2. Progressive aspect in general
The progressive (or ‘continuous’) focuses on the
situation as being in progress at a particular time.
In consequence it may imply that the situation has
limited duration, and that it is not necessarily
complete.
3. Progressive aspect in general
(a) Generally, verbs with stative senses do not occur
in the progressive, since there is no conception of
progression in state of affairs:
(1) *I am liking your sister.
(2) *He was knowing English.
When verbs that are ordinarily stative occur in the
progressive, they adopt dynamic meanings. They may
indicate a type of behaviour with limited duration:
(3) You are being obstinate.
(4) He was being silly.
4. Progressive aspect in general
Verbs expressing emotion or attitude, which are
ordinarily stative, indicate tentativeness when they
occur in the progressive:
(5) I’m hoping to take my exam soon.
(6) I was wondering whether you could help me.
5. Progressive aspect in general
(b) The EVENT PROGRESSIVE is used with dynamic
verb senses to refer to an event that has duration and is
not completed:
(7) I was reading an economics book last night.
(8) One of the boys was drowning, but I dived in and saved
him.
In (8), the simple past drowned could not replace the past
progressive was drowning, because it would not be
compatible with the report that the boy was saved.
The present progressive is more commonly used than the
simple present for events in present time, because present
events are usually regarded as having some duration:
(9) What are you doing? –I’m writing a letter.
6. Progressive aspect in general
(c) The HABITUAL PROGRESSIVE is used with
dynamic verb senses to refer to events that repeatedly
occur, with the implication that they take place over a
limited period of time.
(10) She’s writing some short stories.
(11) He’s teaching in a comprehensive school.
Contrast the nonprogressive:
(12) She writes short stories.
(13) He teaches in a comprehensive school.
The progressive implies temporariness
(=privremenost), and the nonprogressive implies
permanence (“She is a short-story writer”, “He is a
teacher in a comprehensive school”).
7. Progressive aspect in general
The normally stative verb have in (14) carries the
implication of temporariness, and the initial time
adverbial reinforces that notion:
(14) At the time she was having singing lessons.
8. Special uses of the progressive
(I) To refer to events anticipated in the future, or
to events anticipated in the past (future in the
past) (see Lecture 7 and 8):
(15) The train is leaving at nine tomorrow.
(16) They were getting married the following spring.
(“Trebali su se vjenčati narednog proljeća”)
(II) After will or shall to imply that the situation will
take place ‘as a matter of course’ in the future (see
Lecture 8, SLIDE 24):
(17) I’ll be seeing you next week.
9. Verbs denoting states of bodily
sensation
These verbs may be used almost interchangeably in
the progressive and nonprogressive when referring
to a temporary state:
(18) My foot hurts/is hurting.
(19) My back aches/is aching.
(20) I feel /am feeling cold.
10. More on the habitual progressive
The habitual progressive is not used to refer to
sporadic events; the nonprogressive is used for this
purpose:
(21) *She’s sometimes walking to the office.
(22) She sometimes walks to the office.
However, in combination with indefinite frequency
adverbs such as always or continually, the habitual
progressive loses its temporary meaning. In this case,
it often conveys disapproval on the part of the speaker:
(23) Bill is always working late in the office.
The pejorative sense may also be expressed with the
simple present or past in combination with these
adverbs.
11. Time-sequence and time-inclusion
The relationship between two simple forms is
normally one of TIME-SEQUENCE (see also Ispravak
midterm, SLIDE 19):
(24) When we arrived, John made some fresh coffee.
(The arrival came before the coffee-making.)
The relationship between progressive and a
simple form is normally one of TIME-INCLUSION:
(25) When we arrived, John was making some fresh
coffee. (The arrival took place during the coffee
making.)
12. Verb senses and the
progressive
Classes of verbs that typically occur with stative and dynamic senses.
Stance verbs are intermediate between stative and dynamic verbs:
(I) STATIVE
(a) states of ‘being’ or ‘having’: be, contain, depend, have, resemble.
(b) intellectual states: believe, know, realize, think, understand.
