ESC 351 - Nilgün Kıran Cılız.pdf

ESC. 351
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Prof.Dr. NiLG0N KIRAN CILIZ
INSTITUTE OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES Part- 1

the Environmental Perspective
• Our Common Future (the Brundtland
Report), published by the UN World
Commission on Environment and
Development (WCED) (1987)
• elevating sustainable development to a
global ethic

definition of sustainable
development
development which meets today’s
needs without placing the ability of
future generations to meet their
needs at risk

UN’s Previous Goals:
“Millennium Development Goals”
Halve the
number of
people living
under $1.25 a
day. MET
Ensure that
children
everywhere
complete primary
school. NOT
MET
Reduce by
three quarters
the maternal
mortality ratio.

UN New Goals:
“Sustainable Development Goals”
•MDGs have been criticized for being too
narrow. Made no mention of human rights,
nor specifically addressed economic
development.
•Many MDGs were not met
•Hence, Sustainable Development Goals were
proposed.

Source:
http://unsdsn.org/resource
s/publications/indicators/

Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

1) End poverty in all its forms everywhere.
2) End hunger, achieve food security and
improved nutrition, and promote sustainable
agriculture.
3) Ensure healthy lives and promote
wellbeing for all at all ages.
4) Ensure inclusive and equitable quality
education and promote lifelong learning
opportunities for all.

5) Achieve gender equality and empower all
women and girls.
6) Ensure availability and sustainable management
of water and sanitation for all.
7) Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable
and modern energy for all.
8) Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable
economic growth, full and productive employment,
and decent work for all.

9) Build resilient infrastructure, promote
inclusive and sustainable industrialization,
and foster innovation.
10) Reduce inequality within and among
countries.
11) Make cities and human settlements
inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable.
12) Ensure sustainable consumption and
production patterns.

13) Take urgent action to combat climate
change and its impacts.
14) Conserve and sustainably use the oceans,
seas and marine resources for sustainable
development.
15) Protect, restore and promote sustainable
use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably
manage forests, combat desertification and halt
and reverse land degradation, and halt
biodiversity loss.

16) Promote peaceful and inclusive
societies for sustainable development,
provide access to justice for all and
build effective, accountable and
inclusive institutions at all levels.
17) Strengthen the means of
implementation and revitalise the
global partnership for sustainable
development.

Sustainability
Social
cultural
Environment
Economy
Socio-economy
Good
governance
Sustainable Development
- the three (four ) pillars -
Good
governance

A. Transforming the world to sustainability
We are the global community of environment and sustainability
representatives
Together we can redraw the future:
• influence governments
• drive new kinds of enterprise
• inspire communitites

1. Population
• Global human population
Milestone (bn) Year achieved Years to achieve
2 1930 130
3 1959 29
4 1974 15
5 1987 13
6 1999 12
7 2011 12
8 Expected by 2024 13
9 Expected by 2038 14

1. Population
• Population change – growing at 1.13% per year
• Many reasons for population growth
• Growth rate reducing (2.19% in 1963)
• Estimated to reduce to 1% by 2020 and < 0.5% by 2050
• Various impacts from reducing growth rate
China –
0.52%
UK –
0.63%

content:
environmental, social and economic issues
1. population
2. other megatrends
implications from trends

the environmental perspective
• Our Common Future (the Brundtland Report), published
by the UN World Commission on Environment and
Development (WCED) (1987)
• elevating sustainable development to a global ethic

The environmental
problems
The environmental problems can be divided
into 3 main categories:
•The deterioration of ecosystems:
•Direct impacts on human health; &
•Depletion of raw material resources &
physical space.
These problems are then SUB-DIVIDED
according to the scale of the problem:

scale and scope of the
problem:
local;
( regional; fluvial; continental )
global

Environmental Problems & Geographical Scale
Geog.scale type of environmental pollution
Local - noise, smell, air pollution, soil and water pollution
Regional -soil pollution, over-fertilization & pollution, water
pollution, drought, waste disposal, air pollution
- pollution of rivers, regional waters.
- ozone levels, acidification, winter smog, heavy
metals.
Global - climate change, sea level rise, impact on ozon layer.
(Fig.1.1)

a. Globalisation
2. Megatrends
● Economic
● Financial
● Cultural
● Political
“The increased interconnectedness and
interdependence of people and countries.”
-WHO
● Sociological
● Technological
● Geographic
● Ecological
The process whereby systems expand from
being regional or national to encompass the
entire planet. This is a broad trend that has been
underway for centuries.
Concepts of Globalisation

a. Globalisation
● Globalization can be characterized as both more complicated and more surprising than was
anticipated in terms of sustainable development.
● Many differences over discussions as the process of globalization has diverse implications to
various people.
- Though the prevailing view is that globalization has mostly negative impacts, especially in the
case of developing nations.
- The increasing complexity of our global society means that sustainable development cannot be
addressed from a single perspective, country or scientific discipline.
● In such case, sustainable human development becomes a multifaceted process. It seeks a balance
between the ecological, economic and social spheres, while also taking account of political
(participation and democratisation), ethical (responsibility, solidarity, social justice and sufficiency)
and cultural (local diversity and artistic expression) considerations.

b. Urbanisation
Source: UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs
Percentage of population in urban areas,
2030.

The world urban population is expected to increase from 50% to 72% of total population by
2050.
Source: UN Report World Population Ageing 1950 - 2050
b. Urbanisation
• More than half of the world’s population now lives in towns and cities and this number will
swell to about 5 million by 2030.
• Much of this urbanization will bring huge social, economic and environmental
transformations.
• UN projections show the world’s rural population has already stopped growing, but the
world can expect to add close to 1.5 billion urbanites in the next 15 years, and 3 billion by
2050.

• How the world meets the challenge of sustainable development will be intimately tied
to this process;
- Smart Cities that can use cloud technology, can take advantage of
automatization in mobile devices and in social networks to connect city departments
directly.
• Critical Issues;
- “Mega Slums” and Feral Cities” – mass migration to cities can cause
overcrowding and poverty which overwhelms the governments’ ability to
require even basic needs.
- There are such areas where already police and security forces do not dare to
tread.

c. Rural Areas
Rural Population (% of total population) in 2019

● The rural population of the world has grown slowly since 1950 and is expected to reach
its peak in a few years.
● The global rural population is now close to 3.4 billion and is expected to rise slightly and
then decline to 3.1 billion by 2050.
● Africa and Asia are home to nearly 90% of the world’s rural population in 2018. India
has the largest rural population (893 million), followed by China (578 million).
United Nations
c. Rural Areas

Sustainable rural development is vital to the economic,
social and environmental viability of nations.
Strategies to deal with rural development should take into
consideration the remoteness and potentials in rural areas and
provide targeted differentiated approaches.
Investments in environmental protection, rural infrastructure
and in rural health and education are critical to sustainable rural
development and can enhance national well-being.
Rural development depends on developing and implementing
comprehensive strategies for dealing with climate change, drought,
desertification and natural disaster.
c. Rural Areas

2. Other megatrends
Global ‘middle class’
• Economic growth
• Improved medical care
• Technological
development

2. Other megatrends
Energy consumption
• Underestimated trend – energy needed for the processing and use of ALL
resources/activity
• For example, some modes of transport are known to be more efficient
than others, but ALL require energy, whether this is fossil fuels in
vehicles or calories for energy to propel a bicycle.

2. Other megatrends
• The largest amount of electricity
generated in Turkey in 2019, was
through coal, with a total of 114.6
terawatt hours generated.
• Total consumption of 231.10 bn kWh
of electric energy per year.
• Per capita this is an average of 2,770
kWh
• Total production of all electric energy
producing facilities is 262 bn kWh,
which is 113% of the countries own
usage. (Turkey could provide itself
completely with self-produced energy)
• Turkey is trading energy with foreign
countries – imports and exports play
an important role.
(Worlddata)
Source: Statista, 2021

2. Other megatrends
Source: Olivier&Peters, 2019
Source: BP Statistical
Review of World Energy

Final energy consumption by s.ector, EU-27, 1990-2018
(million tonnes of oil equivalent)
1200
1 000
BOO
600
400
200
0
•lndintry Rcwid traMp,oct ■ on.er ttansport Hou�l'lo
�: Eurosta:t (onl da1a code. nrg_bal_cl
Sel'IICH Other
eurostat•
GDP per capita vs. Energy use, 2015
Annual energy use per capita, measured in kilowatt-hours per person vs. gross domestic product (GDP)
per capita, measured as 2011 international-$.
200,000kWh
150,000kWh
ro
� 100,000kWh
50,000kWh
0kWh �t
a
United States
�
.l;:iiD�n
�nited Kingdom
$1,000 $2,000 $5,000 $10,000 $20,000 $50,000 $100,000
GDP per capita
Source: International Energy Agency (IEA) via The World Bank
OurWorldlnData.org/energy-production-and-changing-energy-sources/ • CC BY

Kaynağa göre Toplam Enerji Arzı (TES), Türkiye 1990-2019
Credit: IEA, World Energy Balances 2020

Sektör Bazında Toplam Nihai Tüketim (TFC), Türkiye 1990-2018

Kaynağa Göre Toplam Nihai Tüketim (TFC), Türkiye 1990-
2018

Sektörlere göre Nihai Kömür Tüketimi, Türkiye 1990-2018 Credit: IEA, World Energy Balances 2020

Sektörlere göre Petrol Ürünleri Nihai Tüketimi, Türkiye 1990-
2018

iema.net
iema.net
Türkiye'de Birincil Enerji Dağıtımı

The Concept(s)
• Biophysical exchange processes,
between society and Nature, and the
related sustainability problems.
• For the production and reproduction of
its biophysical structures society
• Foods, water, fuel, minerals, metals etc.
• Scarcity, overuse or, planetary overshoot
• Urban Metabolism
• Industrial Metabolism
• Agrarian/Rural Metabolsim
• National Metabolism

Material Flow and Its History
• Material Flow Analysis
• Direct Material Consumption
• DMC/Capita = Metabolic Rate
• DMC/GDP = Material Intensity
• GDP/DMC = Material Productivity

I Food Q,.
- -
I Food[»_
- ..
Waste
Water

Input
Mate ·a1s
domes ·cally
e raced
Economy Output
Wastes,
emissions,
etc.
Expo s to other
economies
- exc ange it the environment
exchange .,ith olher economies

What
is
industrial
metabolism?
Credit:
https://www.nap.edu/read/2129/chapter/4#24

What
is
agricultural
metabolism?

