Hall, 2002)
Examples:
draping arms over chairs or spreading out things on table
105. Arms
Territorial Displays:
Cue: standing arms akimbo
making V-pattern with
thumbs pointed backwards
is a powerful nonverbal
display of power
a stance used to declare
dominance
is a territorial display
106. Arms
Territorial Displays:
Cue: standing arms akimbo
making V-pattern with
thumbs pointed backwards;
is a powerful nonverbal
display of power
a stance used to declare
dominance
is a territorial display
thumbs forward is less
dominant stance - may
be relaying message -
“there are issues”
107. Arms
Hooding effect - arms/hands interlocked behind head while
leaning back
takes up large amount of space (territorial display)
is similar to cobra’s display of size to strike fear in prey
108. Hand Displays
(Richard Nixon Foundation, 2005)
Gravity Defying Behaviors
Cue: thumbs up - is a sign of confidence (see image above)
can be manipulated to give false sense of confidence
Cue: hands on lapels with thumbs up or hands in pockets with
thumbs visible
a sign of confidence
Cue: thumbs down or hidden in pockets
sign of low confidence or discomfort;
is a protective behavior, sign of psychological flight
makes statement “I am unsure of myself”
109. Hand Displays
Cue: freezing behavior
Is a sign of low confidence or fear
Liars tend to gesture less and move arms and legs less than
honest people (Vrij, 2003)
this behavior is consistent with limbic reactions and
evolutionary desire to be hidden from predators
Imagine a shoplifter at a store who has overly restricted
arm movements and appears tense in shoulders
Cue: hands under table - sign of discomfort or fear
often a sign that subject trying to hide something
110. Hand Displays
Cue: hand wringing - is indicative of stress or low-confidence
Often used as a pacifier
Look for blanching in hands as subject increases pressure
Related Cue: holding objects tightly or rubbing items repeatedly
People often rub hands when cold - determine the context of this
behavior before making decision about it’s occurrence
Cue: rubbing hands on pants
possible indicator of palmar sweating - another sign of stress
111. Hand Displays
Cue: neck touching - a reflection of discomfort, a pacifying
behavior
brain is processing something threatening, objectionable or
unsettling
variance: women also touch necklaces, men touch ties or
collars of shirts as if to provide increase air flow
112. Hand Displays
General Hand Observations:
Cue: overall hand appearance - can be sign of subject’s
lifestyle and grooming habits.
calloused hands- sign of manual labor
chewed nails- sign of nervousness/insecurity
well maintained nails - sign of higher status
dirty hands - if coincides with other signs of poor hygiene
can be indication of mental illness
Cue: shaking hands - sign of nervousness
shaking hands may also be sign of excitement (imagine a
passenger shaking a ticket at airport) - must interpret
context for accurate analysis
Note if this display is a departure from subject’s norm
those with Parkinson's, drug problems, or high caffeine
intake will tremble more naturally
113. Hand Displays
Cue: Pointing
Has almost universal negative connotations
often used to establish or display power
114. Hand Displays
Hand displays of high confidence:
Cue: hand steepling - is sign of confidence and power
men often steeple higher than women
if confidence shaken, subject may quickly move to prayer-
like hand gesture which is a sign of concern or distress
(Navarro, 2008)
115. Posture
(Walking Tall, 2003)
Two distinctive postures differentiated by confidence:
Confident - head up, shoulders back, while walking with have
significant stride and expressive free-flowing arm swing
116. Posture
(Poor Standing Posture, 2009)
Two distinctive postures differentiated by confidence:
Fearful - shoulders slouched, head down, restricted arm swing and
shuffling of feet; can be a sign of depression
Of note: muggers more frequently attack subjects with slouching
shoulders, shuffling feet
117. Emblems
Emblems are Kinesics that meet following criteria (Ekman, 1976):
1. have direct verbal translation that can be substituted for the
word or words they represent without affecting the
meaning.
