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1
MAPS, CARTOGRAPHY
& SIGNIFICANCES
by
Prof . A. BALASUBRAMANIAN
Centre for Advanced Studies in Earth Science,
University of Mysore, Mysore
2
What is a map?
A Map is a drawn, pictorial representation of the earth
or its features.
Most maps show part or all of the earth's surface
features.
Maps express information through lines, coloured
zones, shapes, and other symbols.
These symbols stand for such features as rivers, roads,
and cities.
3
To analyse the earth’s surface features, we need some
accurate information about their distribution. These
information are available only on maps.
Maps are used to locate places, measure distances,
plan trips, and find our way.
People probably made crude maps even before the
development of written language sometimes
before 5,500 years.
Through expeditions and explorations more and
more information were added to the old maps.
4
Map is a drawn or printed representation of the
physical features of the Earth.
It is the best tool to show, understand and analyse
the features of an area.
Cartography is the art and science of making maps.
Pilots of ships and aeroplanes use maps to navigate.
5
Maps may also give us information about the
variation of a property, such as the climate,
population, and transportation routes.
Scientific discoveries have made maps more accurate.
Today, most maps are based on photographs taken
from the air.
Maps express information through lines, colours,
shapes, and other symbols.
6
These symbols stand for such features as rivers, roads,
and cities.
It is not possible to show features at their actual size
nor is it possible to show full detail.
The features represented on a map are greatly reduced
in size. Every map has its own scale. Scale is the
ratio between the distance of a part of a map and its
ground distance.
7
For example, one centimetre on a map might
represent a distance of 500 metres.
Different scale maps provide different levels of detail
in terms of features presented.
Different types of maps are prepared for different
purposes.
For geological exploration, geologists use the
topographic maps.
8
The spatial information displayed in a topographic
map are more when compared to the general maps.
Understanding the features of these topographic maps
require some basic skills. Today let us see the
features of a topographic map.
Topographic maps:
Topographic maps usually portray both natural and
man-made features.
9
The natural features include mountains, valleys,
plains, lakes, rivers, and forests.
The man-made features include roads, boundaries,
transmission lines, and major buildings.
Maps express these information in the form of lines,
colours, shapes, and other symbols.
10
The wide range of information provided by a
topographic map makes it extremely useful to
professional geologists.
These maps are made in two standard scales. The first
one is of 1: 250000 scale. In this large scale map, a
feature of 1 cm is equal to 2,50,000 cm.
The second one is 1: 50000 scale.
11
These are small scale maps. One cm over this map is
equal to a distance of 500 metres.
One topographic map of 1: 250000 scale includes 16
sets of 1: 50000 scale maps.
Let us see the features of a Topographic Map:
12
Topographic maps show four categories of features
as:
1. Geographic features
2. Topographic features
3. Hydrographic features
4. Cultural features.
13
Geographic features:
This category includes the spatial distribution of
earth’s features with reference to their geographic co-
ordinates, its index, the boundaries covered with
reference to both latitudes and longitudes, scale and
links to other maps and their features.
14
Topographic maps render the three-dimensional ups
and downs of the terrain on a two-dimensional
surface.
The characteristic that distinguishes topographic maps
from other maps is the use of contour lines to portray
the shape and elevation of the land.
15
Topographic maps are used for engineering, energy
exploration, natural resource conservation,
environmental management, public works design,
commercial and residential planning, and outdoor
activities like hiking, camping, and fishing.
Map Symbols
All features are represented on a topographic maps
by a set of standard symbols.
16
For example, the topography (the shape of the land) is
shown by contour lines. Usually brown, these lines
show the ground surface at a constant elevation.
Woodlands are shown in a green tint;
waterways, in blue.
Buildings may be shown on the map as black squares
or outlines. Recent changes in an area may be shown
by a purple overprint.
17
A road may be printed in red or black solid or dashed
lines, depending on its size and surface.
Reading a map:
Using a map requires certain skills.
To read a map, it is necessary to understand map
legends, scale, geographic grids, and map indexes.
Map legends list and explain the symbols and colours
on a map.
18
Some map symbols resemble or suggest the features
they represent. For example, a tree-shaped symbol
may stand for a forest or an orchard. But many
symbols have no resemblance to what they represent,
as when a circle stands for a city. In addition, the
same symbol may represent different features on
different maps. A circle, for instance, may represent
20 mobile homes on one map and a petroleum deposit
on another. It is important to read the map legend to
find out exactly what the symbols mean.