(c) states of emotion or attitude: disagree, dislike, like, want, wish.
(d) states of perception: feel, hear, see, smell, taste.
(e) states of bodily sensation: ache, feel sick, hurt, itch, tickle.
13. Verb senses and the
progressive
(II) STANCE: lie, live, sit, stand.
(III) DYNAMIC DURATIVE (taking place over a period of time)
(a) activities performed by inanimate forces: (wind) blow, (engine)
run, rain, (watch) work.
(b) activities performed by animate agents: dance, eat, play, sing,
work.
(c) processes (denoting change of state taking place over a
period): change, deteriorate, grow, ripen, widen.
(d) accomplishments (action or activity that has a goal or
endpoint): finish (the book), knit (a sweater), read (the paper). write
(an essay).
14. Verb senses and the
progressive
(IV) DYNAMIC PUNCTUAL (with little or no
duration):
(a) momentary events and acts: bang, jump, knock,
nod, tap. In the progressive, these verbs indicate the
repetition of the event (iterative sense):
(26) He was banging on the door.
(b) transitional events and acts: arrive, die, drown,
land, leave, stop. In the progressive, they refer to a
period leading up to the change of state:
(27) The train is now arriving at Platform 4.
15. Stance verbs
Stance verbs may be used with either the progressive
or the nonprogressive, often with little or no meaning
difference.
However, sometimes they seem to be used with the
nonprogressive to express a permanent state and
with the progressive to express a temporary state:
(28) James lives in Copenhagen. [permanent
residence]
(29) James is living in Copenhagen. [temporary
residence]
16. Non-progressive verbs (Palmer,
The English Verb, 1974)
As we have seen from the previous slides, there are some
verbs that are not commonly used in the progressive form
at all, even when they seem to indicate duration:
(30) I forget his name.
(31) I see my brother over there.
(32) It contains sugar.
(33) They own a lot of property.
These verbs – different from the other verbs of English in
that they usually, even in the present tense, occur with
non-progressive.
17. Non-progressive verbs (Palmer,
The English Verb, 1974)
The non-progressive is the norm.
Progressive forms of these verbs are used only where
there is specific reference to duration or one of the
special features indicated by the progressive.
18. Non-progressive verbs (Palmer,
The English Verb, 1974) – a
special group of verbs
There are some verbs such as read, sleep, work that refer
to non-momentary actions and sometimes occur in the
non-progressive with adverbials that indicate duration.
These are, perhaps, marginally non-progressive verbs and
deserve a separate mention, but they occur quite
commonly in the progressive form, and for this reason are
not treated as non-progressive verbs.
(34) I was reading all morning. vs. I read all morning.
(35) He’s been working for a long time. vs. He worked for a
long time.
(36) He was sleeping all night. vs. He slept all night.
19. Non-progressive verbs (Palmer,
The English Verb, 1974) – a
special group of verbs
The progressive form is thus not directly related to
the actual duration of the activity but rather to the
indication of that duration.
The non-progressive form merely reports the action
as if we were replying to the question What did he
do?, whereas the progressive specifically indicates
its duration, as if it were a reply to How did he spend
his time?
The use of non-progressive does not deny
duration, it simply does not indicate it.
20. Non-progressive verbs (Palmer,
The English Verb, 1974)
The non-progressive verbs fall into two subclasses:
verbs of state and private verbs.
The reason why these do not normally occur with the
progressive is different for each subclass.
21. Private verbs
Private verbs – those that refer to states or activities that the speaker
alone is aware of.
These verbs are of two kinds: verbs that refer to mental activities,
verbs that refer to sensations. Both commonly occur with non-
progressive forms.
Verbs referring to mental activities:
THINK: It think that’s mine.
IMAGINE: I imagine he’ll be there.
HOPE: I hope it’s true.
PLAN: I plan to go to London tomorrow.
FORGET: I forget what you said.
BELIEVE: I believe that it’s true.
22. Private verbs
In all the examples from the previous slide the subject is I.
However, it does not necessarily have to be so:
(37) You think you’re clever!
(38) Do you remember what he said?