2. their precise meaning is known by most or all members of a
social group
3. they are most often used with conscious intent to transmit a
message
4. they are recognized by the receiver as meaningful and
intentionally sent
5. the sender takes responsibility for them
6. they have clear meaning even when displayed out of context
118. Common Emblems
Common american emblems (Burgoon, 1989):
palms turned up and lifted shoulders meaning “I don’t
know”
119. Common Emblems
Running extended forefinger across the front of the neck
meaning “stop what you’re doing”
120. Common Emblems
An outstretched arm with waving hand meaning “hello”
(Allen, W.J., 2008)
121. Illustrators
Kinesic acts accompanying speech used to aid in description
of what is said
Illustrators trace the direction of speech, set rhythm of
speech to gain and hold listener’s attention
127. Adapters
Adapters:
Are kinesic behaviors that help to satisfy personal needs
or psychological needs.
Help to manage emotions, maintain interpersonal
contact, and complete instrumental activities
Because they help individual adapt to stresses or needs,
adaptors are habits that usually are not intended to
communicate a message
However, they can be informative about the source’s
internal state and may be used as an insult or message of
disrespect
example: twirling hair as intentional indication of
boredom
128. Common adaptors
Self-soothing behaviors:
Twiddling with pen
Chewing on pen
Holding soft objects close to oneself
133. Leakage: Vocalic cues
Vocalic cues include:
speech patterns
word choice
Senders generally have high degree of control over larynx
due to internal feedback
Vocalic cues leak as much as body cues
Automatic link between internal affective reactions and
vocalic cues is particularly strong, and encoders may pay
less attention to the vocalic portion of speech than is
commonly assumed
134. Verbal Channel Cues
Changes indicative of deceit in verbal channel (Burgoon, 1989):
negative statements
adding irrelevant information
leveling (overgeneralized information)
less verbal immediacy
135. Hear Between the Lines
One of the skills of deception detection is the ability to recognize the
unspoken subtext of a conversation
Hearing emotion: the ability to recognize how word choice or
emphasis on words changes the underlying meaning of a statement
Not everyone can do it: this is a skill that takes time and focus
Remember that speech (as a behavior) may be manipulative in
nature, or it may be a socialized response to the discomfort of
expressing possibly negatively viewed emotions
Subject may be asking for help/attempts for sympathy
136. Vocal Cues
Vocal traits to focus on:
Tirades: long, angry speech filled with derision or
accusations
Indirect speech: also called ‘reported speech’; used to
provide information second-hand
Direct- person says: “I will be there”
Indirect: “He said that he will be there”
Pauses, speech errors: an increase in these is a sign that
subject is either trying to make up a story as they go, or are
under emotional distress
137. Vocal Cues
Voice pitch increase/decrease: signs of larynx constriction/
expansion, generally due to affective response
Soft, slow speech: generally viewed to be sign of calmness
and lack of emotional distress; however, if extreme in nature
compared to baseline, may be due to subject manipulating
vocal cues
Vocal Emblems: as in “oh, that’s too bad”
the ‘oh’ serves to increase in amplitude of the statement
emblems are intended to provide direction in decoding a
statement
138. Speech Patterns
Question to ask while assessing:
Is subject’s voice elective or non-elective?
Nonelective: Is voice related to medical or emotional issues?
assess for physical/mental handicap
is subject familiar with language?
is this a regional variation on speech (e.g. vocalics from
Southern U.S. have notable characteristics)
Elective: any changes in vocalics is likely an affective cue
139. Speech Patterns
Slow speech: monitor comfort/discomfort
Sarcasm: interpreting this requires analyzing contextual/
relational cues; also recognizing hyperbole and irony in speech
Distancing language: responses such as “I wouldn’t do such a
thing”, instead of “I didn’t do it”
Use and emphasis of pronouns to direct speech to other
persons
140. Speech Patterns
Halting speech:
A type of ‘broken speech pattern’ where subject seems to
stop and start sentences abruptly
this is generally a sign of insecurity, nervousness or
confusion
can be sign of deception as subject is trying to get out of
lie by coming up with a story as they are speaking
This can also be a sign of a subject attempting to be
precise in their answers
if this speech pattern is in response to nervousness,
other behavioral signs should also be apparent
(Dimitrius, & Mazzarella, 1999)
141. Speech Patterns
Pitch
Generally nonelective though if it rises with additional behavioral
cues, look for behavioral traits of fear and anxiety
Low pitch - often related to attempts at seduction (note increase in
eye gaze) or depression/sadness (note slouched posture and other
behavioral cues)
Lack of inflection/emphasis - can be depression, boredom,
distraction, also not preceding conversation and questions
142. Vocal Traits
Whining: appeal for something
Breathiness: sign of seduction (if voluntary)
may be sign of fatigue/illness if involuntary
Audible breathing (large rise/fall of chest)
Sign of anger, excitement, frustration, disbelief, nervousness
Singular large breath - could be a sigh of relief, or exasperation
can note difference by secondary behavioral traits
if relief - note relaxation in shoulders and facial muscles
if exasperation - note increased tension in shoulders and face;
often accompanies change in eye gaze
Mumbling: if chronic can be sign of low confidence, insecurity,
anxiety, self-conscious, preoccupation, depression
143. Speech Patterns
Analyzing responses
Non-responsive
did they hear you/understand you?