Material flows in EU, 2017, billion tonnes per year (Gt/year)
Materials extracted
5.4
Biomass
etals
Minerals
EU Environment
EU sodety and economy
Rest of the world
Emissions to air
I 2.6 Waste landfilled
0.7
ec.europa.eu/eurostat•

Imports
1.70
Natural
eBiomass
Legend
8Non-metallic mineral
(!» Fossil energy materials/carriers
C') Metal ores
Material
Backfiling
0.21
Recycling
0.72
Total
Incineration
0.11
accumulation
2.72
Exports
o.n
Dissipative flows
0.26
Emi;ssions to air
2.59
Emissions to
water
0.01
Waste landfilled
0.71
ec.europa.eu/eurostat•

3. Implications from trends
Population
growth
Biodiversity loss/
ecosystem decline
Climate
change
Inertia
Pressures

the environmental problems
The environmental problems can be divided
into 3 main categories:
•The deterioration of ecosystems:
•Direct impacts on human health; &
•Depletion of raw material resources &
physical space.
These problems are then SUB-DIVIDED
according to the scale of the problem:

To introduce the environmental parameter
into the design of products, processes and/or activities
in an effective manner
The environmental parameter becomes a
business opportunity!
Eco-design: Key message

The Business Perspective
Stages in the relation Company-Environment
• Ignore (Passive)
• Dilute (Reactive)
• Treat (Active)
• Prevent (Proactive)

PASSIVE
Ignore
pollution
REACTIVE
Dilution and dispersion
PROACTIVE
Cleaner
Production
Responses of businesses to pollution
CONSTRUCTIVE
End-of-pipe
treatment

•Lack of environmental “culture”
•Routine
•Tendency to prefer “eop”
•Non-awareness of competitive advantages
of environmentally respectful systems
Passive, Reactive, Active

•Limited implementation of legislation
•Limited impact of the non-compliance
sanctions
•Inappropriate evaluation and allocation
of environmental costs

•Insufficient information about polluting
sources and loads
•Inappropriate evaluation and allocation of
environmental costs
•Ignorance of future outcomes
•“Inequality”

• Reduction of management and treatment
costs
• Generation of savings on purchases
• Generation of energy savings
• Improvement of competitiveness
• Reduction of contingency risks
Proactive

• Resource consumption increasing: Due to increasing population and
growing industries, more resources are consumed to provide goods and
services.
• Resources being depleted: Earth’s finite resources are depleted in excess
amounts such as fossil fuels, nuclear energy, deforestation.
• ‘Need’ for more rare earth elements: Mostly metals which are highly
demanded e.g. cell phones, computer memories, rechargeable batteries,
fluorescent lighting, etc.

• Biodiversity loss/ecosystem decline – 6th extinction event: Destruction
of habitats, pollution, deforestation, over-harvesting are among the
factors forcing species to extinction.
• Planet’s ‘resilience’ decreasing: Due to climate
change, ozone layer depletion, chemical pollution,
ocean acidification, N and P release to biosphere and
oceans decrease the resilience of our planet.
• Reduced function of ecosystem services:
unsustainable management practices leads reduced
functioning - such as excessive use of chemicals in
agricultural production.

Despite increasing
resource
consumption,
there is still a
global quality of
life imbalance.

BIODIVERSITY
05
HEALTH AND
WELLBEING
04
CLIMATE CHANGE
03
HUMAN RIGHTS
02
WATER
01
● Between 1990 and 2015, the proportion of the global population using an
improved drinking water source has increased from 76 per cent to 90 per cent.
● Water scarcity affects more than 40 per cent of the global population and is
projected to rise
● 127 countries have adopted right-to-information or freedom-of-information laws
● Targets of developing effective, accountable and transparent institutions and ensuring
responsive, inclusive, participatory and representative decision-making at all levels
● 2019 was the second warmest year on record and the end of the warmest decade
(2010- 2019) ever recorded. Carbon dioxide (CO2) levels and other greenhouse gases
in the atmosphere rose to new records in 2019
● Six climate-positive actions proposed: Green transition, Green jobs and sustainable
and inclusive growth, Green economy, Invest in sustainable solutions, Confront all
climate risks, Cooperation
● Before the pandemic, major progress was made in improving the health of millions
of people
● Strengthen the capacity of all countries, in particular developing countries, for
early warning, risk reduction and management of national and global health risks
● Human activity has altered almost 75 percent of the earth’s surface, Around 1
million animal and plant species are threatened with extinction
● By 2020, ensure the conservation, restoration and sustainable use of terrestrial
and inland freshwater ecosystems and their services, in particular forests,
wetlands, mountains and drylands, in line with obligations under international
agreements

POVERTY
10
EDUCATION
09
POLLUTION
08
RESOURCES
07
POPULATION
06
● According to WWF, one of the main causes of habitat loss is land for human
habitation with urban areas doubling since 1992
● Rapid urban population growth can outstrip the pace at which infrastructure such
as clean water, sanitation, health, jobs and education can be offered
● Global energy demand is expected to increase by 50% over the next 30 years as a
result of population growth and economic development
● Experts estimate that by 2050, 5 billion people – more than half the global
population – will live in water stressed regions
● Data from the WHO and the Global Alliance on Health and Pollution show
exposures to polluted soil, water and air (both indoor and outdoor) resulted in 8.4
million deaths in 2012
● By 2030, (From the baseline of 2012) reduce by two-thirds the number of deaths
and disability from pollution of air (indoor and outdoor), soil and water
● Greater investment in quality education is key to alleviating poverty and ending
population growth, still one in four girls does not attend secondary school
● Generally, the more years a woman spends in education, the smaller her family
size
● The World Bank has warned that extreme poverty will not decrease in 2021 due
to population growth eclipsing economic growth in the poorest nation
● Ensuring everyone is empowered to choose small families is key to eradicating
poverty

=> Climate Change
1. The science and causes of climate change
2. The impacts and consequences of climate change
3. Action to tackle climate change
B. Why do we need to be sustainable?
Climate Change

E E
G
Solar radiation passes through
the clear atmosphere.
Incoming solar radiation:
343 Watt per m2
N H 0 u s
gy Is absorbed by.IN
-wannatt;..
E G A s
Some of the Infrared radiation is
abSOfbed and rHmltted by the
green�use gas molecules. The
dlrect effect is the warming of the
earth'• surface and thetroposphere,
E s
Surface ga· more heat and
lnfnnd raclatlon Is emttled again
... ana I mnverted Into heat caualng
Hltllaelon of longwave (Infrared
sou= 0!<4nogan univeisity o:llego in Cllnat'a. Departmo,11 Of geog�y. l)n;,cr'$ly Ci O:dOr<I, $(IIOCI or �ar:phy: Uniled s.ale$ Env:r(lnmenlal PltlllOelicn Aceney (EPA), w�; Clim� c;l',ange
1996. The science or Cln-ae dlange. COOl�blJtion ol wctld� Qlll4) 1 lo !he &900lld as&e!lSffi!llll repon ol the ir'll!UJ:0'.n!1'111N!m8l panel en di'nale charge, UNEP and"""°· Cll/l'bl:IQe lriJersil}' pre� 1996-

iema.net
What is Climate Change
GHG increase
GHG emission
impact
Global Warming
CLIMATE CHANGE Kaynak: US EPA,
2012
19
iema.net

• Greenhouse Effect
• Global Warming
• Climate Change

• Burning fossil fuels, e.g. coal, gas and
oil.
• Deforestation - trees absorb carbon
dioxide during photosynthesis.
• Agriculture - agricultural practices
lead to the release of NOx emissions
into the atmosphere.

• Orbital changes - the Earth has
natural warming and cooling periods
caused by Milankovitch cycles
• Volcanic activity - during a volcanic
eruption carbon dioxide is released
into the atmosphere.
• Solar output - there can be
fluctuations in the amount of
radiation from the sun.

Glaciers
shrink
Ice breaks up
earlier
Trees flower
sooner
IPCC forecasts a
temperature rise of
2.5 to 10 degrees
Fahrenheit over
the next century.
Plant & Animal
ranges shifted
Warming of
the climate
system
Snow and ice
diminishing
More severe
weather and
pattern
changes
Increased
ocean acidity
Changes in
vegetation
zones
Change in the
distribution of
disease vectors

•Earth’s global average surface temperature was 0.95 Celcius above the
20th century average in 2019
Warming of the climate system: 2019 was the second
warmest year on record.
•Annual average Arctic sea-ice has decreased in every season and every
decade
Snow and ice diminishing: Greenland and Antarctic ice
sheets losing mass
•Increased precipitation in mid-latitude N hemisphere, higher salinity
due to increased/changed precipitation in some areas.
•Increase in warm extremes and decrease in cold extremes.
More severe weather and pattern changes.

