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Scientific Research
1. Scientific Research
The Fountain of
Knowledge
Professor Syed Amin Tabish
FRCP (London), FRCP (Edin.), FAMS, MD (AIIMS)
Postdoc Fellowship, Bristol University (England)
Doctorate in Educational Leadership (USA)
2. Scientific Research
īŽ Research conducted for the purpose of
contributing towards science by the
systematic collection, interpretation and
evaluation of data and that, too, in a
planned manner is called scientific
research
īŽIt is a systematic collection, analysis and
interpretation of data to answer a question
or solve a problem
3. Classification of Scientific Research
īŽ According to data collection techniques:
īŽ Observational
īŽ Experimental
īŽ According to causality relationships:
īŽ Descriptive
īŽ Analytical
īŽ According to relationships with time:
īŽ Retrospective
īŽ Prospective
īŽ Cross-sectional
4. Classification of Scientific Research
According to the medium through
which they are applied:
īŽClinical
īŽLaboratory
īŽSocial descriptive research
5. Classification Of Research
I. Descriptive research
īŽ Case series
īŽ Surveillance studies
II. Analytical research
īŽ Observational studies: cohort, case control and cross-
sectional research
īŽ Interventional research: quasi-experimental and clinical
research
6. Analytical observational research
OBSERVATIONAL
īŽ Cohort Studies (Prospective, Retrospective and
Ambidirectional)
īŽ Case-Control studies
īŽ Cross-Sectional studies
INTERVENTIONAL RESEARCH (Experimental
Studies)
1. Quasi-Experimental Research
2. Clinical Research
7. Quantitative Research
īŽ It is numerical, non-descriptive, applies statistics
or mathematics, and uses numbers.
īŽ It is an iterative process whereby evidence is
evaluated.
īŽ The results are often presented in tables and
graphs.
īŽ It is conclusive.
īŽ It investigates the what, where, and when of
decision-making.
8. Qualitative Research
īŽ It is non-numerical, descriptive, applies to
reason, and uses words.
īŽ Its aim is to get the meaning, and feeling and
describe the situation.
īŽ Qualitative data cannot be graphed.
īŽ It is exploratory.
īŽ It investigates the why and how of decision-
making
9. Types of Questions
Academic âBasicâ
īŽ To add to our scientific
knowledge
Applied âPracticalâ
īŽ To solve our practical
problems
10. Research: the Fountain of Knowledge
īŽ A research problem refers to a difficulty that a researcher or
a scientific community or an industry or a government
organization or a society experiences. It may be a theoretical
or a practical situation. It calls for a thorough understanding
and possible solutions.
īŽ Research provides the basis for many government policies.
For example, research on the needs and desires of the
people and on the availability of revenues to meet the needs
helps a government to prepare a budget.
īŽ It is the fountain of knowledge and provides guidelines for
solving problems.
11. Step 1. Define a Research Area
īŽAreas for
research are
very broad
and
overlapping
īŽSelection depends on
īŽResearcherâs
interest
īŽActual need
īŽAvailable resource
13. Step 2: Select a Research Topic
īŽResearcher can
not study every
topic in the
selected area
īŽMagnitude of
problem
īŽSeriousness
īŽPreventability
īŽCurability
īŽFeasibility
15. Step 3. State the Research
Objectives?
īŽ State objectives at
the beginning of
study
īŽ State them clearly
īŽ Objectives are stated
in two forms
īŽGoal (general
objectives)
īŽSpecific objectives
16. Research Objectives Should Be
īŽ Closely related to research questions
īŽ Covering all aspects of the problem
īŽ Very specific
īŽ Ordered in logical sequence
īŽ Achievable (take in account time & resource)
īŽ Mutually exclusive (no repetition, no overlaps)
īŽ Stated in action verb that can be evaluated
20. Step 4. Develop a Research
Question
īŽ Before start, you make sure that
īŽYou has a research question
īŽQuestion is clear and specific
īŽReflect the objective (s)
īŽHas no answer by common sense
īŽHas no answer in literature
īŽFinding an answer will solve the problem of
the study
21. At this stage, review of
literature is very
important to ensure that
research question has
no answer
22. Review of literature is important
īŽ Identify valid question
īŽ Refine question(s)
īŽ Avoid un-needed research
īŽ Avoid duplication
īŽ Avoid pitfalls of previous studies
īŽ Provide scientific background
īŽ Give rationale for study
23. Examples of Questions (1)
īŽDescription
īŽ What is the incidence
of disease âDâ?