if unsure, ask leading questions (see later slides)
it is likely that subject’s reluctance to respond to questions is
due to emotional reaction
Negative inference: if a person has a chance to explain behavior, but
doesn’t you can draw negative inference that they are then indeed
‘guilty’
Re-directed response: answering question with a question - generally
an attempt to change the direction of a conversation
can be sign of deception if this is an unusual pattern, or if it occurs
in response to direct questions
144. Speech Patterns
Assess subject’s word choice: is it struggle for them to be
accurate with their words?
If content of speech is scattered it can mean person is trying to
lengthen conversation for attention (look for other cues) or
with hopes that they can evade detection by stalling
145. Vocal Dysentery
In response to questioning a liar will often attempt to fill time until
questioner provides affirmation that answer provided is sufficient
This is different than a subject that provides a thorough response in
one fluid statement
Use this trait to your advantage when possible.
A subject who is being deceptive will commonly dig themselves into a
hole by providing elaborate back-stories and unnecessary details that
can be investigated later
146. How to Question
Steps in deception detection process:
1. Get a clear view
2. Look
3. Focus
4. Determine
5. Resolve
147. How to Question
Steps in deception detection process:
1. Get a clear view
initiate contact while close to subject
2. Look
3. Focus
4. Determine
5. Resolve
148. How to Question
Steps in deception detection process:
1. Get a clear view
2. Look - at the ‘Big Picture’
establish emotional/behavioral baseline
expect initial nervousness and pacifying behavior
evaluate context and content of responses
attempt to reduce nervousness - begin conversation from
neutral position without accusations
3. Focus
4. Determine
5. Resolve
149. How to Question
Steps in deception detection process:
1. Get a clear view
2. Look
3. Focus - on what stands out
When do you notice shifts from baseline?
Look for increased us of pacifying behaviors
Allow enough time for subject to have emotional response
do not use machine-gun questioning
Look for synchrony/emphasis in responses
4. Determine
5. Resolve
150. How to Question
Steps in deception detection process:
1. Get a clear view
2. Look
3. Focus
4. Determine - if clues are indicative of a pattern
isolate the cause of emotional responses
continue to ask pointed questions on that subject
5. Resolve
151. How to Question
Steps in deception detection process:
1. Get a clear view
2. Look
3. Focus
4. Determine
5. Resolve - move forward with your decision
challenge response or making appropriate
recommendations
152. How to Question
Before beginning to question a subject, evaluate the
environment of interaction.
When possible, avoid an audience and remove physical
barriers
Doing these two things will remove potential distractors
Establish emotional baseline of subject before initiating
dialogue
make observations from a distance, or use other sources
to establish baseline emotional/behavioral condition
153. How to Question
Be in a position to reveal/receive info
You should be able to see subject’s face and be at eye-
level
When initiating contact, identify the intensity of pressure
you are placing on subject based on your spatial axis with
subject
An orientation that is direct (face-to-face) and close in
nature creates a higher intensity in interaction
Distance to subject: this depends on the situation but
generally arms length is best
allows evaluator to see smaller-scale changes in
expression
154. How to Question
Be aware of your own body language
Your face and body can indicate your acceptance of
subject’s response or can be a sign that you are ready to
conclude conversation (e.g. body tilt away from
respondent, spatial axis shift towards door)
Try to avoid indicators that might influence responses.
Maintain blunted affect and avoid judgmental vocal cues.