19
Most maps are printed to show north at the top. Many
map legends include an arrow that indicates which
direction is north.
Uses of Maps:
People probably made crude maps even before the
development of written language some 5,500 years
ago.
Through the years, people have explored more of the
world, adding new information to maps. Scientific
20
discoveries have made maps more accurate.
Today, most maps are based on photographs taken
from the air.
We use maps to locate places, measure distances, plan
trips, and find our way.
Pilots of ships and aeroplanes use maps to navigate.
Maps may also give us information about a place,
such as its climate, population, and transportation
routes.
Maps can also show such patterns as where people
live and how they use the land.
21
We also use maps to make comparisons and draw
conclusions.
Geologists study maps of the earth's structure to help
locate natural resources.
Map legends list and explain the symbols and colours
on a map.
Some map symbols resemble or suggest the features
they represent.
For example, a tree-shaped symbol may stand for a
forest or an orchard.
22
But many symbols have no resemblance to what they
represent, as when a circle stands for a city.
In addition, the same symbol may represent different
features on different maps.
It is important to read the map legend to find out
exactly what the symbols mean.
Scale - Every map may have a scale.
The features represented on a map are greatly reduced
in size, as per its scale.
23
For example, on a 1:50,000 scale map, one centimetre
on a map might represent a distance of 500 metres.
A map's scale shows the relationship between
distances on the map and the corresponding distances
on the earth's surface.
Many maps show scale by marking off distances on a
straight line.
Each mark represents a certain number of kilometres
or miles.
24
Other maps indicate scale in words and figures.
For example, the scale might appear as "1
centimetre:10 kilometres."
In other words, a distance of 1 centimetre on the map
represents 10 kilometres on the earth's surface.
Another common method of expressing scale is by a
representative fraction, such as "1:100,000" or
"1/100,000."
25
This means that a single unit of length on the map
represents 100,000 of those units on the earth's
surface.
Reading a map:
Map Legend. Using a map requires certain skills. To
read a map, it is necessary to understand map legends,
scale, geographic grids, and map indexes.
Longitude and latitude can be used to pinpoint any
place on earth.
For example, only one place can lie at 30° north
latitude and 90° west longitude.
26
Map indexes help us locate places on a map.
A map index lists the features shown on a map in an
alphabetical order.
In many atlases, each entry in the index is listed with
its longitude and latitude.
We can then use the longitude and latitude to find a
feature on a map.
Many maps are divided into horizontal rows and
vertical columns by an index grid.
In most cases, letters along the sides of the map label
the horizontal rows.
27
Numbers across the top and bottom of the map label
the vertical columns.
General reference maps identify and locate a variety
of geographic features.
Such maps may include land features, bodies of water,
political boundaries, cities and towns, roads, and
many other elements.
People use general reference maps to locate specific
places and to observe their location in relation to other
places.
28
The maps of states, countries, and continents in
atlases are examples of general reference maps.
Maps that emphasize the boundaries of counties,
states, countries, or other political units are called
political maps.
Maps that emphasize the location of such features of
the earth's surface as mountains, rivers, and lakes are
called physical maps or terrain maps.
Mobility maps are designed to help people find their
way from one place to another.
29
There are mobility maps for travel on land, on water,
or in the air.
A map used to navigate a ship or an aeroplane is
called a chart.
Road maps are the most familiar kind of mobility
map.
Road maps represent different categories of roads,
such as motorways, four-lane roads, and scenic routes.
They also show the cities, towns, parks, and other
places connected by those roads.
30
Travellers use road maps to plan trips and follow
lengthy routes.
Street maps are similar to road maps. But street
maps show a much smaller area in much greater
detail. People use street maps to find specific
addresses and to plan and follow short routes.
31
Transit maps show the routes of buses, underground
railways, and other systems of mass transit (public
transport in cities).
Such maps help people reach their destinations by
means of public transport.
Aeronautical charts are maps used to navigate
aeroplanes.
Many pilots of small, low-flying aircraft plan and
follow a course by using VFR (visual flight rules)
charts.
32
VFR charts show such landmarks as bridges, roads,
railway tracks, rivers, and towns.
Nautical charts are maps used to navigate ships and
boats.
Nautical charts show water depths, lighthouses,
buoys, islands, and such dangers as coral reefs and
underwater mountains that come near the surface.
They also locate the source of radio signals that
navigators use to determine their course and position.
33
Thematic maps:
Show the distribution of a particular feature such as
population, rainfall, or a natural resource.