īŽ What is the prevalence
of disease âDâ?
īŽ What is the rate of
risk factor âFâ in the
community?
24. Examples of Questions (2)
īŽEtiology
īŽ What is the cause of
disease âDâ?
īŽ Is exposure âEâ
associated with disease
âDâ?
īŽ What is the risk factor
âFâ associated with
the disease âDâ?
25. Examples of Questions (3)
īŽDiagnosis
īŽ Is test âT1â better
than test âT2â in
diagnosis disease âDâ?
īŽ What the value of test
âTâ in diagnosis
disease âDâ?
26. Examples of Questions (4)
īŽTherapy
īŽ Is drug âAâ better
than drug âBâ in
treatment of disease
âDâ?
īŽ Is surgery more
effective than
conservative
treatment for disease
âDâ?
27. Examples of Questions (5)
īŽPrognosis
īŽ What is the five-year
survival of patients
with disease âDâ?
īŽ What is the five-year
survival of patients
having disease âDâ
after intervention âIâ?
29. Step 5: Formulate a Hypothesis
īŽIt is a statement
of research
question in a
measurable
format
Hypothesis; must be:
īŽ Based on scientific
background
īŽ Translation of research
question
īŽ Reflect the study design
īŽ Use the study variable
īŽ Test only one relationship
īŽ Stated in measurable terms
30. Example for Formulating a Sound
Hypothesis
A prospective cohort study was designed
to answer the research question: â is
hypercholesterolemia (HC) a risk factor
for coronary artery disease (CAD)?â
31. Examine the Following
Hypothesis
1. All subjects having HC will develop CAD
2. Dietary habits affect the risk of CAD
3. Rats given high fat diet will develop CAD
4. Atherosclerosis is associated with a high risk of
CAD
5. Increased serum cholesterol and triglycerides
and decreased HDL lead to increased risk f
CAD
32. 6. CAD is high among hypercholesterolemic
subjects
7. Subjects with HC have a higher risk of
developing CAD compared to subjects without
HC
8. The prevalence of CAD among HC subjects is
higher than that in subjects without HC
9. The probability of HC in CAD patients is
higher than in subjects without CAD
33. īŽ Hypothesis (1) is refuted because it is not biologically
plausible
īŽ Hypothesis (2) is refuted because it is not related to
research question
īŽ Hypothesis (3) is refuted because it does not reflect the
study design (cohort not experiment)
īŽ Hypothesis (4) is refuted because it does not use the
study variables
īŽ Hypothesis (5) is refuted because it examine more than
one relationship. It is better to use separate hypothesis
for each studied association
34. īŽ Hypothesis (6) can be refuted because it is
not stated in a measurable terms.
Expression âhighâ is very subjective
īŽ Hypothesis (8) & (9) an be refuted because
they do not reflect the study design.
