Imagining the Ends of Identity:
Birth and Death on Instagram
Dr Tama Leaver, Curtin University (@tamaleaver)
Department of Internet Studies
&
Dr Tim Highfield, QUT (@timhighfield)
Digital Media Research Centre

@tamaleaver [Curtin, Department of Internet Studies] & @timhighfield [QUT, Digital Media Research Centre]
Association of Internet Researchers Conference 2015 #IR16, Phoenix
Overview
1. Context: The Ends of Identity
2. Method: Instagram data collection
3. Imagining Birth: #ultrasound
4. Imagining Death: #funeral
5. Imagining the Ends of Identity
Discussion / Conclusion

[1] Context/Background:
The Ends of Identity

@tamaleaver [Curtin, Department of Internet Studies] & @timhighfield [QUT, Digital Media Research Centre]
Association of Internet Researchers Conference 2015 #IR16, Phoenix
The Networked Self /
Networked Publics
• Persistence
• Replicability
• Scalability
• Searchability (boyd, 2010)
• + Ownership (Aufderheide, 2010)

@tamaleaver [Curtin, Department of Internet Studies] & @timhighfield [QUT, Digital Media Research Centre]
Association of Internet Researchers Conference 2015 #IR16, Phoenix
Shared assumptions of the ‘Networked
Self’ and similar digital identity models …
• Individual agency is central.
• Presumption that identity should be
controlled, curated and managed by the ‘self’
being presented.
• When agency is not the controlling influence,
this is seen as an issue to be overcome (eg
better privacy settings, clearer Terms of
Use).

@tamaleaver [Curtin, Department of Internet Studies] & @timhighfield [QUT, Digital Media Research Centre]
Association of Internet Researchers Conference 2015 #IR16, Phoenix
What about the Ends of Identity?
Following Erving Goffman (1959) if frontstage is self
performed, and backstage is the more essential self,
who builds the stage, and who remembers the
performance(s)?
 Before (online) agency: before birth, until the ‘reigns’
of online identity tools and performances are inherited?
 After (online) agency: who looks after online traces of
self once the self they refer to dies?
(See Leaver, 2015)

@tamaleaver [Curtin, Department of Internet Studies] & @timhighfield [QUT, Digital Media Research Centre]
Association of Internet Researchers Conference 2015 #IR16, Phoenix
At one end: parents as initial identity
curators/creators online …
• Parents/guardians set the initial parameters
of online identity.
• From ultrasound photos to cute toddler pics,
losing that first tooth etc …
• How do and should young people ‘inherit’
online identities?

@tamaleaver [Curtin, Department of Internet Studies] & @timhighfield [QUT, Digital Media Research Centre]
Association of Internet Researchers Conference 2015 #IR16, Phoenix
“The emergence of such social media
platforms as Facebook, Flickr, Instagram,
Twitter, Bundlr and YouTube facilitating the
sharing of images has allowed the wide
dissemination of imagery and information
about the unborn in public forums. Indeed,
sharing of the first ultrasound photograph on
social media has become a rite of pregnancy
for many women.”
(Lupton, 2013, p. 42)

@tamaleaver [Curtin, Department of Internet Studies] & @timhighfield [QUT, Digital Media Research Centre]
Association of Internet Researchers Conference 2015 #IR16, Phoenix
NB: The ‘Real Name’ Web, Identity Persistence
and Consolidation
"Nowadays, however, the anonymity of the [early]
internet and the construction of online personas that do
not reflect offline identities have been reconstructed as
'risk factors' of internet use … Governments, schools,
parents and other concerned parties now routinely warn
against online imposters, bullying and identity theft, and
social network sites like Facebook or Google+ have
policies requiring users to register with their real names
and data, and prevent them from having more than one
account.”
(van Zoonen, 2013: 45)