Verbs refereeing to sensations:
SEE: I see my brother over there.
SMELL: I smell something burning.
HEAR: I hear music.
TASTE: I taste salt.
FEEL: I feel the softness of this fabric.
23. Private verbs
Again, the verbs from the previous slide are most
common with the first person singular, but they may
occur with other subjects:
(39) He smells something burning.
(40) Do you see that tree over there?
These verbs very commonly occur with the modal
verb can with no apparent difference in meaning:
(41) I can see my brother over there.
(42) I can smell something burning.
24. Private verbs
Just as the radio commentator uses the non-progressive
because his main aim is merely to report, so too the
person who reports on his own mental activities or
sensations is simply reporting and so uses the non-
progressive form.
With most verbs we seldom need simply to report in the
present. If we refer to a present activity it is only with
reference to its duration, for there is no need to report
what can be perceived by the hearer as well as the speaker.
But the private verbs have the special characteristic that
they refer to activities available for perception by the
speaker only. He alone can report them and in so doing
uses the appropriate form – the non-progressive.
25. Private verbs
These verbs, as we have already seen, can be used
with the second or third person subjects, but only to
ask about the activity, or to report it at second hand
or by inference.
Do you think… is looking for the answer I think…,
while He thinks… is either a report of I think… or
merely a guess. But in all these cases we are merely
concerned with a bare statement – duration is not at
issue.
26. Private verbs
The characteristics of the non-progressive verbs apply to
them as a class – a class that is formally definable in terms
of regular occurrence in the non-progressive.
A verb that does not belong to this class will not occur in
the non-progressive even if it is reporting a sensation. The
verb suffer, for example, does not belong to the class of the
non-progressives at all – manly because sufferings are so
often observable by both speaker and hearer. Even when a
purely private sensation is being reported, the progressive
form is used:
(43) I’m suffering from a headache.
27. Private verbs
There are some other verbs which occur with little
or no difference of meaning with progressive or
non-progressive forms. These are regarded as
optional members of the class, e.g. ache, itch:
(44) My foot itches/is itching.
(45) My arm aches/is aching.
28. Verbs of state
These verbs refer to a state or condition. The sense of duration is an
integral part of the lexical meaning of the verb, and there is for
this reason no need for a progressive form to indicate duration:
CONTAIN: It contains sugar.
BELONG: It belongs to me.
MATTER: It doesn’t matter.
DESERVE: He deserves something better than that.
CONSIST: It consists of little but water and colouring.
PLEASE: It pleases me no end.
DEPEND: It depends on what you mean.
OWN: I own this house.
29. Verbs of state
A special subgroup – verbs that indicate the quality
of creating sensations, those that may be treated as
the intransitive forms of the verbs of sensations.
They are sometimes called copular verbs:
(46) It smells sweet.
(47) It tastes nice.
(48) It feels soft.
The verbs of sensation see and hear have no similar
intransitive forms.
30. Use of the non-progressive
verbs in progressive
These verbs are used in certain circumstances with
progressive forms:
(49) I’m forgetting names nowadays.
(50) I’m seeing things.
The private verbs are used with the progressive where
there is simply emphasis upon duration:
(51) I’m actually hearing his voice!
(52) She’s hoping all the time that he’ll come back.
31. Use of the non-progressive
verbs in progressive
A more common use is to indicate habitual activity over
a limited period:
(53) I’m feeling the cold these days.
(54) He’s forgetting names nowadays.
(55) I’m thinking now that we ought perhaps to go.
The progressive is also used for repetition with the
sense of disapproval on the part of the speaker:
(56) I’m continually forgetting names.
(57) He’s always feeling ill.
(58) You are always imagining you’ll win a prize.
32. Use of the non-progressive
verbs in progressive
In other words, the private verbs function in the same
way as the other verbs, with the sole exception that
they are commonly used merely to report and in
reporting occur in the non-progressive.
But wherever there is specific indication of one of the
features associated with the progressive, they too
occur with progressive forms.
33. Use of the non-progressive
verbs in progressive
The verbs of state are a little different in that respect.
