2. AREAS
FIRE CENTRE MAIN OFFICE RADIO ROOM MAIN FAX
Calgary (Southern Rockies
Area)
403-297-8800 403-297-8828 403-297-8865
Edson
(Foothills Area)
780-723-8269 780-723-8507 780-712-4483
Fort McMurray
(Waterways Area) 780-743-7125 780-743-7256 780-743-7244
Grande Prairie
(Smoky Area)
780-538-5560 780-538-8094 780-538-5522
High Level
(Upper Hay Area)
780-926-3761 780-926-5409 780-926-2656
Lac La Biche
(Lac La Biche Area)
780-623-5388 780-623-5389 780-623-2570
Peace River
(Peace River Area)
780-624-6190 780-624-6214 780-624-7192
Rocky Mtn House
(Clearwater
403-845-8272 403-845-8266 403-845-7999
Slave Lake
(Lesser Slave Area)
780-849-7400 780-849-7428 780-849-3299
Whitecourt
(Woodlands Area)
780-778-7153 780-778-7272 780-778-4659
OTHER IMPORTANT NUMBERS
CONTACT PHONE NUMBER
PFFC DUTY OFFICER 780-415-6460
PFFC PROVINICAL AIRCRAFT COORDINATOR 780-415-6460
PFFC INFORMATION OFFICER 780-427-6822
PFFC INFRARED COORDINATOR 780-427-6754
PFFC FIRE MAPPING COORDINATOR 780-415-6590
ProvincialWarehouse 780-427-6822
GOA Service Desk 888-427-1462
as of October, 2010
as of October, 2010
3. Steve Simser
Provincial Thermal Infrared Coordinator
GISAS/ CIT Level II
Alberta Sustainable Resource Development
Forestry Division Wildfire Management Branch
Wildfire Aviation and Geomatics
9920 - 108 Street 9th fl.
Edmonton, Alberta T5K 2M4
Phone: 780 427-6754
Cell: 780 819-6754
Fax: 780 415-1509
email: steve.simser@gov.ab.ca
http://www3.gov.ab.ca/srd/
Contents
Introduction 1
Thermal Model
Infrared Basics 5
Factors Effecting
Infrared Missions 11
Alberta’s 4 Tier
Approach 17
How to Request
Infrared Scanning 27
Infrared Forms 32
4. Introduction
The Ministry of Sustainable Resource
Development (SRD) is responsible for
protecting the province’s forests and those
Albertans who live, work and enjoy recreational
activities within them. The province uses
a variety of methods to quickly detect and
respond to new wildfires, including lookouts,
aerial patrols, ground patrols, infrared
scanners, and the cooperation of industry
and the public.
A wildfire is an unplanned natural or human
caused fire, which requires suppression action.
Alberta experiences an average of 1,400 of
these devastating events per year.
Alberta Sustainable Resource Development,
Forestry Division uses a four-tiered infrared
approach to support wildfire suppression
activities: handheld, low altitude, high altitude
and satellite. We use infrared technology to
assess winter burning projects, to determine
the most effective location for airtanker drops
in heavy smoke conditions, and to obtain
hotspot locations and perimeters of
ongoing wildfires.
1
5. Thermal Infrared
Definition
“the science of acquisition and
analysis of thermal information
from non-contact thermal
imaging devices”
Or
If photography means “writing with
light” then thermography means
“writing with heat”
3
6. Thermal Model
Infrared Basics
The Thermal Model is composed of four basic elements which
are integral to the success of the thermal infrared sensing and
interpretation program. These are:
A) The source of the emission, the heat or fire
B) The sensor being utilized and its physical attributes
C) The effects of the environment or attenuation which are
entities that naturally occur between the source and the
sensor, that interfere with the transmission of the
thermal radiation
D) The infrared operator which relates to the capabilities of
the person to competently operate the imaging system and
effectively communicate the results found to personnel on
the wildfire.
Each element has its own set of unique pros and cons
and is dependent on each other for a mission to be
considered successful.