•Geographical ranges, seasonal activities, migration patterns, abundance
and interactions changed.
Changes in vegetation zones: Terrestrial and marine and
freshwater species have shifted ranges
•It is expected to fall another 0.3 to 0.4 pH units by the end of the century.
Increased ocean acidity: pH dropped by 0.1 since the
beginning of the Industrial era
•Higher temperatures increase the area for species (mosquitoes, ticks) to
carry malaria and dengue fever.
Change in the distribution of disease vectors: Vector-borne
disease accounts for one-sixth of illness/disability suffered
worldwide

Increase in the number of heat-
related deaths
Extreme weather, shifting
rainfalls
Melting ice and rising seas
More frequent heat waves, forest
fires, droughts, cyclones, floods
CONSEQUENCES
Reduction in crop yields
Loss of biodiversity and
ecosystems
Damage to sensitive habitats and
species – corals
Damage to property and injury to
individuals, and rising costs
Many plants and animal species
are struggling to cope
Changes to natural cycles

• IPCC - Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change: Provides regular
assessments of the scientific basis of climate change, its impacts and future
risks, and options for adaptation and mitigation.
• Global policy: Adaptation strategy of United Nations to Climate Change by
aiming a long-term objective of:
“Stabilise GHG concentrations in the atmosphere to a level that would
prevent dangerous human interference with the global climate system”

• Other policies/commitments – emissions trading, CDM, JI: Policies to combat
climate change and to reduce greenhouse gas emissions cost-effectively.
Emissions trading: A cap is set on the total amount of certain greenhouse gases that can be
emitted by installations covered by the system. Within the cap, companies receive or buy
emission allowances which they can trade with one another as needed.
CDM-JI: Two project-based mechanisms which feed the carbon market.
The CDM involves investment in emission reduction or removal enhancement projects in
developing countries that contribute to their sustainable development, while JI enables
developed countries to carry out emission reduction or removal enhancement projects in
other developed countries.
• Conference of the Parties (CoP): A supreme decision-making body of the United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).
- Review the national communications and emission inventories submitted by Parties
- Assess the effects of the measures taken by Parties

• Kyoto (1997): Operationalizes UNFCCC by committing industrialized countries and
economies in transition to limit and reduce greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions in accordance
with agreed individual targets- reduce emissions by 5.2% (05-12), mechanisms established.
• Copenhagen (2009): Conference aiming a long-term goal of limiting the maximum global
average temperature increase to no more than 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels.
• Durban (2011): The negotiations advanced, in a balanced fashion, the implementation of
the Convention and the Kyoto Protocol - 2nd commitment period est. (2020) , ALL nations to
set targets.
• Doha (2012): reduce emissions by 18%, new agreement by 2015.
• Paris (2015): Legally binding international treaty on climate change, adopted by 196 Parties -
Agreement from 2020 signed in April 2016. Commitment to keep warming <2°C (1.5°C
considered). Long-term low greenhouse gas emission development strategies, finance for
mitigation and adaptation.
A selection of key CoP meetings

Section 3: Action to tackle climate change
MITIGATION ADAPTATION
Reduce the magnitude Adapt to the consequences
Use cleaner energy sources; gas over coal Build sea walls around vulnerable coastal areas
Use renewables – solar, wind, biomass, ground heat
pumps, anaerobic digestion
Give land back to mangroves and everglades to
break tidal surges during storms
Build a smart electrical grid Open wildlife migration corridors so species can
move as the climate warms
Carbon capture and storage/utilization Develop sustainable forms of agriculture
Improve efficiency of equipment and avoidance Flood protection
Geo-engineering – sequestration, solar radiation
management
Improve medical provisions – heat stress, disease
control

Current Emissions
55.6 Gt (gigatones) CO2
in 2018
1. China – 28%
2. USA – 15%
3. India – 7%
4. Russia – 5%
5. Japan – 3%
6. UK – 0.9%
Source: Olivier&Peters, 2019

• The UK Climate Change Act (2008) set a GHG reduction target of
80% by 2050; the first country-level carbon reduction law. Over 80
other countries have now set targets
UK Case Study

0,0
100,0
200,0
300,0
400,0
500,0
600,0
700,0
800,0
900,0
UK Total Greenhouse Gas Emissions 1990-
2014 MtCO2e)
Source: GOV.UK

800
400
200 500 600 700 900 1200
Ultraviolet Visible Infrared
C B A
Penetration of Sunlight into Skin
(greater depth of penetration with increase of wavelength)
Dermis
Epi
Subcut

Layers of the Atmosphere
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
5
0 10 15 20 25
Stratospheric Ozone
(The Ozone Layer)
Tropospheric Ozone
Layers of the Atmosphere
Altitude
(Kilometers)
Ozone Amount

C .Sustainable development and UN SD Goals
Definition: Sustainable development is the concept of needs and
limitations imposed by technology and society on the environment's
ability to meet the present and future need.
• The concept of sustainable development received its first major
international recognition in 1972 at the UN Conference on the Human
Environment held in Stockholm.
• The term was popularised 15 years later in Our Common Future, the
report of the World Commission on Environment and Development,
which included what is deemed the 'classic' definition of sustainable
development:
“Meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of
future generations to meet their own needs” (Brundtland, 1987)

● SD is the concept of warning of the negative environmental consequences of
economic growth and globalization, which tried to find possible solutions to
the problems caused by industrialization and population growth.
● Sustainable development can be successfully achieved by
○ conservation or reduction of excessive resource use
○ recycling and reuse of materials and
○ more use of renewable resources like solar energy, rather than non-
renewable resources such as oil and coal

• “Agenda 2030: UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDG),
New York
• A new global development framework
• Signatures of 193 countries
• "Sustainable Development Goals” under 17 headings
• Sustainable consumption and production, sustainable
cities, climate change, fighting against drought, putting
environmental objectives such as biodiversity
conservation on the sustainable development agenda.
• Goal 12: “Ensuring Sustainable Consumption and
Production Patterns”
43
• UN Stockholm Conference
• BM Human Environment Declaration
1972
1987
1992
2002
2012
• Brundtland Report
• Definition of “Sustainable Development”
• UN Conference on Environment and Development,
Rio
• Rio Declaration
• UN Framework Convention on Climate Change
• Biological Diversity Convention
• World Sustainable Development
Summit (Rio+10)
• UN Sustainable Development Conference
(Rio+20)
• Roadmap for development: "The Future We Want”
• 10 Year Framework of Programmes (10YFP) for
Sustainable Consumption and Production Patterns
2015
2003
• Sustainable Consumption and Production
International Experts Meeting, Marrakech
• The start of the Marrakech Process
The process leading to Sustainable Development Goals
(SDGs)1: Sustainable development and UN SD Goals

#''�
� �
...,.,.
THEGLOBALGOALS
For Sustainable Development

Source: Raworth (2012)
A Safe and Just Space

What are safe planetary boundaries?
Climate change

INTRODUCING THE CONCEPT OF
PLANETARY BOUNDARIES
● Boundaries are human determined values of the control variable
set at a “safe” distance from a dangerous level (for processes
without known thresholds at the continental to global scales) or
from its global threshold.
● Much of the uncertainty in quantifying planetary boundaries is due
to our lack of scientific knowledge about the nature of the
biophysical thresholds themselves
● The nine planetary boundaries identified cover the global
biogeochemical cycles of nitrogen, phosphorus, carbon, and water;
the major physical circulation systems of the planet (the climate,
stratosphere, ocean systems)

3. Sustainable capitals
• 5 types of sustainable capital from where we derive the
goods and services needed to improve the quality of lives
• Sources of ‘value’ – too much focus on financial
• Natural capital – understanding value, not determining price

3. Sustainable capitals
Source: Forum for the future
Natural In their extraction and use, substances taken from the earth do not exceed the environment's capacity to disperse, absorb,
recycle or otherwise neutralise their effects
In their manufacture and use, artificial substances do not exceed the environment's capacity to disperse, absorb, recycle or
otherwise neutralise their harmful effects
The capacity of the environment to provide ecological system integrity, biological diversity and productivity is protected or
enhanced
Human At all ages, individuals enjoy a high standard of health
Individuals are adept at relationships and social participation, and throughout life set and achieve high personal standards of
their development and learning
Access to varied/satisfying opportunity for work, personal creativity, and recreation
Social There are trusted and accessible systems of governance and justice
Communities and society at large share key positive values and a sense of purpose
Society promotes stewardship of natural resources and people development
Homes, communities and society provide safe, supportive living/working environments
Manufactured Infrastructure, technologies and processes minimise use of natural resources and maximise human innovation and skills
Finance Financial capital accurately represents the value of the other capitals

WATER POLLUTION
ESC 351 Lecture Notes
Prof.Dr. Nilgün Cılız
Institute of Environmental Sciences
Sustainable Development and Cleaner Production Center

OVERVIEW
WATER
BIOSPHERE
ENERGY GENERATION
TRANSPORT PROCESSES
HYDROLOGIC CYCLE
CHARACTERISTICS OF WATER
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER
PHYSICOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER
BIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER
WATER POLLUTION
INTRODUCTION
FRESH WATER
FACTORS THAT AFFECT WATER QUALITY
SOURCES OF WATER POLLUTANTS
ECOLOGICAL IMPACT

BIOSPHERE
The biosphere, (from Greek bios = life, sphaira,
sphere) is the layer of the planet Earth where life
exists. This layer ranges from heights of up to ten
kilometres above sea level, used by some birds
in flight, to depths of the ocean such as the
Puerto Rico trench, at more than 8 kilometres
deep.
These are the extremes; however, in general the
layer of the Earth containing life is thin: the upper
atmosphere has little oxygen and very low
temperatures, while ocean depths greater than
1000 m are dark and cold. In fact, it has been
said that the biosphere is like the peel in relation
to the size of an apple.
The biosphere is one of the four layers that surround
the Earth along with the lithosphere (rock),
hydrosphere (water) and atmosphere (air) and it is
the sum of all the ecosystems.
The biosphere is unique. So far there has been no
existence of life elsewhere in the universe. Life on
Earth depends on the sun. Energy, provided as sun
light, is captured by plants in the marvellous
phenomenon of photosynthesis. The captured energy
transforms carbon dioxide into organic compounds
such as sugars and produces oxygen. The vast
majority of species of animals, fungi, parasitic plants
and many bacteria depend directly or indirectly on
photosynthesis.

• The life on earth originated more than 3.5
G years ago.
•Since then biological processes have become
increasingly important in determining the
distribution of elements and compounds into which
they incorporated.
•Functioning of biochemical cycles and basic
concepts of the Earth system are very important.
In order to understand them better, it is necessary
to know something about the chemistry of living
organisms.

THE CHEMISTRY BASIS OF LIFE
To build their structures and to carry out the biochemical cycles that take place within their cells, organisms
need a source of energy.
The needed energy is obtained via biochemical pathways driven either by sunlight or by energy contained in
reduced chemical compounds.
Life is based on interactions among set of large organic molecules, each of which is assembled from smaller
molecules. In addition to Carbon and hydrogen, most naturally occurring organic molecules contain one or
more of four key elements, all of which are from the second and third period of periodic table: N, O, P, and S.