They are used to study overall patterns.
A thematic map might show, for example, where
petroleum is produced in Asia or how the average
yearly rainfall varies from one part of one place to
another.
Some thematic maps express quantities by using lines
that pass through points of equal value.
34
General terms for such lines include isograms,
isolines, and isarithms.
Specific types of isograms have special names.
On a weather map, for example, lines called isobars
connect places that have the same air pressure (eg.
Isobar).
35
Isograms may also indicate temperatures,
precipitation, and other measurements.
On topographic maps, which show surface features of
the land, isograms called contour lines are used to
depict areas of equal elevation.
Some thematic maps use variations in size and shape
to express quantities. A map of the international
petroleum trade might indicate a large flow of oil with
thick arrows and a small flow of oil with thin arrows.
36
Inventory maps, like thematic maps, concentrate on a
specific feature.
But unlike thematic maps, which show distributional
patterns, inventory maps show the precise location of
the specific feature.
A map showing every building in a community is an
example.
Map projections:
Any system for transferring parallels and meridians
from a globe onto a flat map is called a projection.
37
Mapmakers create projections according to
mathematical formulas, often with the aid of
computers.
It is impossible to project a sphere, such as the earth's
surface, onto a flat surface with complete accuracy.
Every flat map has inaccuracies in scale that result
from shrinking the globe in some places and
stretching it in others to flatten it.
38
Some maps distort (show inaccurately) distances.
On such maps, equal land areas may not appear of
equal size.
Many maps distort angles, resulting in misshapen seas
and continents.
Nearly all maps have one or two points or lines where
there is no distortion.
These are called standard points or standard lines.
As we move away from them, the distortion of scale
increases in a predictable way.
39
How maps are made?
Experts from many fields gather the information that
cartographers need.
The cartographer then transforms this information
into a meaningful visual representation.
In general, mapmaking follows these steps:
(1) observation and measurement,
(2) planning and design,
(3) drawing and reproduction, and
(4) revision.
40
Cartography is the art of making and study of maps.
Someone who makes or studies maps is a
cartographer.
Types of maps:There are many kinds of maps.
The most familiar types are
(1) general reference maps,
(2) mobility maps,
(3) thematic maps, and
(4) inventory maps.
41
Observation and measurement:
A variety of experts obtain the information shown on
maps. The geodesist provides precise measurements
of the earth's size and shape.
The surveyor works out the location and boundaries
of places by measuring distances, angles, and
elevations.
The photogrammetrist obtains measurements from
aerial photographs.
42
Some of the other specialists who contribute
information include census takers, geographers,
geologists, and meteorologists.
The production of new maps based on aerial
photographs and other original surveys is called base
mapping.
Most maps made by base mapping are topographic
maps that are large in scale and include much detail.
They become the basis for many other maps made by
the process of compilation mapping.
43
HISTORY OF MAPS-
Ancient maps.
The oldest existing map appears on a clay tablet made
in Babylonia (now part of Iraq) around 2500 B.C.
This map seems to show a settlement in a mountain-
lined river valley.
The Egyptians made maps as early as 1300 B.C. They
developed techniques of surveying, probably to remap
property boundaries each year after the Nile River
flooded its banks.
44
The Greeks made great advances in geometry and
surveying, and they developed systems of map
projection.
The Greeks also speculated about the size and shape
of the earth.
Many of them believed it was a sphere.
The Greek mathematician Eratosthenes calculated the
circumference of the earth with remarkable accuracy
around 250 B.C. The development of thematic
mapping. By the 1800's, the systematic collection of
45
data through censuses had become common.
Cartographers then created thematic maps to display
and study this wealth of new information.
Mapmaking and modern technology:
During the 1900's, improvements in printing and
photography have made it cheaper and easier to
produce maps.
Maps became more widespread as a result.
The development of the aeroplane during the early
1900's helped to prepare maps faster.
46
Space exploration has also contributed to mapmaking
and has furthered the mapping of moons, other
planets, and the vast reaches of space.
Artificial satellites carry remote sensing devices that
send a variety of signals back to earth. These signals
can be used in mapping landforms, mineral deposits,
patterns of vegetation growth, environmental
pollution, and other subjects.
47
Some of the Major Types of Maps:
Physiographic map,
Topographic map,
Drainage maps .
Geological map,
Structural map,
Infrastructural maps.
Geophysical maps,
Hydrogeological maps.
48
Mining maps,
Hazard zonation maps.