@tamaleaver [Curtin, Department of Internet Studies] & @timhighfield [QUT, Digital Media Research Centre]
Association of Internet Researchers Conference 2015 #IR16, Phoenix
Privacy and ‘Intimate Surveillance’
‘intimate surveillance [is] the purposeful and
almost always well-intentioned surveillance of
young people by parents, guardians, friends,
and so forth’
(Leaver, forthcoming)
Image:http://owletcare.com/

@tamaleaver [Curtin, Department of Internet Studies] & @timhighfield [QUT, Digital Media Research Centre]
Association of Internet Researchers Conference 2015 #IR16, Phoenix
At the other end: Memorializing
Performed Digital Selves?
• What happens to profiles, accounts,
photos, videos and other social
traces after someone dies?
• Do we have the right to delete it all?
• Should it be memorialized?
• Who decides? (very few laws
address social media inheritance).

[2] Method: Collecting Photos from Instagram

@tamaleaver [Curtin, Department of Internet Studies] & @timhighfield [QUT, Digital Media Research Centre]
Association of Internet Researchers Conference 2015 #IR16, Phoenix
Building from studies using Twitter
• To map and track social media use, we start
with established methods for studying Twitter
(see Weller et al 2014).
• Topical datasets, using similar methods
around varied subjects, including:
– Breaking news
– Politics
– Crises
– Popular culture
– Sports

@tamaleaver [Curtin, Department of Internet Studies] & @timhighfield [QUT, Digital Media Research Centre]
Association of Internet Researchers Conference 2015 #IR16, Phoenix
Twitter data
User name
Tweet
Hashtag
Link
Date and time
@mention

@tamaleaver [Curtin, Department of Internet Studies] & @timhighfield [QUT, Digital Media Research Centre]
Association of Internet Researchers Conference 2015 #IR16, Phoenix
Tags and social media
• Tagging did not originate with Twitter,
although a prominent aspect of how users
tweet.
• Tags and hashtags used on other social
media, although functionality, adoption,
and intentions vary.
– Instagram vs. Tumblr vs. Pinterest vs.
Facebook…

@tamaleaver [Curtin, Department of Internet Studies] & @timhighfield [QUT, Digital Media Research Centre]
Association of Internet Researchers Conference 2015 #IR16, Phoenix
Instagram data
Creator user
name
Image/
video Caption
Likes
Comments
Tag
@mention
Date/time

@tamaleaver [Curtin, Department of Internet Studies] & @timhighfield [QUT, Digital Media Research Centre]
Association of Internet Researchers Conference 2015 #IR16, Phoenix
Tracking Instagram activity
• Our initial approach builds on Twitter-specific
work and tools, which allows for comparative
analysis (methods and content).
• The starting focus is on #tags – practices,
functions, coverage of the same topic/tag,
including across different platforms.
• See Highfield and Leaver (2015).
• But also an evolving space with ongoing
challenges – emoji hashtags, for instance.

@tamaleaver [Curtin, Department of Internet Studies] & @timhighfield [QUT, Digital Media Research Centre]
Association of Internet Researchers Conference 2015 #IR16, Phoenix
Prototype Instagram methods
• Following the Twitter analytics model of
querying for specified keywords/hashtags,
query Instagram API for similar tag-specific
results.
• The tag search query retrieves data
including: media id, media type, user id, user
name, caption, image/video links, time and
date, location data, tags, comments (count
and content), likes (count).

@tamaleaver [Curtin, Department of Internet Studies] & @timhighfield [QUT, Digital Media Research Centre]
Association of Internet Researchers Conference 2015 #IR16, Phoenix
Changing data
• Unlike Twitter, content posted on Instagram is not
static.
– Captions editable after the fact
• A photo or video posted can be added to by the
original user and others viewing the file.
– Liking, adding comments, replying to previous
comments.
• Rather than creating standalone data, comments are
additions to the existing image – attached to this
specific data point, not in isolation.
 When should we ‘capture’ the data? (How long until
comments typically finish, for example?)