Impacts on natural ecological systems, habitats and individuals
• Resource depletion – fossil fuels, critical resources, rare earth elements
• Change in land use - deforestation and intensive agriculture
• Reduced biodiversity at ecosystem, species and genetic level
• Species extinction
• Reduced enjoyment of the land – ecosystem damage and biodiversity loss
• Reduced ecological stability – resistance, regeneration and eco-succession
• Unknowns – atmospheric aerosol loading and ‘novel entities’
• Increased poverty, reduced access to clean water, reduced air quality (concerns
from direct and indirect emissions)

Ecosystem services
• An ecosystem is a dynamic complex of plant, animal and
micro-organism communities and the non-living
environment interacting as a functional unit
• Ecosystems provide a range of ‘services’ that are
essential to support our way of life and well-being
• The benefits people obtain from ecosystems can
provide more than one service

Ecosystem services
• Provisioning – that provided by ecosystems
• Food, water, fuel, fibre, genetic resources, medicines
7.1

Ecosystem services
• Regulating – the benefits obtained from the control of
ecosystem processes
• Air and water quality, climate regulation, disease and
pest control, natural hazard regulation
7.1

Ecosystem services
• Cultural – the non-material benefits provided
by ecosystems
• Recreation, eco-tourism, educational benefits,
spiritual enrichment, inspiration, scientific
discovery
7.1

Ecosystem services
• Supporting – necessary to support all other services
• Soil formation, photosynthesis, nutrient cycling,
primary production, water cycling
7.1

•Water is an important constituent of biotic community. In nature, it occurs on the land, below
its surface, in atmosphere and in the biomass.
•97% of the total volume of water available is in oceans, 2% stored in the form of ice sheets and
less than 1% is available as fresh water.
•In the atmosphere most of water is present in the form of moisture or in vapour form. Water
vapour comes from evaporation from the oceans, lakes, rivers, ice-fields and glaciers,
transpiration from plants and animal respiration.
•Water plays a significant role in the continuity of life due to its unique qualities.
•Hydrosphere is the discontinuous layer of water at or near the Earth’s surface. The
liquid and frozen surface water, ground water present in soil and rocks, and the water
vapour in the atmosphere are its components.
•About 1,347 million cubic kilometres of water distributed between these reservoirs.
•But, it is a stark fact that Earth’s fresh water reserve is only 2.7 per cent of the total and
out of this, 2.2 per cent is locked up in polar ice caps and glaciers.
•And 0.5 per cent is distributed in ground water.
•The rivers carry only 0.0001 per cent total water reserves.

Source
Oen
le
Ground ater
Inland la
Soil moistur
Atmospheric wat r v r
Ri er
Vol,ont ( J(! k
m
)
- - ---
1.310. 3
29. 49
6.73
0. 242
0.074
0. 014
0.()()17
Percmt of Total
97.
3
2.22
0.5
0.02
0.00
0.001
0. 0()()1

HYDROLOGIC CYCLE
Some of the precipitation runs over the Earth’s surface and reaches lakes, rivers and
marshes, ultimately meeting the oceans. If the surface is covered with dense vegetation,
much of the precipitation may be held on different parts of the plants and trees. This process
is called ‘interception’ and it prevents water from reaching the ground. In such a case water
may evaporate directly from the plant surfaces into the atmosphere.
The precipitation reaching the ground, as rain or melted snow, distributes in different ways:
(1) evaporate and reach the atmosphere, (2) infiltrate the soil, (3) detained in catchment
areas, including lakes, (4) become over-land flow ( a form of run-off).
In turn, moisture retained by the soil can be lost by evaporation or being withdrawn by plants
(transpiration). The combined process is called ‘evapotranspiration’. It can be defined as the
sum of water used by vegetation and water lost by evaporation.

BIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER
Biological characteristics of water are due to the
presence of biological constituents, like algae and
other biological matter that exist even in natural water.
All living aquatic organisms release organic matter to
the water through excretion of waste products or death.
Colour and smell and taste are due to minerals and
organic matter and aquatic growth and decay of
vegetation.
Presence of pathogens, toxicants and coliforms in
waters pose health hazards to animals and humans.

WATER POLLUTION
Water pollution is the presence of some inorganic, organic, biological, radiological or physical
foreign substance in the water that tends to degrade its quality.
Normally, water is never pure in a chemical sense. It contains impurities of various kinds dissolved as
well as suspended. These include dissolved gases (H2S, CO2, NH3, N2), dissolved minerals (Ca,
Mg, Na, salts), suspended matter (clay, silt, sand) and microbes. These are natural impurities derived
from the atmosphere, catchment areas and the soil. They are in very low amounts and normally do
not pollute water. All these substances when present in small quantities do not cause any harm and
may even have some positive effects in improving the water quality. However, if their concentration
increases substantially, they affect adversely the water quality and make the water unfit for use. Such
water is said to be polluted. The polluted water is turbid, unpleasant, bad smelling, unfit for drinking,
bath and washing and incompatible in supporting life.
Water pollution is also caused by the presence of undesirable and hazardous materials and
pathogens beyond certain limits. Much of the pollution is due to anthropogenic activities like
discharge of sewage, effluents and wastes from domestic and industrial establishments, particulate
matter and metals and their compounds due to mining and metallurgy and fertilizer and pesticide
runoffs from agricultural activities.

FRESH WATER
Taking all the factors into account it can be said that ‘natural water’ is a dilute solution of elements
dissolved from the Earth’s crust and washed from the atmosphere. The total ionic concentration can
vary from as low as 100 mg/L in snow, rain, hail and some mountain streams, to as high as 40,000 mg/L
in the saline lakes of internal drainage systems. Freshwater, generally, contains non-toxic and non-
hazardous total dissolved solids below 1,000 ppm.
The naturally occurring impurities are alkaline and alkaline earth salts, heavy metals iron and
manganese, and organic decomposition products of plants and biota. Brackish water contains
dissolved solids in the range 1,000- 10,000 ppm and salty water (sea water) >10,000 ppm. Of the major
ions in water are cations—Ca(60%), Mg(20%), Na(15%) and K(5%), and anions—HCO3(55%),
Cl(25%) and SO4 (20%). The concentration of major ions in natural water is the result of geochemical
balance between source contributions and removal mechanisms.

Mg2+
S04-
Fig. 8.1: Representation of Ionic Compositio� of Natural Waters

FRESH WATER
It is difficult to judge whether a particular body of water is polluted or
not, in absolute terms. Therefore, in broad terms, water is said to be
polluted when it contained enough impurities to make it unfit for a
particular use, such as drinking, swimming or fishing.
For some industrial purposes water of very high purity, with
impurities in ultra-trace level, is demanded. It is not only the flowing
and stagnant water that is contaminated but even the underground
water sources (aquifers) have not altogether escaped the polluting
influence of modern industrial, agricultural and community activities.
Some of the aquatic systems are choked with an excess of organic
substances and organisms to be poisoned with toxic substances.

�
TABLE 8.1: MAXIMUM PERMITTED LEVELS (mg/L) OF IONS IN DRINKING WATER
Contaminant PermittedLevel (mgIL) Contaminant PermittedLevel (mgIL)
Chloride 250 Sulfate 250
Sodium 200 Magnesium 50
Nitrate 50 Potassium 10
Nitrite 3 Zinc 3
Copper 2 Fluoride (F) 2
Phosphorus 2 Barium 0.7
Manganese 0.5 Boron 0.3
Iron 0.3 Aluminum 0.2
Molybdenum 0.07 Cyanide (CN) 0.07
Chromium 0.02 Nickel 0.02
Arsenic 0.01 . Lead 0.01
Selenium 0.01 Antimony 0.005
Cadmium 0.003 Mercury 0.001
pH 6.0-9.0
�

Denilrificalion by
bacteria to

Volcanic
te
Wat r n
Sublim tion
o sublim ·on
tmo ph e
Cond nsation
Evapotranspiration
Oc ns

FACTORS THAT AFFECT WATER QUALITY
Throughout the history, the quality of water
has been an important factor in determining
the growth of civilizations and welfare of
human settlements.
Some of the factors that affect the quaility of
water are suspended and dissolved solids,
biological substances, pH, biological oxygen
demand (BOD), and chemical oxygen demand
(COD).
At present, many industrially produced toxic
substances pose the greatest hazard to the
quality of water. Water pollutants are varied
and are classified under various categories.

WATER QUALITY INDEX (WQI)
What are the criteria to specify the water quality data, which is influenced by various geographical,
natural and anthropological contaminants, an indicator that is understandable and useable by the
public? Criteria are based on specific levels of pollutants that would make the water harmful if
used for drinking, swimming, farming, fish production, or industrial processes. These criteria are
combined to provide a water quality index (WQI). Water quality index is based on some very
important parameters that can provide a simple indicator of water quality.
The water quality index is evaluated taking into account various parameters (DO, fecal coliform, pH,
BODs, temperature change, total phosphorous, nitrate, turbidity and total dissolved solids) that
influence the water quality. More weightage is given to important factors (e.g. Coliform is weighed more
heavily, DO is more important than pH etc.).

.co
Factors
eteorological
Agricultural
lndu trial
imber&Pa
UTIO S RO OU POLLUTING OURCE
QUALITY
QualilyIPollution
TA ECfWATE
R off •.,l!llr�-, ud, suspen d particl , s. · dissol ed gases and minerals
--·· b___..,.. · contamina ·on· organic fu · oil and Q::t•.:r
d pho pha et
op ·d e ; org nic debri ; tannery and animal aste·
d bed,,�·�· =
lno.-ganic and o,gan•c particula m.a� o ·d and liquid as ; ttace elemen ;
ydrocarbo and petrocllemicals; haiardo ch micals
m ts

�...., 8.4• PHY ICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WATER POLLUTED DUE TO HUMAN ACTIVmES
P""""4ttr
/Po/Jultlnl
Color
trien
Odor
Poisons
tc
Thermal
Soura
Dissolved inorganic & organic
matter
ining
Mining wst•:na; asl>estc>S; and
dust; sulfur-bearins particulate
Domestic, agricultural, mining &
industrial
Decayof ��ma ,sewa&e
Oil drilling & transport
Sal &dissol d ma
Discharge of hot dftuen from
power plan and industrial cstabli
hmen
Effects
terioration ofw ter quality· un esthetic; hazardous
chemicals detrimental to h 1th
Turbidity; c dusion ofsunlight; dettimental to aquatic
life
5.....-..... con mina ·on; I ching· ilt· h zardous
compounds
Acid-mine drainage; cutropbication of water bocli
Unhealthy & unhygienic and health hazard
Hydrocarbon detrimental to all organisms· oil spillage
in high seas; damage to qu tic ecology
Trace elemen ; radioactiv waste; in 'cidc , pesti-
cides and herbicides
Deterioration o w ter quality; una thctic
Affe physi pro�rties of water; :reduction in
dissolved ga es h drastic ffi n the quatic
eoology

SOURCES OF WATER POLLUTANTS
Water pollutants are from: (i) natural and (ii)
anthropogenic sources, and they may originate
from a point source or from a dispersed source.
Natural sources are meteorological and
geographical like volcanic activity and
earthquakes, landslides and streams runoff,
dissolved minerals, aquatic growth and decay.
Anthropogenic sources are domestic, municipal
sewage and other sanitary waste discharge, and
agricultural and industrial waste, mining waste and
leachates, and products from other human-related
activities. Radioactive substances and heat are
also water pollutants.