Environmental -
Landscape,
Vegetation,
Precipitation,
Climatic, etc.
Geographic Maps -
Political, Country, State, Local, City, Highway, Road .
Statistical - Population,
Economic activity,
49
Linguistic maps,
Urban settlement maps,
Aviation maps,
Navigational maps,
Cadastral maps,
Resource maps- land, soil, water, vegetation, wildlife,
mineral, fuel, energy, etc.
KINDS OF MAPS PREPARED :
Geology ,Forest Fires, Land , Hydrology , Natural
Hazards, Ecology, Age of Rocks, Geological
Provinces, Major Rock Categories, Fire Danger
50
Rating, Forest Fire Hotspots, Land Cover, Permafrost,
Relief, Surficial Materials, Surficial Materials, World
Heritage Sites, Current Water Levels, Drainage
Basins, Major Avalanches ,Major Earthquakes, Major
Floods, Major Forest Fires, Major Hailstorms, Major
Hurricanes ,Major Landslides, major Tornadoes,
Major Volcanic Areas, Tsunamis, Ecological
Framework , Ecosystem Components, Human
Activities in Ecosystems, Protecting Ecosystems,
Threats to Ecosystem Ecological Framework,
Terrestrial Ecozones, Endemic Plant Diversity, Land
51
Cover Diversity ,Rare Plant Diversity, Wetland
Diversity, Mining Sites, Productive Forest Land Use
.Protected Areas ,Industrial Discharge Sites.
Population Variation by Eco-Province, Road Density
,Sewage Treatment, Species at Risk, Aboriginal
Languages, Aboriginal Population, Population, Age ,
Families ,,Official Languages, Aboriginal Languages
by Community, Index of Aboriginal Language Ability,
Percentage of Population by Census Division,
Population Density, Population Distribution, Youth
,Family Structure, Marital Status,
52
Families With Children Living at Home
Mining, Special Places ,Transportation Infrastructure,
Active and Closed Mines,
Mineral Exploration , Drainage Basins, geological
Provinces, Permafrost . Snowfall ,Aboriginal Cultural
Areas,
Heritage Rivers, Migratory Bird Sanctuaries,
National Historic Sites ,
National Parks, National Wildlife Areas ,Air Routes.
Marine Transportation, Bilingualism, Knowledge of
English, Mother Tongue,
53
Agriculture, Income, Diamond Exploration,
Renewable Energy,
Resource Reliant Communities,
Electric Power Generating Stations, Beef Cattle by
Census, Dairy Cattle by Census .
Small Farms by Census,
Wheat Acreage by Census. Median Income of
Individuals, Male Median Income. Female Median
Income.
Areas for MINERAL Exploration, Surficial Materials.
54
Renewable Energy,
Combined Energy,
Forestry , Minerals,
All Resources, Energy, Forestry, Utility Stations,
Mining and Energy Industries,
Territorial Evolution, International Outline Maps,
Political Divisions, Coastline Boundaries, Coastline,
Adjacent Regions, lakes, Rivers, Capital City
Locations,
Place Locations & Names,
Climate Warming, Potential Impacts,
55
Stress to the Atmosphere, Human Activities Leading
to Emissions , societal Responses ,annual
Temperature,
Coastal Sensitivity to Sea-level Rise,
Sensitivity of Peatlands to Climate Change, Severity
Ratings for Forest. Wind Erosion Risk and Climate
Sensitivity, Greenhouse Gas Emissions by Gas
,Greenhouse Gas Emissions by Sector ,Trends in
Greenhouse Gas Emissions ,Light-duty Vehicle Fuel
Efficiency. Market Share,
Change in Market Share. Distribution of Freshwater ,
56
Water Consumption. Recreational Uses,
Drainage Patterns, Glaciers and Icefields,
Groundwater, Wetlands,
Domestic Water Consumption,
Commercial and Institutional Water Consumption,
Agricultural Water, Consumption / Irrigation,
Hydroelectricy and Freshwater, Swimming ZONES,
Recreational Fishing,
Boating TYPES.
Health Resources,
Health Status ,
57
Non-medical Determinants of Health, Health
Behaviors ,
Health Services Utilization, Population-to-physician
Ratios.
Population-to-family Physician Ratios, Population-to-
nurse Ratios, Low Birthweight,
Physically Active Population, Population Who Were
Overweight.
Dental Services Utilization,
Where to Purchase, Natural Resources,
Find a Place.