@tamaleaver [Curtin, Department of Internet Studies] & @timhighfield [QUT, Digital Media Research Centre]
Association of Internet Researchers Conference 2015 #IR16, Phoenix
Authorship and intentions
• Comments also impact upon what is being
tracked and captured.
• Tracking specific tags through the Instagram
API returns media where the creator has, in
the process of publishing the content,
included these tags in their caption.
• However, it also includes media where a
follow-up comment includes these tags
(although this can later be filtered out).

@tamaleaver [Curtin, Department of Internet Studies] & @timhighfield [QUT, Digital Media Research Centre]
Association of Internet Researchers Conference 2015 #IR16, Phoenix
Privacy isn’t a binary …
Individual and cultural definitions and expectations of
privacy are ambiguous, contested, and changing.
People may operate in public spaces but maintain
strong perceptions or expectations of privacy. Or, they
may acknowledge that the substance of their
communication is public, but that the specific context in
which it appears implies restrictions on how that
information is -- or ought to be -- used by other parties.
Data aggregators or search tools make information
accessible to a wider public than what might have been
originally intended.
(Markham & Buchanan, 2012, p. 6)

Instagram Timeline
Table 1. Instagram Timeline
6 October 2010 Instagram app launched via Apple’s App Store
12 December 2010 1 million registered users
3 August 2011 150 million photos uploaded
September 2011 10 million registered users
3 April 2012 Instagram releases Android version
9 April 2012 Facebook purchases Instagram for $US1 billion
26 July 2012 80 million registered users
16 August 2012 Instagram Photo Maps launched
5 November 2012 Instagram Profiles for the Web launched
5 December 2012 Instagram removes ability for photos to appear as ‘cards’ on Twitter
17 December 2012 Instagram Alters Terms of Use
18 December 2012 Instagram reverts to previous Terms of Use after public backlash
26 February 2013 100 million active monthly users
20 June 2013 Instagram adds video (15-seconds maximum)
10 July 2013 Instagram adds native web embedding for photos and videos
6 September 2013 150 million users
12 December 2013 Instagram Direct messaging service added
24 March 2014 200 million users
26 August 2014 Instagram/Facebook release Hyperlapse app via Apple App Store
10 November 2014 Instagram enables photo caption editing after posting
10 December 2014 300 million users, 70 million photos & videos shared per day
24 March 2015 Instagram/Facebook release Layout app via Apple App Store
27 April 2015 Instagram adds support for emoji hashtags
27 August 2015 Instagram adds support for portrait/landscape (non-square) photos/videos
1 September 2015 Instagram Direct overhauled, adding threaded comments and a ‘send to’ link for
all media in the main Instagram stream

@tamaleaver [Curtin, Department of Internet Studies] & @timhighfield [QUT, Digital Media Research Centre]
Association of Internet Researchers Conference 2015 #IR16, Phoenix
Contextual Integrity in Ethics
• Instagram may be experienced as private or
partially private in everyday use (contextually),
despite being public at a technical level (via the
API).
• The shift from an iPhone-only app to Android
and Windows phone, plus web profiles, makes
Instagram photos more and more public.
• Researchers have to weigh intentionality in
sharing, not just technical publicness (“it’s freely
available online”).

[3] Imagining Birth: #ultrasound

@tamaleaver [Curtin, Department of Internet Studies] & @timhighfield [QUT, Digital Media Research Centre]
Association of Internet Researchers Conference 2015 #IR16, Phoenix
#ultrasound
Table 2. #ultrasound tagged
media on Instagram, 2014
Images Videos
Overall
Media
March 3468 151 3619
April 3847 128 3975
May 3575 151 3726
3-Month
Totals:
10890 430 11320