Point- and Non-point Sources
Pollutants are from point- as well as from non-point sources. Point sources are domestic, municipal
and sewer discharge, power generation plants and industrial waste discharge. Some of them like,
breweries, slaughterhouses and sanitary operations, paper mills and wastewater treatment plants
contribute major quantities of oxygen-demanding substances. These substances can deplete dissolved
oxygen (DO) and create anaerobic conditions in water bodies. Suspended matter also contributes to
oxygen depletion in water bodies by blocking penetration of sunlight and interfering with photosynthetic
activity. This results in an increase in oxygen demand-BOD and COD. Nitrogen and phosphorous
containing compounds (nutrients) can promote accelerated eutrophication of water bodies.
Heat is a universal pollutant, as it drastically alters the ecology of water bodies, by lowering the amount
of dissolved oxygen in water; thus, accentuating the oxygen deficiency for aquatic organisms. Trace
metals, hydrocarbons, hazardous chemicals, bacteria and a variety of pathogens are other pollutants
that can cause a wide variety of problems in watercourses.
Non-point sources are storm drainage, operations involving agricultural, timber and forest-product
operations. Mobile vehicular discharge is also a source of contamination affecting through atmospheric
pollution.

Domestic Sewage
Domestic and municipal sewage carries used water from houses, offices and other buildings in a city.
It is also called sanitary sewage. Most of is ( nearly 99.9% ) is water. Through the contaminants add up
to not more than 0.1 per cent, they contain a wide variety of dissolved and suspended impurities.
The nature of these impurities and the large volume of sewage in which they are carried make
disposal of domestic wastewater a significant technical problem. Sewage is the primary source of
pathogenic organisms, oxygen-demanding waste matter and plant nutrients.
At one time it used to be said that ‘the solution to pollution is dilution’. The growth of cities all over the
world has given rise to such large volumes of sewage that dilution alone no longer assures the natural
processes of stream self-purification. Since early 20th century centralized sewage treatment plants
have been set up in all populated areas of the developed world. Instead of discharging sewage directly
into a nearby body of water, it is first passed through a series of physical, chemical and biological
processes that remove most of pollutants.

Industrial Sewage
Industrial sewage consists of polluted water from industrial and chemical processes. These discharges
usually contain specific pollutants, which are related to the nature of products handled in an industry and
the process followed. Industries located along waterways contribute a number of chemical pollutants,
some of which are toxic in any concentration. Such pollutants may originate from metallurgical , paper
and pulp, cloth and cellulose fibers, and food, beverage and tannery wastes, and detergents, plastics
and petrochemicals. Discharge from hospitals and utility sources and power generation plants also
comes in this category. In highly industrialized zones, if the industrial sewage were not separately
treated before discharge into waterways, serious pollution conditions would develop.
Industries contribute to water pollution through atmospheric pollution also. Hot water from power
generating installations, discharged into water streams, cause thermal pollution.

Storm Sewage & Agricultural Sources
Storm sewage or storm water is runoff from precipitation that is
collected in a system of pipes or open channels. Such sewage
carries organic materials, suspended and dissolves solids
and other substances picked up as the water travels over the
ground. Sewage discharge from domestic, municipal, food
processing and other industrial concerns contain a variety of
pollutants detrimental to water quality.
Agricultural wastes, generally, consist of organic products.
Fertilizers and other chemicals are spread over agricultural lands.
These materials and crop, animal and chemical wastes enter
water bodies, mainly in run-off from watershed lands, and cause
pollution. The inflow of manures from livestock feed lots also
adds to organic pollutants. Many of the pesticides, fungicides,
herbicides and other industrial chemicals are highly toxic. They
are carcinogenic and mutagenic.

0 .y n- m ndin ub t n .
ousehold r
r g
r
p
L . .6· C
UTA
S Ur◄
J . UT S
Human
I DIS
UT G I
Qu It'
m d D
u tic li
; h rm to u · li�
u ti li
s

Agricultural Sources
Agriculture, as the single largest user of freshwater on a global basis and as a major cause of degradation of
surface and groundwater resources through erosion and chemical runoff, has cause to be concerned about the
global implications of water quality. The associated agro-food processing industry is also a significant source of
organic pollution in most countries. Aquaculture is now recognised as a major problem in freshwater, estuarine
and coastal environments, leading to eutrophication and ecosystem damage. The principal environmental and
public health dimensions of the global freshwater quality problem are highlighted below:
· Five million people die annually from water-borne diseases.
· Ecosystem dysfunction and loss of biodiversity.
· Contamination of marine ecosystems from land-based activities.
· Contamination of groundwater resources.
· Global contamination by persistent organic pollutants.

Agricultural Sources
Experts predict that, because pollution can no longer be remedied by dilution (i.e. the flow regime is fully
utilized) in many countries, freshwater quality will become the principal limitation for sustainable development
in these countries early in the next century. This "crisis" is predicted to have the following global dimensions:
· Decline in sustainable food resources (e.g. freshwater and coastal fisheries) due to pollution.
· Cumulative effect of poor water resource management decisions because of inadequate water quality data in
many countries.
· Many countries can no longer manage pollution by dilution, leading to higher levels of aquatic pollution.
· Escalating cost of remediation and potential loss of "creditworthiness".

Mining Wastes
Mining, milling, dressing and processing of ores give rise to dust, ore and metal discards and
large quantities of effluents, which are discharged into streams, ponds and lakes. They not only
increase sediments but also release toxic metals into water sources.
Common trace metals found in sediments and mine effluents are Cd, Cu, Fe, Hg, Mn, Ni, Pb and
Zn. Of these, heavy metals Cd, Hg and Pb and metalloids, such as As, are among the most harmful
of the elemental pollutants. Most of them have a great affinity for sulphur and attack –SH groups
and disulphide bonds in proteins and other biological macromolecules. Cadmium, being chemically
similar to zinc, replaces the latter in enzymes and thus affects enzyme action of Zn-containing
proteins. Mercury is of great concern as a heavy-metal pollutant. Lead occurs in water in Pb (II)
state. It is highly poisonous and causes anaemia, central nervous system disorders, kidney and liver
dysfunction.

. (
Berylfu
Bo n (B)
dmium (C )
'"tlll'lf'llo■Mt·um (C )
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olu:.ll'l
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u
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Atmospheric Deposition
There is accumulated evidence to establish a close relationship between atmospheric pollution and
declining water quality on the globe. Airborne pollutants can be deposited on land or water. This type
of deposition can take place, some times, at great distances from its original source. The deposition
itself can take several forms: ’wet deposition’ occurs when air pollutants fall with rain, snow or fog.
‘Dry deposition’ takes place as dry particles or gases. These pollutants can fall directly on water or
having fallen on land can be washed into a body of water as runoff.
There is evidence showing that atmospheric pollutants can reach even the ground water. Therefore,
as pollution falls, part of it might end up in streams, lakes or estuaries and aquifers and affect the
water quality there. Presence of secondary porosity and fractures within the rocks mass over the
aquifers can lead to the movement of ground pollutants through the ground water.

ECOLOGICAL IMPACT
Water pollution has wider ecological impact than just being unsuitable for consumption or posing
health hazards. Most of the water withdrawn from resources is used for consumption—household use,
and ‘water-carriage’ of wastes and discards in domestic, sanitary and municipal jurisdiction. Similarly,
major consumption of water in indutrial plants is for ‘water-carriage’ of wastes, for removal of
byproducts and impurities and as a coolant. Thus, water is the major conduit in direct transmission of
toxic agents, trace elements, like As,Cd,Cr,Hg,Pb, and Se and persistent hazardous organic chemicals
and infectious agents and vectors for several diseases, such as cholera, gastrointestinal diseases,
malaria,schistosomiasis, typhoid fewer, filiariasis, encephalitis.
Increase in human settlements, urbanization and population explosion pose a greater demand for
water—for domestic use, flush-toilets, washing and bathing, swimming pools, lawns and gardening,
recreational activities, automobile and other vehicular uses, constraction, sanitation and healthcare
centers, agricultural and industrial operations. But, available water is limşted. So, the adverse effects
of water pollution on ecological systems at local, regional, continental and global levels would become
more and more serious.

ABLE 8.8: HYDROLOGICAL EFFECTS OF URBANIZATIO
Operation
eforestation &
agnculture
Anim hu bandry
Mining & onstruction
Domestic & municipal
ndustrial
Effects
ecrease in green vegetation; decrease in transpiration; decrease in rainfall;
land deteriora ion; increase in pollution in water bodies.
ncr e in sedimentation and storm runoff; land deteriora ion; incre
pollutants in water bodies.
Lowering of water table· increase in sediments and po utants· leaching.
Increase in pollutants in waterbodies; loss ofaquatic life; inferior waterquality;
sanitary and heaJth hazards.
Increase in pollutan • oxic and hazardou chemical � health hazards· increase
in mp ra re of water bodi ; l of aquati life.

ECOLOGY OF STATIONARY WATER BODIES
The blue algae take up carbon, nitrogen and phosphorous compounds from the water and utilizing
sunlight produce high-energy compounds. Algae are consumed by zooplanktons, which, in turn, from the
food for aquatic animals. Bacteria consume dissolved carbon (organic matter) and produce CO2, which is
in turn used by algae. Thus, a food cycle is established (photosynthesis and respiration) within the normal
ecology of water bodies.
In the stratified in water body the level (depth) at which photosynthesis is equal to respiration is
termed compensation level. It roughly corresponds to a depth at which the attenuation of sunlight is ~1
per cent of what is received at the water surface. The region above the compensation level is called the
trophogenic zone, where photosynthesis is in excess of respiration. The zone below the compensation
level is called the tropholytic zone, where respiration is in excess of photosynthesis.
The transparency of the water and the depth to which light can penetrate in it are inversely related to its
turbidity. Turbidity interferes with photosynthesis, leading to the reduction of the depth of the
compensation level and shifting the water-body towards tropholytic environment. This disturbs the
ecological balance of watercourse, with reduction of phytoplankton and decrease in dissolved oxygen
(DO).