With them there is never emphasis on the duration and
they cannot normally be said to have a habitual sense
at all since they refer to permanent or semi-permanent
states.
Yet they are used with progressive forms where there is
reference to limited duration, but it is not the limited
duration of habitual activity:
(59) He’s looking better since his operation.
(60) I’m feeling all right now.
(61) We’re living in London at the moment.
34. Use of the non-progressive
verbs in progressive
There are also examples indicating increasing or
decreasing activity:
(62) He’s looking more and more like his father.
(63) It’s mattering less and less now.
(64) It’s tasting nastier and nastier.
35. Homonymy
We have already seen that the verbs smell, feel and
taste have two different uses, the one transitive with
the sense of having the sensation, the other
intransitive with the sense of having the quality to
produce the sensation. The verbs are non-
progressive in both their senses, but in one sense
they belong to the private verbs and in the other to
the verbs of state.
There is yet a third use = “to act to achieve the
sensation”. In this sense the verbs are not non-
progressive.
36. Homonymy
(65) I smell flowers./The flowers smell lovely./ I’m smelling
the flowers.
(66) I taste salt in the soup./The soup tastes salty./The
cook is tasting the soup.
(67) I feel something rough./The cloth feels rough./I’m
feeling the cloth.
The verbs see and hear are not similarly used in three
senses. In comparable senses different verbs are used:
(68) I see my brother./He looks well./I’m looking at my
brother.
(69) I hear music./It sounds beautiful./I’m listening to
music.
37. Homonymy
(1) (2) (3)
smell smell smell
taste taste taste
feel feel feel
see look look at
hear sound listen to
(1) = a private verb with the sense of “acquire the sensation”
(2) = a verbs of state with the sense of “produce the sensation”
(3) = not a non-progressive verb with the sense of “act to acquire the
sensation”
38. Homonymy
There are many contrasts of progressive and non-
progressive forms in which there is clearly a difference of
durational aspect, but this is not the only difference of
meaning.
With these we have again cases of homonymy:
(70) I imagine he’ll come. (“think”)
(71) You’re imagining things. (“having hallucinations”)
(72) I plan to go tomorrow. (“intend”)
(73) I’m planning my holidays. (“making arrangements”)
(74) I think he’ll come. (“believe”)
(75) I’m thinking about it. (“pondering”)
39. Homonymy
It is difficult in some cases to decide whether to treat the differences
of progressive and non-progressive in terms of verbs classes (the non-
progressive vs. the rest) or to handle them purely in terms of the uses
of the progressive/non-progressive category:
(76) Now I’m remembering.
2 interpretations of the verb remember from (76):
(1) progressive form is used because it emphasizes the duration, or
perhaps indicates limited duration.
(2) remember here has the meaning of “make a conscious effort to
remember” and with this meaning it is not a non-progressive verb at
all.
40. The perfect progressive
Present perfect progressive, past perfect progressive,
‘future perfect progressive’
When the perfect and progressive aspects are combined in
the same verb phrase, the features of meaning associated
with each aspect are combined to refer to a TEMPORARY
SITUATION LEADING UP TO THE PRESENT when the
perfect auxiliary is present tense has or have.
The combination conveys the sense of a situation in
progress with limited duration:
(77) I’ve been writing a letter to my nephew.
(78) It’s been snowing again.
41. The perfect progressive
If the perfect progressive sense is combined with accomplishment
predications or process predications, then the VP conveys the
possibility of incompleteness:
(79) I’ve been cleaning the windows. (The job may not be finished)
(80) The weather has been getting warmer. (It may get warmer still)
The present perfect progressive may be used with the dynamic verbs
senses to refer to a TEMPORARY HABIT UP TO THE PRESENT. The
events occur repeatedly up to the present and possibly into the future:
(81) Martin has been scoring plenty of goals (this
season).
(82) I’ve been working on the night shift for several
weeks.
42. The perfect progressive
The perfect progressive may combine with the past
tense of have (past perfect) and with modals (‘future
perfect’)
(83) The fire had been raging for over a week.
(84) By Friday, we’ll have been living here for ten years.