@tamaleaver [Curtin, Department of Internet Studies] & @timhighfield [QUT, Digital Media Research Centre]
Association of Internet Researchers Conference 2015 #IR16, Phoenix
#ultrasound breakdownTable 3. #ultrasound tagged images on Instagram, 10-11 March 2014
Total number of Instagram media items 295
Items deleted or made private within a fortnight 19
Sonograms 221
Sonogram without personally identifiable metadata 145 (66% of sonograms)
Sonograms with personally identifiable metadata 76 (34% of sonograms)
Collages / Professional Photos 45
Social experience of sonogram 22
Selfie 14
Historical sonogram 4
Sonogram humour 4
Other medical ultrasound (not foetal sonogram) 22
Advertising 4
Irrelevant 7

@tamaleaver [Curtin, Department of Internet Studies] & @timhighfield [QUT, Digital Media Research Centre]
Association of Internet Researchers Conference 2015 #IR16, Phoenix
#ultrasound
• Advertising: 4
• No relevance (hashtag
spam): 7
• Ultrasound humour: 4
• Other Medical
Ultrasounds: 22
(including 1 dog)
• Also 19 images deleted
or made private

@tamaleaver [Curtin, Department of Internet Studies] & @timhighfield [QUT, Digital Media Research Centre]
Association of Internet Researchers Conference 2015 #IR16, Phoenix
Social Experiences of #ultrasounds
• 22 photos depicting social
experiences centred on
prenatal ultrasounds
• EG parent(s) travelling
to/from the ultrasound
• EG selfie and caption
expression nervousness or
excitement prior to
ultrasound (14 of these
were selfies)

@tamaleaver [Curtin, Department of Internet Studies] & @timhighfield [QUT, Digital Media Research Centre]
Association of Internet Researchers Conference 2015 #IR16, Phoenix
Collages/Professional Photos
incorporating #ultrasounds
• 45 photos either deliberate
collages or professional
photographs incorporating
ultrasound photos
• EG professional posed shot or
ultrasound on screen or printed
• EG collage showing ultrasound,
parent(s) plus celebratory details
(eg champagne glass or ‘it’s a
boy/girl’ or planned baby name).

@tamaleaver [Curtin, Department of Internet Studies] & @timhighfield [QUT, Digital Media Research Centre]
Association of Internet Researchers Conference 2015 #IR16, Phoenix
Ultrasounds with
personally identifiable text in the photo
• 76 photos (34% of the
sonograms) included
personally identifiable
information in the photo
(usually generated by the
ultrasound equipment)
• Typically includes mother’s full
name, mother’s DOB, medical
facility, estimated gestation
period to date, date of the
scan, etc.

@tamaleaver [Curtin, Department of Internet Studies] & @timhighfield [QUT, Digital Media Research Centre]
Association of Internet Researchers Conference 2015 #IR16, Phoenix
Ultrasounds without personally
identifiable text in the photo
• 145 photos (66% of
sonograms) do not include
personally identifiable
information in the photograph
• Some deliberately obscured,
some out of focus, most
zoomed to avoid those details
(either consciously or simply to
take a better photograph)

@tamaleaver [Curtin, Department of Internet Studies] & @timhighfield [QUT, Digital Media Research Centre]
Association of Internet Researchers Conference 2015 #IR16, Phoenix
On Instagram alone, every month thousands of
foetal images are shared and publicly tagged as
ultrasounds. Often these images capture the
metadata visible on the ultrasound screen, which
might include the mother’s name, the current
date, the location of the scan, the expected
delivery date, and other personal information. For
many young people, this type of sharing will be
their first mention on social media, the beginning
of a long and likely loving record published by
their parents, guardians and loved ones.
(Leaver, 2015)

[4] Imagining Death: #funeral

@tamaleaver [Curtin, Department of Internet Studies] & @timhighfield [QUT, Digital Media Research Centre]
Association of Internet Researchers Conference 2015 #IR16, Phoenix
#funeralTable 4. #funeral tagged media on Instagram, 2014
Images Videos
Overall
Media
March 5375 214 5589
April 5429 220 5649
May 5059 200 5259
3-Month
Totals:
15863 634 16497