Atmosph
Al e Plan on
De &
Defecation
MIDC
carbon
Sunlight
Fig. 10.5: Ecology of Stationary Water Bodfes

-- ______________.......__ ____________......__...,___________________________,__._______._..
o ynth is>
--·· phic · ·
Co nsa ·on Level
F g. 10.6: S ratificatio of S a ionary Water Bodies

ECOLOGY OF STATIONARY WATER BODIES
Domestic, agricultural and industrial sewage and sludge contain nutrients in the form of carbon,
nitrogen and phosphorous compounds. Dumping of large quantities of such wastes produces
uncontrolled growth of plankton (free-floating algae) in the top layer (epilimnion region) of the lakes.
Algal blooms interfere with the aquatic activities. Dense layer of these organisms would block out
sunlight from reaching organisms in deeper parts of the water body. They may also act as a barrier to
the penetration of O2 into the water, which may result in depletion of fish species. Excessive algal
productivity can result in chocking by weeds and odour to the water.
When the algae die, they drop to the lake bottom (benthal region; hypolimnion region) and become a
source of carbon for decomposing aerobic bacteria. Aerobic bacteria use the available oxygen in
decomposing dead algae thus, boosting biochemical oxygen demand in the water. Thus, the
hypolimnion region can become anaerobic, and subsequently this process may extends to the
metalimnion region also.
The aerobic activity produces turbidity, thereby causing a decrease in the penetration of sun light.
This limits photosynthetic algal activity (in the epilimnion region). Eventually the epilimnion region also
becomes anaerobic.. At this state, all aerobic aquatic life disappears and the algae concentrate on the
lake surface as large green mass. The entire process of the aging of stationary water bodies is called
eutrophication.

Benthal sediments are important sources of
inorganic and organic matter in lakes and oceans.
The environment around the benthal sediments is
anaerobic. Bottom sediments undergo continuous
leaching. Phosphorous exchange with sediments
aggravates eutrophication by making this essential
element available to algae.
This stratification is temperature-dependent, and
there exists a temperature-depth relationship in a
water body. The inflection-point of thermal
stratification is called thermocline.

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF WASTEWATER
DISCHARGE
Water supports a very complex ecosystem in which intricate physical, chemical and biological processes
occur. The hydrological cycle comprises cycles of freezing and thawing, mechanical stress reversals,
dynamic equilibrium state that exists between precipitation, percolation, runoff and evaporation.
Precipitation of atmospheric moisture occurs only when temperature of air mass is lowered to or below
the dew point(saturation point). Air temperature is lowered due to: (i) heat loss by IR radiation, (ii)
adiabatic cooling as large air masses expand and (iii) mixing of hot air (moisture) with cooler air
masses. Water loss by evaporation is a physical process. The transpiration process enhances water
loss from land. While evaporation is a physical process, transpiration is a physicochemical as well as a
biochemical process by which plants and other photosynthetic organisms draw solutions containing
essential growth nutrients from the soil.
The ecosystem may be regarded as an ‘entropy pump’ that extracts solar energy to produce organized
‘open systems’. The balance between photosynthesis and respiration (P-R cycle) is primarily
responsible for regulating the concentrations of O2 and CO2 in the atmosphere.

------- CO, Catabo ·sm of
Organi Nutrients
e
F g. , 0.8: Photosynt esis-Resp1raUon (P-R) Cycle

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF WASTEWATER
DISCHARGE
Pollution of surface waters frequently results from a disturbance in the balance between
photosynthesis (P) and respiration (R). Adding either an excess of organic waste or an excess of
inorganic nutrients ( phosphorus and nitrogen fertilizers) also upsets this balance. Photosynthesis
<<respiration and heterotrophic processes tend to dominate and dissolved oxygen (DO) may become
exhausted.
Case 2: there is progressive accumulation of autotrophic biomass (algae, aquatic plants and weeds).
Eventually this biomass decomposes, thereby enhancing rate of respiration (R>>P), which again may
reduce DO. Trace metals and other compounds may accumulate in the food chain with deleterious
effects on organisms, animals and humans ( Plankton Fish Man ). Dying fish and
malodour are indicators of very low oxygen level in a water body. For many natural waters, inorganic
fertilizers are often more serious pollutants than biological wastes.

Spatial Separation of the P-R Cycle
The P-R cycle can also be disturbed by spatial separation of two processes. There is horizontal
separation of P-R functions in rivers and streams and vertical separation in stratified stationary water
bodies.

Spatial Separation of the P-R Cycle: In Stationary
Water Bodies
In a stratified lake, an excessive production of
algae and O2 in the upper strata may cause
anaerobic conditions (lack of DO) in the lower
strata. This is because much of the O2 from the
photosynthetic process escapes to the
atmosphere and, therefore, does not become
available to the heterotrophs in the deeper
strata of the water body.
Vertical separation of the P-R functions in lakes
can be induced by organic nutrients, which
encourage surface algal growth. The resultant
anaerobic condition stifles higher trophic levels.
Algal blooms deplete DO and lead to fish-kills.

Spatial Separation of the P-R Cycle: In Rivers
Streams have the inherent capacity for re-
aeration. The DO profile as a function of time
or flow is a balance between natural aeration
and de-oxygenation by microorganisms. The
DO in a stream is inversely related to the
abundance of microorganisms in water. The
latter increases with nutrient supply.
Longitudinal separation of the P-R process in
rivers can be caused by local influx of organic
(and inorganic) waste, which stimulates
increase of bacterial activity and concomitant
O2 consumption. This results in enhanced
algal growth downstream, which upon decay
exerts an oxygen demand still further along
the stream.

Spatial Separation of the P-R Cycle: In Estuaries
Estuaries are regions of interaction between
rivers and near-shore ocean waters, where tidal
action and river flow mix fresh and salt water.
Estuaries have intermediate salinity between
streams and seas. Such areas include bays,
mouths of rivers, salt marshes, and lagoons.
These brackish water ecosystems shelter and
feed marine life, birds, and wildlife.
Ecological imbalance of estuaries due to
wastewater discharge affects the habitat and
food supply of fish, clams and shrimp.
Pollutants are concentrated by bioaccumulation
by a factor of 10^3 in fish and other aquatic
organisms.

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Prof.Dr.Nilgün Kıran Cılız
Lecturer Institute of Environmental Sciences
Director, Sustainable Development and Clenaer Production
Center
e-mail: cilizn@boun.edu.tr
Sustainable
Agriculture and Food
Systems

What are safe planetary boundaries?
..

* A sustainable food system ‘is a food system
that ensures food security and nutrition for all
in such a way that the economic, social and
environmental bases to generate food security
and nutrition or future generations are not
compromised’.

* The transition to more resilient and
sustainable food systems therefore concerns
all of the interrelated and connected
activities that go into producing and
consuming food: producing, processing,
transporting, storing, marketing and
consuming. A systems approach is therefore
rooted in an understanding of these linkages,
the interactions among them, and the policy
levers and options available for all actors in
the sector.

* The transition to more resilient and
sustainable food systems therefore concerns
all of the interrelated and connected
activities that go into producing and
consuming food:
Producing Processing Transporting Storing Marketing Consuming

Environmental
soundness
- Biodiversity
- Energy
- Soil
- Water
Economical
viability
- Farm
profitability
- Thriving local
economies
- Entire value
chain
Social equity
- Food quality &
safety
- Labor rights
- Community
health
Sustainable
agriculture

Major elements of a sustainable development path for
agriculture and food systems proposed by FAO are:
• Shifting towards healthier diets;
• Reducing food losses and waste;
• Increasing agricultural production on existing crop and
pasture land and make it more resilient to climatic
extremes;
• Preserving the environment through lowering resource use
intensity and improving stewardship of natural resources;
• Making rural areas attractive places to live and creating
new economic opportunities for smallholder farmers and
entrepreneurs along the value chain, especially women and
youth.

Among the sustainable development goals, the ones
strictly related to agriculture are:
• Ending extreme poverty including hunger,
• Achieving health and wellbeing at all ages,
• Improving agriculture systems and raise rural prosperity,
• Curbing human-induced climate change and ensure
sustainable energy,
• Securing ecosystem services and biodiversity, and
ensuring good management of water and other natural
resources

Goal 2: End hunger, achieve food
security and improved nutrition,
and promote sustainable
agriculture.

Indicator
Number
Potential and Indicative Indicator
Potential lead
agency or
agencies
8
Proportion of population below minimum
level of dietary energy consumption (MDG
Indicator)
FAO, WHO
9
Percentage of women of reproductive age
(15-49) with anemia
FAO, WHO
10
Prevalence of stunting and wasting in
children under 5 years of age
WHO, UNICEF
11
Percentage of infants under 6 months who
are exclusively breast fed
WHO, UNICEF
12
Percentage of women, 15-49 years of age,
who consume at least 5 out of 10 defined
food groups
FAO, WHO
Table 1: Suggested SDG Indicators for Goal 2 by UN
Source: Indicators and a Monitoring Framework for the Sustainable Development Goals; A report by the Leadership
Council of the Sustainable Development Solutions Network; March 20, 2015

Indicator
Number
Potential and Indicative Indicator
Potential lead
agency or
agencies
13
Crop yield gap (actual yield as % of
attainable yield)
FAO
14
Number of agricultural extension workers
per 1000 farmers [or share of farmers
covered by agricultural extension
programs and services]
FAO
15 Nitrogen use efficiency in food systems FAO, IFA
16
[Crop water productivity (tons of
harvested product per unit irrigation
water)] – to be developed
FAO
Table 1 cont’d

Indicator
Number
Complementary National Indicators
2.1
Percentage of population with shortfalls of: iron, zinc,
iodine, vitamin A, folate, vitamin B12, [and vitamin D]
2.2
Proportion of infants 6–23 months of age who receive a
minimum acceptable diet
2.3 Percentage children born with low birth weight
2.4 Cereal yield growth rate (% p.a.)
2.5 Livestock yield gap (actual yield as % of attainable yield)
2.6
[Phosphorus use efficiency in food systems] – to be
developed
2.7 Share of calories from non-staple crops
Table 2: Complementary National Indicators for Goal 2

Indicator
Number
Complementary National Indicators
2.8
Percentage of total daily energy intake from protein in
adults
2.9
[Access to drying, storage and processing facilities] – to be
developed
2.10
[Indicator on genetic diversity in agriculture] – to be
developed
2.11 [Indicator on irrigation access gap] – to be developed
2.12
[Farmers with nationally appropriate crop insurance (%)] –
to be developed
2.13
Public and private R&D expenditure on agriculture and
rural development (% of GNI)
2.14 [Indicator on food price volatility] – to be developed
Table 2 cont’d

* Increasing food demand
* ½ habitable land used for farming
* Pollution & social problems

✓ Agriculture is responsible for 70% of freshwater withdrawals.
✓ Large scale production systems are significant driver of
deforestation, biodiversity loss, land degradation and
conversion of natural habitat.
✓ Food losses and waste account for at least 30 percent of total
global food production.
✓ Unsustainable fishery practices often result in devastating
impacts on the aquatic environment and its resources. Today,
almost 30 percent of global fish stocks are overexploited, and
about 57 percent fully exploited.
✓ The dependence of the global food system on fossil fuels
contributes to GHG emissions and may also increase input costs
to the extent that they become unaffordable.