58
Natural Resources Mapping:
Earth’s environmental segments contain innumerable
natural resources for human use and consumption.
Maps depict most of them for human use and
analysis.

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Maps, cartography and significances

  • 1. 1 MAPS, CARTOGRAPHY & SIGNIFICANCES by Prof . A. BALASUBRAMANIAN Centre for Advanced Studies in Earth Science, University of Mysore, Mysore
  • 2. 2 What is a map? A Map is a drawn, pictorial representation of the earth or its features. Most maps show part or all of the earth's surface features. Maps express information through lines, coloured zones, shapes, and other symbols. These symbols stand for such features as rivers, roads, and cities.
  • 3. 3 To analyse the earth’s surface features, we need some accurate information about their distribution. These information are available only on maps. Maps are used to locate places, measure distances, plan trips, and find our way. People probably made crude maps even before the development of written language sometimes before 5,500 years. Through expeditions and explorations more and more information were added to the old maps.
  • 4. 4 Map is a drawn or printed representation of the physical features of the Earth. It is the best tool to show, understand and analyse the features of an area. Cartography is the art and science of making maps. Pilots of ships and aeroplanes use maps to navigate.
  • 5. 5 Maps may also give us information about the variation of a property, such as the climate, population, and transportation routes. Scientific discoveries have made maps more accurate. Today, most maps are based on photographs taken from the air. Maps express information through lines, colours, shapes, and other symbols.
  • 6. 6 These symbols stand for such features as rivers, roads, and cities. It is not possible to show features at their actual size nor is it possible to show full detail. The features represented on a map are greatly reduced in size. Every map has its own scale. Scale is the ratio between the distance of a part of a map and its ground distance.
  • 7. 7 For example, one centimetre on a map might represent a distance of 500 metres. Different scale maps provide different levels of detail in terms of features presented. Different types of maps are prepared for different purposes. For geological exploration, geologists use the topographic maps.
  • 8. 8 The spatial information displayed in a topographic map are more when compared to the general maps. Understanding the features of these topographic maps require some basic skills. Today let us see the features of a topographic map. Topographic maps: Topographic maps usually portray both natural and man-made features.
  • 9. 9 The natural features include mountains, valleys, plains, lakes, rivers, and forests. The man-made features include roads, boundaries, transmission lines, and major buildings. Maps express these information in the form of lines, colours, shapes, and other symbols.
  • 10. 10 The wide range of information provided by a topographic map makes it extremely useful to professional geologists. These maps are made in two standard scales. The first one is of 1: 250000 scale. In this large scale map, a feature of 1 cm is equal to 2,50,000 cm. The second one is 1: 50000 scale.
  • 11. 11 These are small scale maps. One cm over this map is equal to a distance of 500 metres. One topographic map of 1: 250000 scale includes 16 sets of 1: 50000 scale maps. Let us see the features of a Topographic Map:
  • 12. 12 Topographic maps show four categories of features as: 1. Geographic features 2. Topographic features 3. Hydrographic features 4. Cultural features.
  • 13. 13 Geographic features: This category includes the spatial distribution of earth’s features with reference to their geographic co- ordinates, its index, the boundaries covered with reference to both latitudes and longitudes, scale and links to other maps and their features.
  • 14. 14 Topographic maps render the three-dimensional ups and downs of the terrain on a two-dimensional surface. The characteristic that distinguishes topographic maps from other maps is the use of contour lines to portray the shape and elevation of the land.
  • 15. 15 Topographic maps are used for engineering, energy exploration, natural resource conservation, environmental management, public works design, commercial and residential planning, and outdoor activities like hiking, camping, and fishing. Map Symbols All features are represented on a topographic maps by a set of standard symbols.
  • 16. 16 For example, the topography (the shape of the land) is shown by contour lines. Usually brown, these lines show the ground surface at a constant elevation. Woodlands are shown in a green tint; waterways, in blue. Buildings may be shown on the map as black squares or outlines. Recent changes in an area may be shown by a purple overprint.
  • 17. 17 A road may be printed in red or black solid or dashed lines, depending on its size and surface. Reading a map: Using a map requires certain skills. To read a map, it is necessary to understand map legends, scale, geographic grids, and map indexes. Map legends list and explain the symbols and colours on a map.
  • 18. 18 Some map symbols resemble or suggest the features they represent. For example, a tree-shaped symbol may stand for a forest or an orchard. But many symbols have no resemblance to what they represent, as when a circle stands for a city. In addition, the same symbol may represent different features on different maps. A circle, for instance, may represent 20 mobile homes on one map and a petroleum deposit on another. It is important to read the map legend to find out exactly what the symbols mean.