A) Source
A source of ignition or fire must exist in order for thermal
infrared to be successful. Without a source of heat, thermal
infrared would not be required. Detected hotspots on a wildfire
can be intense and smoking or of particular interest to wildfire
operations, virtually extinguished and non-smoking.
The amount of energy emitted by a hotspot depends on the
temperature of the object - the warmer a hotspot gets, the more
energy it emits and the shorter the wavelengths used to detect
and map the heat source. (Figure 1)
Source Temperature (C) Nominal Wavelength
Background 25 10
Fuel Ignition 275 5
Glowing 550 4
Cool fire 725 3
Hot fire 1200 2
Figure 1: Comparison between Temperature and Wavelength by Heat Source
5
7. B) SENSORS or DETECTOR
There are two operating windows within the Electro-Magnetic
Spectrum(EM) (Figure 2) where thermal infrared (TIR) works.
Mid Wave - 3 – 5 microns
Long Wave - 7.5 – 14 microns
Thermal imaging cameras detect levels of IR radiation like our
FLIR H-Series cameras (Long Wave).
Thermographic cameras use built-in conversion programs
to provide temperature of viewed objects like our
FLIR T360 camera (Long Wave).
Infrared cameras are passive devices. In other words they
receive information and in this case - infrared radiation.
Infrared cameras are very sensitive and can differentiate
differences in infrared radiation levels as little as .05 0
C.
Sensors will saturate if exposed to high degrees of temperature
beyond the capabilities of the sensor and appear as blooming
and light up the whole screen as if it were hot.
courtesy of FLIR courtesy of Fireball Technologies courtesy of USFS
C) Attenuation
Sensors can be affected by a number of factors:
Water, Ozone and Carbon Dioxide.
These naturally occurring elements can attenuate/lessen
or hamper the heat source signal from reaching the sensor.
Although we do not have control over ozone and carbon dioxide
in the air, understanding the effects of water in its various
forms can allow us to plan our infrared missions in a more
efficient manner.
Figure 2 indicates areas within the electro-magnetic spectrum
where radiation or energy is blocked due to these elements
being present in our atmosphere.
D) INFRARED OPERATOR
The last and most important element for the success of the
mission is also the weakest link and that is the thermal Infrared
Operator. A competent thermal Infrared Operator will have
mastered and developed the skill sets required from three
different areas.
EDUCATION
The thermal Infrared Operator needs to understand what it
is that he or she is looking at, how do the different sensors
work, what factors attenuate the signals of heat sources, what
is IR and what are the limitations. Attendance at a certified IR
program will satisfy these basics questions.Figure 2: Electro-Magnetic Spectrum (EM)
Figure 3: Examples of Infrared Camera configurations
6 7
8. Evaluation
Next, most Infrared Operators are never evaluated on the
service they provide. Our expectations as customers are that
this person is skilled and knows what they are doing. In reality,
their training may have consisted of – here is the power, white is
hot and black is cold, see you in 3 hours.
The Cache Percotte Evaluation Test Site or THE GRID was
developed and supported by SRD to evaluate potential infrared
service providers to Alberta. A pass on “The GRID” (Figure 4)
indicates that they are qualified to provide infrared services to
SRD and have met the basic requirements.
“THE GRID” covers a 100 hectare plot (2,000 meters by 500
meters) within the Cache Percotte Forest, an SRD training forest
located south of Hinton.
When conducting a test, 20 points are randomly chosen as
targets using a point generator. An infrared contractor is given
the extent of the grid shown in yellow and asked to provide a
number of information products immediately or shortly after the
flight. Operations should be completed within 65 minutes.