@tamaleaver [Curtin, Department of Internet Studies] & @timhighfield [QUT, Digital Media Research Centre]
Association of Internet Researchers Conference 2015 #IR16, Phoenix
#funeral breakdownTable 5. #funeral tagged images on Instagram, 10-11 March 2014
Total number of Instagram media items 405
Items deleted or made private within a fortnight 35
Funereal images – flowers, wreaths, without people 54
Selfie 81
Social experience of funerals (incl. posed, group
photos and funeral dress choices)
164
Collages / curated images 33
Advertising 11
Historical imagery 12 (incl. 1 #tbt)
Non-human funerals 6
Funeral humour 16
Visible deceased 7 (1 person; 6 pets)
Visible identifiers (name/photo) of deceased in image 21
Irrelevant 94*

@tamaleaver [Curtin, Department of Internet Studies] & @timhighfield [QUT, Digital Media Research Centre]
Association of Internet Researchers Conference 2015 #IR16, Phoenix
Social experience of #funerals
• 164 images, including posed shots, group
shots, funeral wardrobe choices, journey to
the funeral
• 81 images were selfies (self-portrait photos
either of an individual or group taken with a
mobile device)
– Recurring imagery of sad/forlorn expression,
clad in black
• But not universal – smiling common too
• #funeral as means for remembering and
celebrating deceased – but also the
personal experience and context (getting
ready, on way)
• See also: Gibbs et al. (2015)

@tamaleaver [Curtin, Department of Internet Studies] & @timhighfield [QUT, Digital Media Research Centre]
Association of Internet Researchers Conference 2015 #IR16, Phoenix
Funereal #funeral imagery
• 54 funereal images (without people)
• Flower arrangements, wreathes and
typical funeral icons
• Coffins, cemeteries, and images of the
funeral ceremonies also represented (not
as frequently)
• 6 non-human (pet) funerals

@tamaleaver [Curtin, Department of Internet Studies] & @timhighfield [QUT, Digital Media Research Centre]
Association of Internet Researchers Conference 2015 #IR16, Phoenix
#funeral humour
• While smaller in number (16),
there were still a range of
humorous images and
memes
– motivational ( ‘a funeral for my
fat’)
– emphasising funeral as a
farewell rather than death
– comedic subversion
– death-related memes

@tamaleaver [Curtin, Department of Internet Studies] & @timhighfield [QUT, Digital Media Research Centre]
Association of Internet Researchers Conference 2015 #IR16, Phoenix
“Irrelevant” - non-funereal #funeral
• 94 images non-funereal
• Images relating to:
– various fandoms and fan practices,
including fanfic – through visual
media – as well as screencaps of on-
screen funerals or cemeteries (e.g.
Hawaii Five-0, The Vampire Diaries,
Bones).
– The album Funeral by Arcade Fire
– Funeral doom music genre and the
related Norwegian band Funeral
• NB: 35 images deleted/made
private within a fortnight

[5] Imagining the Ends of Identity
Discussion / Conclusion

@tamaleaver [Curtin, Department of Internet Studies] & @timhighfield [QUT, Digital Media Research Centre]
Association of Internet Researchers Conference 2015 #IR16, Phoenix
#funeral / #ultrasound
• Bulk of both sets largely depicted social
experiences, explicitly or implicitly
intended for an imagined audience
• Common types, but quite different sets
• #funeral much higher proportion of selfies,
humour and irrelevant (off-topic) images
• #ultrasound set much more focused, less
variation

@tamaleaver [Curtin, Department of Internet Studies] & @timhighfield [QUT, Digital Media Research Centre]
Association of Internet Researchers Conference 2015 #IR16, Phoenix
Social experiences
• For funerals, the presentation of self
rather than the deceased further
underlines social mediation – personal
experiences, family and friends, reflection
and memory
• This does not overlook or forget the
context for these images – use of captions
and comments to share this information
rather than or in addition to the images?