  • 19. 19 Most maps are printed to show north at the top. Many map legends include an arrow that indicates which direction is north. Uses of Maps: People probably made crude maps even before the development of written language some 5,500 years ago. Through the years, people have explored more of the world, adding new information to maps. Scientific
  • 20. 20 discoveries have made maps more accurate. Today, most maps are based on photographs taken from the air. We use maps to locate places, measure distances, plan trips, and find our way. Pilots of ships and aeroplanes use maps to navigate. Maps may also give us information about a place, such as its climate, population, and transportation routes. Maps can also show such patterns as where people live and how they use the land.
  • 21. 21 We also use maps to make comparisons and draw conclusions. Geologists study maps of the earth's structure to help locate natural resources. Map legends list and explain the symbols and colours on a map. Some map symbols resemble or suggest the features they represent. For example, a tree-shaped symbol may stand for a forest or an orchard.
  • 22. 22 But many symbols have no resemblance to what they represent, as when a circle stands for a city. In addition, the same symbol may represent different features on different maps. It is important to read the map legend to find out exactly what the symbols mean. Scale - Every map may have a scale. The features represented on a map are greatly reduced in size, as per its scale.
  • 23. 23 For example, on a 1:50,000 scale map, one centimetre on a map might represent a distance of 500 metres. A map's scale shows the relationship between distances on the map and the corresponding distances on the earth's surface. Many maps show scale by marking off distances on a straight line. Each mark represents a certain number of kilometres or miles.
  • 24. 24 Other maps indicate scale in words and figures. For example, the scale might appear as "1 centimetre:10 kilometres." In other words, a distance of 1 centimetre on the map represents 10 kilometres on the earth's surface. Another common method of expressing scale is by a representative fraction, such as "1:100,000" or "1/100,000."
  • 25. 25 This means that a single unit of length on the map represents 100,000 of those units on the earth's surface. Reading a map: Map Legend. Using a map requires certain skills. To read a map, it is necessary to understand map legends, scale, geographic grids, and map indexes. Longitude and latitude can be used to pinpoint any place on earth. For example, only one place can lie at 30° north latitude and 90° west longitude.
  • 26. 26 Map indexes help us locate places on a map. A map index lists the features shown on a map in an alphabetical order. In many atlases, each entry in the index is listed with its longitude and latitude. We can then use the longitude and latitude to find a feature on a map. Many maps are divided into horizontal rows and vertical columns by an index grid. In most cases, letters along the sides of the map label the horizontal rows.
  • 27. 27 Numbers across the top and bottom of the map label the vertical columns. General reference maps identify and locate a variety of geographic features. Such maps may include land features, bodies of water, political boundaries, cities and towns, roads, and many other elements. People use general reference maps to locate specific places and to observe their location in relation to other places.
  • 28. 28 The maps of states, countries, and continents in atlases are examples of general reference maps. Maps that emphasize the boundaries of counties, states, countries, or other political units are called political maps. Maps that emphasize the location of such features of the earth's surface as mountains, rivers, and lakes are called physical maps or terrain maps. Mobility maps are designed to help people find their way from one place to another.
  • 29. 29 There are mobility maps for travel on land, on water, or in the air. A map used to navigate a ship or an aeroplane is called a chart. Road maps are the most familiar kind of mobility map. Road maps represent different categories of roads, such as motorways, four-lane roads, and scenic routes. They also show the cities, towns, parks, and other places connected by those roads.
  • 30. 30 Travellers use road maps to plan trips and follow lengthy routes. Street maps are similar to road maps. But street maps show a much smaller area in much greater detail. People use street maps to find specific addresses and to plan and follow short routes.
  • 31. 31 Transit maps show the routes of buses, underground railways, and other systems of mass transit (public transport in cities). Such maps help people reach their destinations by means of public transport. Aeronautical charts are maps used to navigate aeroplanes. Many pilots of small, low-flying aircraft plan and follow a course by using VFR (visual flight rules) charts.
  • 32. 32 VFR charts show such landmarks as bridges, roads, railway tracks, rivers, and towns. Nautical charts are maps used to navigate ships and boats. Nautical charts show water depths, lighthouses, buoys, islands, and such dangers as coral reefs and underwater mountains that come near the surface. They also locate the source of radio signals that navigators use to determine their course and position.