CourtesyofBCFS
Figure 5: IR Operator at work
Figure 4: Cache Percotte Evaluation Test Site (THE GRID)
The grid allows testing for:
the detection of hotspots which tests the sensitivity of
contractor’s equipment
the precision of hotspot mapping utilizing GIS software and
the effectiveness of the contract operations covering delivery
time and data format of products
Experience
The Infrared Operator needs to take that education and
evaluation and put it into practice. It will take at least a year for
the operator to experience most abnormalities while scanning
and understand how to interpret them. An IR Operator will
become competent when they can demonstrate knowledge
and understanding of their discipline and be able to effectively
communicate their findings to wildfire ground crews.
8 9
9. FACTORS EFFECTING
Infrared MISSIONS
Knowledge of the infrared technology and understanding
the operational aspects of fighting wildfire are critical to
ensuring successful infrared missions. The following factors
come into play when an infrared service is requested
on a wildfire:
Environmental Issues
Infrared radiation travels through space at the speed of light
and can be reflected, transmitted, absorbed, and emitted.
Of particular concern is reflected and absorbed/emitted
radiation. All objects will absorb (store) infrared energy and
then release (emit) it (Figure 6).
Thermal infrared energy can be emitted or reflected. During
fire/heat-mapping missions, we are concerned with emitted
energy (fires).
I = Incident of energy R = Reflection of radiation
A = Absorption of radiation T = Transmission of radiation
Figure 6: Types of IR Radiation
11
10. As infrared radiation travels through our atmosphere, it
is absorbed by a number of atmospheric conditions that
attenuates (lessens) the infrared signal. The most important
of these are ozone, carbon dioxide and water.
Figure 7: Infrared will not pass through water
Dense water vapour, in the form of rain or snow that exists
between an infrared camera and a hotspot will act as an
attenuator, weakening or eliminating the infrared signal received
by the camera (Figure 7). This is important, as significant
sources of combustion may be masked and missed by the
infrared scan.
Rainfall that dampens the surface of the ground causes it
to cool down through evaporation. This cooling reduces the
heat signature and drives the hotspot into the ground where it
can smolder within organic material. Hotspots with sufficient
energy can resurface, creating a potential risk. By scanning
immediately following a rainfall, you run the chance of missing
these hotspots through a false negative infrared scan.
To ensure the most accurate infrared scans, field staff can use
the guidelines in Table 1. A good drying day is representative of
sunshine all day or a gentle wind.
Table 1: Precipitation Rule of Thumb
0.0 – 2 .9 mm of moisture Wait 1 good drying day
3.0 – 4.9 mm of moisture Wait 2 – 3 good drying days
5.0 – 10.0 mm of moisture Wait 4 + good drying days
ImageCredit:FLIR
Time of Scan
The time of day an infrared mission takes place is very
important, as it relates to two main areas of concern; solar gain
and solar reflectance. Solar gain occurs when infrared energy
from the sun is absorbed by an object and re-emitted (Figure 8).
Solar reflectance occurs when the sun’s energy is reflected off
an object back into the atmosphere, and in the case of infrared
scanning, into the lens of the camera. In both cases, this leads
to a false positive identification of hotspots. Though all objects
will absorb and emit energy, items of particular concern are
rock outcroppings, water bodies and squirrel dens. Squirrel
dens are mounds of loosely packed cone scales on the ground
containing many air pockets that act like insulation. These
mounds store energy during the day and re-emit it slowly over
the course of the evening.
Identifying and providing false positives (non hotspots) to ground
crews will ultimately lead to an element of distrust and lack of
confidence in your infrared operations.
To identify a proper heat source with an infrared camera there
must be a difference in heat energy between the background
radiation and the burning object radiation. When the two sources
appear to be radiating the same amount of energy, it becomes
very difficult to differentiate between the two. We have found
that early morning scanning ensures the best results. Scanning
during the later part of the evening is acceptable as long as
remnant or residual solar gain has subsided.
CourtesyofWhitecourtAreaoffice
Figure 8: Example of Solar Gain
12 13
11. Line of Sight
Infrared scanners cannot see through solid objects. You must
have an unobstructed view between the camera lens and
the hotspot. Tree canopy, shrubbery and tree trunks lessen
or eliminate the infrared energy emitted from hotspots from
reaching the camera.