* Water scarcity
* Soil
* Biodiversity
* Economic impacts
* Social impacts

*
• 70 % of the world’s surface water
• Excess nutrients (phosphorus),
pesticides
• 47% population: sever water stress in
2050
✓ Better water treatment
✓ Efficient irrigation

Figure 1: Agricultural water use
% change in total agriculture water use, 1990-92 to 2002-2004

An example: Nestle’s “Water Scarcity” Project Results:

*
• Fertile soil essential for healthy crops
and livestock, promotes biodiversity and
is carbon sink
• 40 % of all cultivable land degraded
• Degraded land → decreasing yields

*
• Supports natural ecosystems services
(air quality improvement, disease
control etc.)
• Raw material availability
• Cannot deny next generations
• Value estimated: $ 16-64 trillion

*
• Unstable & high fuel price, technologies to
conserve energy and produce biodiesel and
ethanol
• Reduce dependence on fossil fuels + retains
gge + save money (15% of production costs)
• China : project ‘Dream farm’ could lead to
energy savings of 2608 EJ

• 70% of developing countries rely on
farming
• Businesses partner with NGO’s (analyze
impacts) & build relationships with the
entire supply chain
→Supply in long term ensured
• Economic viability: profitable through
increasing yields (previous cases)
*

Table 3: Summary of Adoption and Impact of Agricultural
Sustainability Technologies and Practices on 286
Projects in 57 Countries
Source: Food and agriculture organization of the UN

• Businesses have responsibilities:
*
Fair
returns
Education
Labour
conditions
Training
Health
care

• Heterogeneity in agro-climatic environments
• Economically profitable + increasing final
demand
• Access to information (technologies,
pollution)
• Lack of institutions to facilitate the promotion
and adaption (research, NGO’s)
• Political constraints (benefits → resistance
of agrochemical industries)

The new food system challenge
• Change behavior towards healthier diets
and reduce food loss and waste
• Increase productivity by more than 60% on
existing crop and pasture land by 2050
• Preserve the environment through lower
resource intensity and sound use of inputs
• Make farming an attractive economic
opportunity for (young) people living in
rural areas

Sustainab e Agr·culturall nte,ns,ifica,tio,n (SAi)
INPUT
PROVIDERS -.._
•••
,,,__...,
TRAINING
PROVIDERS
....
• Labor
• Seed
• Water
Ag Retailer
tt ...
PUTS
• Financial capital
• Knowledge
• Crap protecnon
• Infrastructure
• echnology
• Fert'IlitIMS. • Market!.
SUSTAINABlllTY
OUTCOMES
• Samelle s land and water
• Efficient u e of Input
• Min'mized GHG emission
• Increased nat. r I capital
• Strengthened resilience
• Reduced water/air pollution OUTPUTS
PRODUCTION INCOME NIUTIU ION
NAT10NAL/LOCAL �
MARKET
tf
PROCESSOR or
TRADER
FINANCE
INSURANCE
PROVIDERS
SERVICE
PROVIDERS
- ._ INFORMATION
INTEIRNATIONA
MARKET
PROVIDERS
cological
ocioeconomic

* The Solution, an initiative of the UN Sustainable
Development Solutions Network (SDSN), aims to bring
together different actors, including governments,
NGOs, the private sector, and academia, under a
shared commitment to sustainable food systems while
promoting rural prosperity and mitigating
environmental impact.
* It provides farmers with tailored tools and best
management practices on the 4 ‘Rights’ — Right
Rate, Source, Time, and Place — required to
sustainably enhance crop production.

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* Performance-based management
* A shared value approach
* Customized and science-based Best
Management Practices
* Access to a worldwide network of
international experts
* Iterative approach and continuous
improvement
Source: IFA Meetings; Paris, January 2015

Key Features of the Nutrient Solution
ECON1
0MIC
EXPERIIENC1E D
!NETWORK
• INCREASEli) YIIELD
• AiGIRIBUSINESS [)EVELOPM ENIT
S ARED VALUE PARTNERS
1GOV'ERNMENTS
SiOCIAL,
• FOOD SEiCURITV
• WOMEN BUSINESS LEADERS
INGOs
AGRIIBUSIINESS
ENV'IRONMENTAl,
• IMPROVED SOIi_ HEAlTH

NS
Components
1) Promoting Soil Nutrient Management
2) Strengthening Agricultural Extension Systems
3) Developing a real time performance
monitoring system for extension
4) Supporting the establishment of agribusiness
and retail centers
5) Establishing a network of universities to work
on Good Agronomic Practices

10 actions for improving Nutrient Use Efficiency
Nutri nt
Resource
N&P
Fertilizer
& Biological
itrogen
Fixation
Manure &
se age
fertilizer
produc
Unrntended
0 capture
& reuse
Source: Sutton M.A. et al. 2012).
Full Chain NUEN,P
Crop NUE ,P
ivestock
production
Co p 10n
Tran o
Choi es
-
Food
Cons pt1on
& DI t Clo c s
Spa ·at
optimiza ·on
& in egrat1on

Indicators for Sustainable
Development

*Agriculture and its role in the SDGs
*Investing in the agricultural sector can address not
only hunger and malnutrition but also other challenges
including poverty; water and energy use; climate change;
and unsustainable production and consumption.
Agriculture
Connection to many of the 17 SDGs:

* Agriculture’s connection to SDGs:
GOAL1:
Resource: Farmingfirst.org
POVERTY ALLEVIATION
_________
Rural people represent the
largest segment of the world’s
extreme poor by far – more
than 70% of the total. Growth
in agriculture is at least twice
as effective in reducing poverty
than from any other sector.

Potential and Indicative Indicators
*GOAL1: End Poverty
GOAL
1
Poverty
Rate (%) *
Poverty
Gap *
Proportion of
population
living below
$1.25/day
Total fertility
rate
* Preliminary SDG indicators for OECD Countires

GOAL 2:
ZERO HUNGER
_________
It includes targets on ending hunger, achieving food
security and improved nutrition and promoting
sustainable agriculture.
Source: UN, Zero Hunger Challenge

GOAL 2:
Targets Indicators
2.3. by 2030 double the agricultural
productivity and the incomes of
small-scale food producers,
particularly women, indigenous
peoples, family farmers, pastoralists
and fishers, including through secure
and equal access to land, other
productive resources and inputs,
knowledge, financial services,
markets and opportunities for value
addition and non-farm employment
6. Losses from natural disasters, by climate and
non-climate-related events (in US$ and lives lost)
13. Crop yield gap (actual yield as % of attainable
yield)
15. Nitrogen use efficiency in food systems
16. [Crop water productivity (tons of harvested
product per unit irrigation water)] – to be
developed
Complementary National Indicators:
2.4. Cereal yield growth rate (% p.a.)
2.5. Livestock yield gap (actual yield as % of
attainable yield)
2.6. [Phosphorus use efficiency in food systems] –
to be developed

Targets Potential and Indicative Indicators
2.4. by 2030 ensure sustainable
food production systems and
implement resilient agricultural
practices that increase
productivity and production, that
help maintain cosystems, that
strengthen capacity for
adaptation to limate change,
extreme weather, drought,
flooding and other disasters, and
that rogressively improve land
and soil quality
6. Losses from natural disasters, by climate and non-
climate-related events (in US$ and lives lost)
13. Crop yield gap (actual yield as % of attainable
yield)
15. Nitrogen use efficiency in food systems
Complementary National Indicators:
2.4. Cereal yield growth rate (% p.a.)
2.5. Livestock yield gap (actual yield as % of
attainable yield)
2.6. [Phosphorus use efficiency in food systems] – to
be developed
GOAL 2:

GOAL 4:
EDUCATION
_________
Agricultural extension enables
farmers to access to the skills,
tools, inputs and knowledge they
need to thrive.

* GOAL 4: Quality Education
GOAL
4
Secondary
education
completion
rates *
Programme for
International
Student Assessment
(PISA) Results *
Early Child
Development
Index (ECDI)
Primary
completion
rates for girls
and boys
Teritary
enrollment
rates for
women and
men

GOAL 5:
GENDER EQUALITY
_________
Women farmers produce 20-30%
less than their male counterparts,
mostly due to differences in their
access and use of resources.
Women produce over half the
food worldwide, so bridging this
gap could reduce global hunger by
as much as 17%.

* GOAL 5: Gender Equality
GOAL
5
Proportion of
seats held by
women in
national
parliaments (%) *
Gender
pay gap *
Percentage of
women aged 20-
24 who were
married or in a
union by age 18
Average number of
hours spent on paid
and unpaid work
combined by sex
Gender gap in
wages, by sector
of economic
activity
Adolescent birth
rate

GOAL 6:
Source: Farmingfirst.org
WATER USE
By 2030, global water demand
will increase more than 50%,
with agriculture alone requiring
more than what can be
sustained to feed the world
even before domestic and
industrial needs are met.