  • 33. 33 Thematic maps: Show the distribution of a particular feature such as population, rainfall, or a natural resource. They are used to study overall patterns. A thematic map might show, for example, where petroleum is produced in Asia or how the average yearly rainfall varies from one part of one place to another. Some thematic maps express quantities by using lines that pass through points of equal value.
  • 34. 34 General terms for such lines include isograms, isolines, and isarithms. Specific types of isograms have special names. On a weather map, for example, lines called isobars connect places that have the same air pressure (eg. Isobar).
  • 35. 35 Isograms may also indicate temperatures, precipitation, and other measurements. On topographic maps, which show surface features of the land, isograms called contour lines are used to depict areas of equal elevation. Some thematic maps use variations in size and shape to express quantities. A map of the international petroleum trade might indicate a large flow of oil with thick arrows and a small flow of oil with thin arrows.
  • 36. 36 Inventory maps, like thematic maps, concentrate on a specific feature. But unlike thematic maps, which show distributional patterns, inventory maps show the precise location of the specific feature. A map showing every building in a community is an example. Map projections: Any system for transferring parallels and meridians from a globe onto a flat map is called a projection.
  • 37. 37 Mapmakers create projections according to mathematical formulas, often with the aid of computers. It is impossible to project a sphere, such as the earth's surface, onto a flat surface with complete accuracy. Every flat map has inaccuracies in scale that result from shrinking the globe in some places and stretching it in others to flatten it.
  • 38. 38 Some maps distort (show inaccurately) distances. On such maps, equal land areas may not appear of equal size. Many maps distort angles, resulting in misshapen seas and continents. Nearly all maps have one or two points or lines where there is no distortion. These are called standard points or standard lines. As we move away from them, the distortion of scale increases in a predictable way.
  • 39. 39 How maps are made? Experts from many fields gather the information that cartographers need. The cartographer then transforms this information into a meaningful visual representation. In general, mapmaking follows these steps: (1) observation and measurement, (2) planning and design, (3) drawing and reproduction, and (4) revision.
  • 40. 40 Cartography is the art of making and study of maps. Someone who makes or studies maps is a cartographer. Types of maps:There are many kinds of maps. The most familiar types are (1) general reference maps, (2) mobility maps, (3) thematic maps, and (4) inventory maps.
  • 41. 41 Observation and measurement: A variety of experts obtain the information shown on maps. The geodesist provides precise measurements of the earth's size and shape. The surveyor works out the location and boundaries of places by measuring distances, angles, and elevations. The photogrammetrist obtains measurements from aerial photographs.
  • 42. 42 Some of the other specialists who contribute information include census takers, geographers, geologists, and meteorologists. The production of new maps based on aerial photographs and other original surveys is called base mapping. Most maps made by base mapping are topographic maps that are large in scale and include much detail. They become the basis for many other maps made by the process of compilation mapping.
  • 43. 43 HISTORY OF MAPS- Ancient maps. The oldest existing map appears on a clay tablet made in Babylonia (now part of Iraq) around 2500 B.C. This map seems to show a settlement in a mountain- lined river valley. The Egyptians made maps as early as 1300 B.C. They developed techniques of surveying, probably to remap property boundaries each year after the Nile River flooded its banks.
  • 44. 44 The Greeks made great advances in geometry and surveying, and they developed systems of map projection. The Greeks also speculated about the size and shape of the earth. Many of them believed it was a sphere. The Greek mathematician Eratosthenes calculated the circumference of the earth with remarkable accuracy around 250 B.C. The development of thematic mapping. By the 1800's, the systematic collection of
  • 45. 45 data through censuses had become common. Cartographers then created thematic maps to display and study this wealth of new information. Mapmaking and modern technology: During the 1900's, improvements in printing and photography have made it cheaper and easier to produce maps. Maps became more widespread as a result. The development of the aeroplane during the early 1900's helped to prepare maps faster.
  • 46. 46 Space exploration has also contributed to mapmaking and has furthered the mapping of moons, other planets, and the vast reaches of space. Artificial satellites carry remote sensing devices that send a variety of signals back to earth. These signals can be used in mapping landforms, mineral deposits, patterns of vegetation growth, environmental pollution, and other subjects.
  • 47. 47 Some of the Major Types of Maps: Physiographic map, Topographic map, Drainage maps . Geological map, Structural map, Infrastructural maps. Geophysical maps, Hydrogeological maps.