Notice if subject displays effort to change your opinion or
effect response from you (bragging, adding dramatic
details)
155. Rules of Listening
Be involved, not overbearing
Match mannerisms
attempt to mirror shifts in posture (isopraxism) - this helps
develop bond between individuals
Provide verbal feedback:
Nod appropriately
“hmm..,”
“okay,”
“Right”
Beware of saying “I understand” - can be a trigger for subjects
and allows for conversational distraction
156. How to Question
Volunteer info: use self-disclosure to gain additional information
and increase subjects comfort to obtain confession
example: “I’ve screwed up lots of times...we all make mistakes”
Beware of deflections - stay on point and in control of
conversation while allowing for spontaneity
keep questions focused
use pointed questions to avoid distractions
they also elicit behavioral manifestations;
Remember that idle chatter does not mean they are being honest
truth is not evidenced by volume of information - it may be a
smoke screen
157. How to Question
Questioning style:
Ask questions from least to most provoking
Starting with direct accusations/appeals for information can
elicit an immediate defensive position and makes it difficult to
generate thorough, reflexive responses
Allow subject to warm up to information
If you are aware of specific details, refrain from imparting this
knowledge until you ascertain their responses to those key areas
Use open-ended questions
go from broad to specific - focus conversation over time
If time is a factor, or if subject is straying (deflecting) from
questions, use leading questions
Argumentative questions- use only if subject is nonresponsive to
other questioning styles
158. Rules of Listening
1. Don’t interrupt
a key to detecting deception requires that you allow the subject to
provide as much information and details as possible
Even if subject is rambling - let it play out
When you think the subject’s response has concluded, wait several
counts to be certain
2. Analyze associations - co-occurrence of behaviors and statements
3. Allow subjects to develop spontaneity and rhythm in responses
this helps develop comfort in subjects and increases the likelihood
of an increased flow of information
4. Eliminate distractions - these can break the flow of a conversation and
can provide an ‘out’ for emotional relief
5. Try not to think about your next question
6. Resist urge to criticize, correct, or condemn
159. Polygraphy Questioning
Polygraph experts generally use one of the following interview techniques
1. Relevant/Irrelevant
2. Control Question Test
3. Guilty Knowledge Test
160. Polygraphy Questioning
Polygraph experts generally use one of the following interview techniques
1. Relevant/Irrelevant
Asking interviewees questions that are either relevant/irrelevant in
regards to topic in question.
Irrelevant: “Is today Wednesday,” “Are you laying down?”
Relevant: “Did you stab Eric,” “Did you use a rope to kill Jan”
Theory: respondent’s physiological response will be be stronger when
relevant questions are asked.
Problem: Most respondents will have physiological reaction to
questions related to “relevant” issues (imagine being hooked up to
polygraph sensors and asked “Did you kill Jon Doe?”)
2. Control Question Test
3. Guilty Knowledge Test
161. Polygraphy Questioning
Polygraph experts generally use one of the following interview techniques
1. Relevant/Irrelevant
2. Control Question Test
Control questions are asked in hopes of establishing “lie indexes”
Subjects are told to answer to to questions like the following: “have
you ever stolen something from a friend”
Supposition is that all subjects should say “Yes”, thereby establishing
a physiological “lie” response
Responses from control questions are then compared to relevant
questions to determine if subject is telling the truth
Problem: this test assumes that control questions can provide
accurate gauge of “lie” response in comparison to relevant question;
also, subjects can augment response pattern to control questions
which disguises the “lie” response
3. Guilty Knowledge Test
162. Polygraphy Questioning
Polygraph experts generally use one of the following interview techniques
1. Relevant/Irrelevant
2. Control Question Test
3. Guilty Knowledge Test
Theory: only individuals with intimate knowledge of a crime will know
specific information about a crime scene or criminal event
Subjects are not required to provide responses in this type of interrogation
If a subject has a strong physiological response to a specific item or piece
of information they must have been involved in crime
For example: subjects are told “I will give you a list of possible murder
weapons: knife, gun, rope, pipe...”
The actual implement is usually placed halfway through series
Problem: this test does not use controls; requires investigators to have
multiple pieces of “insider” information
163. Improving Your Lie Detection Skills
Silent film
To better gauge emotions in others imagine (or actually) watch a
silent film or watch a foreign movie and try to determine the nature
of their conversations.
Alternatively, mute the television and watch facial expressions and
body language in others.
Observations in the park: while in social situations, pay close
attention to others’ body language
Identify patterns in different social situations, making informed
guesses on the outcomes of the interactions you see on a daily basis
Visit Paul Ekman’s Emotion Recognition training page at:
http://face.paulekman.com/products.aspx
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