@tamaleaver [Curtin, Department of Internet Studies] & @timhighfield [QUT, Digital Media Research Centre]
Association of Internet Researchers Conference 2015 #IR16, Phoenix
Privacy
• 19 #ultrasound and 35 #funeral items deleted or made
private within a fortnight (potentially rethinking sharing
publicly).
• Many #ultrasound images obscured visual metadata
about mother/fetus/location/date/etc
• 34% (76) sonograms publicly sharing visual metadata
may be cause for concern (since Instagram’s shifting
publicness may occlude how public these items are).
In these cases personally identifiable information = the
initial (named) social media footprint preceding birth.
• Whether conscious choice (informed) or not, very hard
to tell.

@tamaleaver [Curtin, Department of Internet Studies] & @timhighfield [QUT, Digital Media Research Centre]
Association of Internet Researchers Conference 2015 #IR16, Phoenix
Identity/presence forming
• All shared #ultrasound photos are indicative of a
growing culture of sharing photos of young people
by parents/guardians/etc.
• Literacies regarding the persistence of this data are
haphazard, rarely informed by the apps/platforms,
showing a cultural need for widespread embedding
of mobile media literacies.
• Social norms about sharing these images are
evolving because of affordances, as much as driving
them

@tamaleaver [Curtin, Department of Internet Studies] & @timhighfield [QUT, Digital Media Research Centre]
Association of Internet Researchers Conference 2015 #IR16, Phoenix
References
• Aufderheide, P. (2010). Copyright, Fair Use, and Social Networks. In Z. Papacharissi (Ed.), A Networked
Self: Identity, Community, and Culture on Social Network Sites (pp. 274-303). Routledge.
• boyd, d. (2010). Social Network Sites and Networked Publics: Affordances, Dymanics and Implications.
In Z. Papacharissi (Ed.), A Networked Self: Identity, Community, and Culture on Social Network Sites
(pp. 39-58). Routledge.
• Bruns, A., & Burgess, J. (2011). Mapping Online Publics. http://mappingonlinepublics.net/
• Gibbs, M., Meese, J., Arnold, M., Nansen, B., & Carter, M. (2015). #Funeral and Instagram: death, social
media, and platform vernacular. Information, Communication & Society , 18 (3), 255–268.
• Goffman, E. (1959). The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life. New York: Anchor Book.
• Highfield, T., & Leaver, T. (2015). A methodology for mapping Instagram hashtags. First Monday, 20(1).
http://doi.org/10.5210/fm.v20i1.5563
• Leaver, T. (2015). Researching the Ends of Identity: Birth and Death on Social Media. Social Media +
Society, 1(1). http://doi.org/10.1177/2056305115578877
• Leaver, T. (Forthcoming). Born Digital? Presence, Privacy, and Intimate Surveillance. In Hartley, John &
W. Qu (Eds.), Re-Orientation: Translingual Transcultural Transmedia. Studies in narrative, language,
identity, and knowledge. Fudan University Press.
• Lupton, D. (2013). The Social Worlds of the Unborn. Basingstoke: Palgrave MacMillan.
• Markham, A., & Buchanan, E. (2012). Ethical Decision-Making and Internet Research
Recommendations from the AoIR Ethics Working Committee (Version 2.0). Retrieved from
http://aoir.org/reports/ethics2.pdf
• Weller, K., Bruns, A., Burgess, J., & Mahrt, M. (Eds.). (2014). Twitter and Society. New York: Peter Lang.
• Zoonen, L. van. (2013). From identity to identification: fixating the fragmented self. Media, Culture &
Society, 35(1), 44–51. doi:10.1177/0163443712464557

@tamaleaver [Curtin, Department of Internet Studies] & @timhighfield [QUT, Digital Media Research Centre]
Association of Internet Researchers Conference 2015 #IR16, Phoenix
Questions or Comments?
For more details and slides:
www.tamaleaver.net
@tamaleaver
t.leaver@curtin.edu.au
www.timhighfield.net
@timhighfield
t.highfield@qut.edu.au