* GOAL 6: Clean Water and Sanitation
GOAL
6
Gross freshwater
abstractions as
percent of total
renewable
resources *
Population
connected to
wastewater
treatment *
Proportion of
total water
resources
used
Percentage of
population with
basic hand washing
facilities with soap
and water at home
Percentage of
wastewater
flows treated
to national
standards

GOAL 7:
ENERGY USE
By 2030, energy demand is
expected to increase as much
as 50%, driven mostly by
developing world demand.
More crops are likely to be
diverted for use as biofuels,
doubling or even tripling as a
proportion of total use.

* GOAL 7: Affordable and Clean Energy
GOAL
7
Primary
energy
intensity *
Share of
renewable
energy in gross
primary energy
consumption *
Share of the
population using
modern cooking
solutions, by
urban/rural
Share of the
population using
reliable electricity,
by urban/rural
Implicit incentives
for low-carbon
energy in the
electricity sector

GOAL 8: Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable
economic growth, full and productive employment and
decent work for all
ECONOMIC GROWTH AND
EMPLOYMENT
Agriculture is an engine of
pro-poor economic
growth in rural areas.
Entrepreneurship across
the rural and food sectors
can generate employment
and growth.

* GOAL 8: Decent work and Economic Growth
GOAL
8
Gross National
Income (GNI)
per capita*
Employment to
population ratio
(EPR) (ages 15–
64) *
Youth employment
rate, by formal and
informal sector
Household
income, including
in-kind services
Percentage of own-
account and contributing
family workers in total
employment
Percentage of
young people not
in education,
employment or
training

GOAL 12: Ensure sustainable consumption and
production patterns
SUSTAINABLE
CONSUMPTION AND
PRODUCTION
_________
Average per capita
consumption is expected to
grow through 2030, despite
population increases. At
the same time, around one
third of food produced is
wasted.

* GOAL 12: Responsible Consumption
GOAL
12
Municipal
waste
generated *
Domestic
material
consumption *
Global Food
Loss Index
Consumption of
ozone-depleting
substances
Aerosol
optical
depth
Disclosure of
Natural
Resource
Rights
Holdings

GOAL 13: Take urgent action to combat climate
change and its impacts
CLIMATE CHANGE
By 2030, agriculture’s
carbon mitigation
potential could reach as
much as 7,5 % of total
global emissions,
depending on the price
of carbon and adoption
of agricultural
productivity measures.

* GOAL 13: Climate Action
GOAL
13
Production Based
Energy Related
CO2 Emissions
Per Capita *
GHG emissions as
percent of GDP *
Official climate
financing from
developed
countries that is
incremental to ODA
(in US$)

GOAL 15: Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of
terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat
desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and
halt biodiversity loss
ECOSYSTEM
MANAGEMENT
Improving the efficiency
of farmland can help
meet the world’s
growing consumption
demand while
minimising the loss of
natural habitats and
forests for additional
cultivation.

* GOAL 15: Life On Land
GOAL
15
Terrestrial
protected
areas *
Red List Index
for Birds *
Area of forest under
sustainable forest
management as a
percent of forest area
Annual change in
forest area and land
under cultivation
Improved
tenure security
and governance
of forests
Living
Planet
Index

LCA for Effective Value Chain Systems
LCA is a “cradle-to-grave” approach that focuses on
improvements of product, process or business
activity in all stages of its development from the
extraction of raw materials to the point when all
materials are returned to the earth. As a part of
well-developed value chain systems LCA should be
implemented to entire life cycle of the product in
order to improve the environmental, social, and
economic impacts.

The UNEP/SETAC Life Cycle Initiative has grouped
environmental impacts into two groups into Life Cycle
Impact Assessment Midpoint-Damage Framework.
Resource consumption and emissions in the life cycle
inventory (LCI) analysis are linked to mid-point impact
categories such as climate change, resource depletion,
human toxicity, photochemical ozone depletion,
acidification and eutrophication and final damage (end-
point) categories which are human health, ecosystem
quality, and resource depletion within this framework.

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How is biomass used as a source of energy and
fuels?
Through photosynthesis, plants convert sunlight energy into
chemical energy

*Biomass
Purpose
Amount of harvested
biomass, %
1- Food and feed 82
2- Fuel 11
3- Material 7
Source; OECD-FAO Agricultural Outlook 2007-2016
Primarily used as food and feed,
BUT,
it is increasingly demanded for fuel and material purposes

*The global demand for energy is increased by 37% to
2040.
*The Goal 7 calls for ensuring access to affordable,
reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all.
*In particular Target 7.2 states “by 2030, increase
substantially the share of renewable energy in the global
energy mix"
*Biofuel use will almost triple from 2012 to 2040.
*Biofuel use will make up 8% of total road transport fuel
demand by 2040
Source:* IEA, 2014
*Fuel Production from Biomass

*Food Security vs. Energy Demand
Challenges
• Food security,
• Acess to land,
• Biodiversity loss,
• Increased greenhouse gas
emissions from land use
change
Source:1 UNEP, 2014
Supply Low
Estimate,
Mha
High
Estimate,
Mha
Food Supply 71 300
Biofuel
Suply
48 80
Biomaterial
Supply
4 115
Additional land requirement
expand by around 320 to 850 Mha.
to 2050 1

*Biofuels and Materials from two sources:
Source:1 IRENA, 2014
38-45 % of the total biomass supply for energy purposes will be met by
Agricultural Residues by 20301
Straw, maize stover,
residues from sugar
beet, oilseeds, grass
cuttings, olive pits,
seed husks, nut shells
etc.
2- Agricultural
Residue
1- Crop
Production

*The most favorable Agrowastes
Agricultural
Waste,
million tons
Africa Asia Europe America Ocenia Turkey
Rice Straw 20.9 667.6 3.9 37.2 1.7 0.18
Wheat straw 5.34 145.20 132.59 62.64 8.57 3.5
Corn stover 0 33.90 28.61 140.86 0.24 4.13
Baggase 11.73 74.88 0.01 87.62 6.49 -
Source: Sarkar et. al, 2012

Pharma
Fine Chemicals
Health and
Lifestyle
Food
Feed Food
Performance Materials
Fermentation
Commodity chemicals
Fertiliser
Chemicals and
Materials
Fuel
Electricity and Heat
Biofuels
Energy
Volume
Added Value
The Agricultural Residue Value Triangle

*Conversion Technologies
Thermochemical and Biochemical Routes
BIOMASS
Size Reduction,
Torrefaction,
Pelletisation
Combustion
Gasification
Pyrolysis
Syngas
Upgrading and
Conversion
Oil Upgrading
Energy
Fuels, Energy
and Chemicals
Fuels, Energy
and Char
Extraction
Hydrogenation
Transesterification
Fuel
Fuel
Thermochemical
Pathways
Pretreatment
Fractionation
Hydrolysis
Upgrading
Fermentation
Fuels &
Chemicals
Chemicals, Fuels
and Materials
Biochemical
Pathways

*Bio-based Products from
Agricultural Residues
Products derived
from
thermochemical
and biochemical
conversion
routes
• Bioethanol
• Biodiesel
• Syngas
Macromolecules
• Cellulose Paper
• Pulp
• Clothing fibres,
films and filters
• Lignin derived
adhesives like
polyurethane
Innovative
High-Value Added
Products
• Phenols, organic
acids, furfural
and HMF
• Biopolymers and
fibers
• Woodplastic-
composites
• Bio-based
plastics
• Pharmaceuticals

*Bio-based Products from
Agricultural Residues
Technology Value-added product
Pyrolysis Acetic acid, phenol, substituted
phenols, CO, methane
Fast thermolysis Acetylene, ethylene
Alkali fusion Phenolic acids
Enzymatic oxidation Oxidized lignin for paints and coatings
Microbial conversion Vanilic and ferulic acids
Oxidative Vanillin, dimethylsulfide
Hydrolysis Phenol, substituted phenols
Hydrogenation Phenol, cresols, substituted phenols

2nd Generation
Bioethanol from
Agricultural residue
3rd Generation
Value Added Product
Activated Carbon
Bioethanol via SSF
Biochemical Conversion
Agricultural Residue
CORN STOVER
WHEAT STRAW
Lignin Rich Residue
Activated Carbon Production
via Pyrolysis
*BU-SDCPC Renewable Energy Laboratory
PRODUCTS

*ASSESSING THE SUSTAINABILITY OF
BIO-BASED PRODUCTS
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)
*Compare the relative merits of bio-based products to
traditional products
*Water, soil and biodiversity impacts at different stages of
the supply chain
* Important sustainability concerns linked to the
mobilisation of the wastes and residues.

*Midpoint vs Endpoint approach of LCA

*BU-SDCPC LCA Laboratory
GaBi diagram:Balance
EDIP 2003, Acidification potential
g
f
e
d
c
b
EDIP 2003, Aquatic eutrophication
g
f
e
d
c
b
EDIP 2003, Global w arming
g
f
e
d
c
b
EDIP 2003, Photochemical ozone formation - impact on human health and materials
g
f
e
d
c
b
EDIP 2003, Stratospheric ozone depletion
g
f
e
d
c
b
EDIP 2003, Terrestrial eutrophication
g
f
e
d
c
b
Quantity view
3,5e-5
3,0e-5
2,5e-5
2,0e-5
1,5e-5
1,0e-5
0,5e-5
0,0e-5
Bioethanol Product_CombustE10
Bioethanol Product_CombustE85
Gasoline Product_Combust
Agricultural residue based bioethanol blend (E10 and E85) life
cycle vs. Conventional Gasoline life cycle

Prof. Dr. Nilgün CILIZ
Soils, Watershed Processes, and
Marine Sediments

ESC 351 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Prof.Dr. Nilgün Kıran Cılız
Sustainable Development and Cleaner Production Center
Institute of Environmental Sciences

 AIR POLLUTION EVENTS IN HISTORY
 ATMOSPHERE AND ITS CHARACTERISTICS
 COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE
 ATMOSPHERIC STABILITY/INSTABILITY
 TEMPERATURE INVERSION
 AIR POLLUTION
 CRITERIA AIR POLLUTANTS
 AIR POLLUTION ALL AROUND THE WORLD
 INDOOR AIR POLLUTION
 AIR POLLUTION CONTROL
 CLEAN AIR ACT
 AIR POLLUTION IN TURKEY

ESC 351 - Nilgün Kıran Cılız.pdf

ESC 351 - Nilgün Kıran Cılız.pdf

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