  • 48. 48 Mining maps, Hazard zonation maps. Environmental - Landscape, Vegetation, Precipitation, Climatic, etc. Geographic Maps - Political, Country, State, Local, City, Highway, Road . Statistical - Population, Economic activity,
  • 49. 49 Linguistic maps, Urban settlement maps, Aviation maps, Navigational maps, Cadastral maps, Resource maps- land, soil, water, vegetation, wildlife, mineral, fuel, energy, etc. KINDS OF MAPS PREPARED : Geology ,Forest Fires, Land , Hydrology , Natural Hazards, Ecology, Age of Rocks, Geological Provinces, Major Rock Categories, Fire Danger
  • 50. 50 Rating, Forest Fire Hotspots, Land Cover, Permafrost, Relief, Surficial Materials, Surficial Materials, World Heritage Sites, Current Water Levels, Drainage Basins, Major Avalanches ,Major Earthquakes, Major Floods, Major Forest Fires, Major Hailstorms, Major Hurricanes ,Major Landslides, major Tornadoes, Major Volcanic Areas, Tsunamis, Ecological Framework , Ecosystem Components, Human Activities in Ecosystems, Protecting Ecosystems, Threats to Ecosystem Ecological Framework, Terrestrial Ecozones, Endemic Plant Diversity, Land
  • 51. 51 Cover Diversity ,Rare Plant Diversity, Wetland Diversity, Mining Sites, Productive Forest Land Use .Protected Areas ,Industrial Discharge Sites. Population Variation by Eco-Province, Road Density ,Sewage Treatment, Species at Risk, Aboriginal Languages, Aboriginal Population, Population, Age , Families ,,Official Languages, Aboriginal Languages by Community, Index of Aboriginal Language Ability, Percentage of Population by Census Division, Population Density, Population Distribution, Youth ,Family Structure, Marital Status,
  • 52. 52 Families With Children Living at Home Mining, Special Places ,Transportation Infrastructure, Active and Closed Mines, Mineral Exploration , Drainage Basins, geological Provinces, Permafrost . Snowfall ,Aboriginal Cultural Areas, Heritage Rivers, Migratory Bird Sanctuaries, National Historic Sites , National Parks, National Wildlife Areas ,Air Routes. Marine Transportation, Bilingualism, Knowledge of English, Mother Tongue,
  • 53. 53 Agriculture, Income, Diamond Exploration, Renewable Energy, Resource Reliant Communities, Electric Power Generating Stations, Beef Cattle by Census, Dairy Cattle by Census . Small Farms by Census, Wheat Acreage by Census. Median Income of Individuals, Male Median Income. Female Median Income. Areas for MINERAL Exploration, Surficial Materials.
  • 54. 54 Renewable Energy, Combined Energy, Forestry , Minerals, All Resources, Energy, Forestry, Utility Stations, Mining and Energy Industries, Territorial Evolution, International Outline Maps, Political Divisions, Coastline Boundaries, Coastline, Adjacent Regions, lakes, Rivers, Capital City Locations, Place Locations & Names, Climate Warming, Potential Impacts,
  • 55. 55 Stress to the Atmosphere, Human Activities Leading to Emissions , societal Responses ,annual Temperature, Coastal Sensitivity to Sea-level Rise, Sensitivity of Peatlands to Climate Change, Severity Ratings for Forest. Wind Erosion Risk and Climate Sensitivity, Greenhouse Gas Emissions by Gas ,Greenhouse Gas Emissions by Sector ,Trends in Greenhouse Gas Emissions ,Light-duty Vehicle Fuel Efficiency. Market Share, Change in Market Share. Distribution of Freshwater ,
  • 56. 56 Water Consumption. Recreational Uses, Drainage Patterns, Glaciers and Icefields, Groundwater, Wetlands, Domestic Water Consumption, Commercial and Institutional Water Consumption, Agricultural Water, Consumption / Irrigation, Hydroelectricy and Freshwater, Swimming ZONES, Recreational Fishing, Boating TYPES. Health Resources, Health Status ,
  • 57. 57 Non-medical Determinants of Health, Health Behaviors , Health Services Utilization, Population-to-physician Ratios. Population-to-family Physician Ratios, Population-to- nurse Ratios, Low Birthweight, Physically Active Population, Population Who Were Overweight. Dental Services Utilization, Where to Purchase, Natural Resources, Find a Place.
  • 58. 58 Natural Resources Mapping: Earth’s environmental segments contain innumerable natural resources for human use and consumption. Maps depict most of them for human use and analysis.