Although they fulfill all other criteria
īŽ Hypothesis (7) is a sound hypothesis
37. STUDY DESIGNS
īŽ Classification
depends on role of
investigator in
controlling factors
under study
īŽ Observational
īŽ Ecological
īŽ Cross sectional
īŽ Case control
īŽ Cohort
īŽ Experimental/interven
tion
īŽ Lab experiments
īŽ Clinical trials
īŽ Community interventions
īŽ Quasi-experimental
38. 1. Ecological Study
īŽ Sampling units are
groups
īŽ Good source for
new hypothesis
īŽ Problems
īŽEcological fallacy
īŽTemporal
relationship
39. 2. Cross Sectional Study
īŽ Data collected at a
single point in time
īŽ No control group
īŽ Prevalence rate can be
calculated
īŽ Develop new
hypothesis
âSnapshotâ
40. Prevalence vs. Incidence
īŽ Prevalence
īŽThe total number of
cases at a point in
time
īŽ Includes both new
and old cases
īŽ Incidence
īŽThe number of new
cases over time
41. Example of a Cross-Sectional
Study
Study of association between garlic
consumption & CAD in the Family
Practice Clinic
42. Cross-sectional Study
Sample of Population
Garlic Eaters Non-Garlic Eaters
Prevalence of CAD Prevalence of CAD
Time Frame = Present
44. Cross-Sectional Study
īŽ Strengths
īŽQuick
īŽCheap
īŽ Weaknesses
īŽ Weak evidence of
association
īŽ Lack of
representativeness
īŽ Absence of temporal
relationship
īŽ No control of
confounders
īŽ Prevalence-incidence
bias
45. 3. Case-Control Study
īŽ Start with people who have disease
īŽ Compare them with controls that do
not
īŽ Look back and assess exposures
46. Case-Control Study
Patients with CAD
Patients w/o CAD
Present
Past
High Garlic Diet
High Garlic Diet
Low Garlic Diet
Low Garlic Diet
Cases
Controls
47. Do not eat
Eat garlic
ill not ill
49 49 98
4 6 10
Presentation of Case-control Study
48. Strengths
īŽ Good for rare outcomes: cancer
īŽ Can examine many exposures
īŽ Useful to test hypothesis
īŽ Fast & easy
īŽ Cheap
īŽ Provides Odds Ratio
īŽ Minimal ethical problems
īŽ No risk to participants
īŽ No attrition problems
53. Intuitively
If the frequency of exposure is higher
among cases than controls
Then the incidence rate will probably be
higher among exposed than non
exposed.
56. Cohort Study
īŽ Begin with disease-free individuals
īŽ Classify individuals as exposed/unexposed
īŽ Record outcomes in both groups
īŽ Compare outcomes using relative risk
67. Strengths
īŽ Provides incidence data
īŽ Establishes time sequence for causality
īŽ Eliminates recall bias
īŽ Suitable for rare exposure
īŽ Allows for accurate measurement of
exposure variables
68. Strengths
īŽ Can measure multiple outcomes
īŽ Can adjust for confounding variables
īŽ Can calculate relative risk
īŽDose response can be calculated
69. Weaknesses
īŽ Expensive
īŽ Time consuming
īŽ Problems of attrition
īŽ Cannot study rare outcomes (diseases)
īŽ Some ethical problems
70. Weaknesses
īŽ Exposure may change over time
īŽ Disease may have a long pre-clinical phase
īŽ Change of diagnostic criteria
71. Experimental Studies
Clinical trials provide the âgold
standardâ of determining the
relationship between garlic and
cardiovascular disease prevention.
75. Strengths
īŽ Best measure of causal relationship
īŽ Best design for controlling bias
īŽ Can measure multiple outcomes
76. Weaknesses
īŽ Ethical issues
īŽ Unawareness of patients
īŽ Withholding beneficial treatment
īŽ Inability to refuse (prisoners)
īŽ Potential side effects
īŽ Co-intervention & contamination
īŽ Feasibility problems
77. Small Group Tasks
īŽ Elect a leader and a speaker
īŽ Read your scenario
īŽ Design a study to answer the research question
īŽ Your funds are not unlimited!
īŽ Briefly present your study to the large group
īŽ Time:
īŽ 10 min for study design
īŽ 10 min for group presentations
78. Selection of Research Design
īŽ Selection of the best
research design
depends on many
factors
īŽ Purpose of study
īŽ State of existing
knowledge
īŽ Characteristics of study
variables
(exposure/outcome)
īŽ Latency
īŽ Feasibility
79. Research: The Fountain of Knowledge
īŽ A research problem refers to a difficulty that a
researcher or a scientific community or an industry or a
government organization or a society experiences. It
may be a theoretical or a practical situation. It calls for
a thorough understanding and possible solutions.
īŽ Research provides the basis for many government
policies. For example, research on the needs and
desires of the people and on the availability of revenues
to meet the needs helps a government to prepare a
budget.
īŽ It is the fountain of knowledge and provides guidelines
for solving problems.