There are some materials for example which are transparent
like windows in a helicopters and do not appear to cause line of
sight issues as we can physically see thru them, however glass
or thick plastic will block the infrared energy from reaching the
camera. Figure 9 demonstrates this principle very well. A proper
operating procedure must ensure the camera lens is outside
the helicopter and the look angle and view of the targets are
changed when in question.
Figure 9: Black (cool) and white (hot) thermogram and a visible light photograph
of a person. Note the glasses appear cooler in the thermogram
The reverse can also be true. Infrared radiation can pass
through some materials which are opaque and appear to have
an obscured line of sight (Figure 10). However this is more the
exception than the rule. Infrared energy does have the ability
to radiate through very thin plastics as in this black garbage
bag, due to its molecular structure. Sometimes you will see
IR operators protect their IR lens from rain with a piece of thin
clear plastic.
Smoke
Thermal infrared energy has the ability to penetrate smoke,
which provides infrared scanning staff with the opportunity to
identify fire perimeters and/or the head of wildfires from
a safe distance.
However, smoke presents a number of challenges:
1. Dense smoke can absorb the hotspot signal,
making detection more difficult
2. It re-emits its own signal
3. It scatters the signal
Smoke particles are typically larger than visible light and
smaller than infrared wavelengths. Long wave infrared (LWIR) is
less susceptible to absorption and scattering. Intense signals
like those generated from hot embers are more likely to be
detected through smoke while low temperatures may not.
Indirect Heating
Thermal infrared can only detect heat on the surface of targets.
An infrared camera is only detecting surface energy or radiation
which is approximately 1/1000 of an inch thick. This does not
mean that the object or area in question is only burning at this
depth. You may detect a hotspot, when dug out, extending
many inches or possibly feet. Fires can smolder in crevices and
roots 3 - 4 feet underground for very long periods of time.
Figure 10: Example of Infrared Radiation passing thru an opaque object
14 15
12. Wind
Wind has very little effect on the detection of hotspots; however
it can make maneuvering a helicopter very difficult which can be
extremely nauseating to the infrared operator
Alberta’s 4 Tier
Approach
In order to use the various types of infrared
methods effectively, we have categorized them
into the Four Tier Approach based on altitude
above the ground.
Table 2: Temperature Ranges of Hotspots in Heavy Fuels
above 800 0
C flaming combustion - large areas blooming
and smoke obscured
400 - 800 0
C glowing - exposed embers and smoke is
evident on ground
100 - 400 0
C smoldering - smoke if any, hard to detect
with eyes and hot areas with a lot of
white ash
< 100 0
C buried deep underground , temperature
difference can not be felt with hand,
no smoke
Handheld which can be either on the ground or helicopter –
ranges from 0 to 200 feet above the ground
Low Altitude employs a gimbel mount on a helicopter – ranges
from 200 – 300 feet above ground
High Altitude uses fixed wing aircraft – ranges from 3000 –
14,000 feet above ground
Satellite which hovers around 705 km above the surface
of the earth.
Each method has its own unique approach to infrared scanning
on wildfires.
Handheld (Ground or
Helicopter)
The Handheld operation is our primary use of thermal infrared
scanning (Figure 11). SRD has utilized handheld thermal infrared
units since 1976 and today has 1 FLIR T360 and 10 FLIR
H-Series thermal sensors.
The handheld units are light, portable and can be used from
a helicopter or during ground operations. They operate using
Alkaline or NiMH batteries (eliminating NiCad memory problems)
providing the infrared operator with approximately two to six
hours of operation.
When conducting infrared operations from a helicopter these
units are subject to more solar reflection, have limited field of
view and can be slow. Proper scanning requires the removal of
the helicopter door, which reduces aircraft speed and can be
uncomfortably cold during morning operations. When the door
is off, the infrared operator is required to wear a safety harness.
Infrared operators tend to fatigue more quickly during helicopter
scanning due to the weight of the infrared camera. Hotspots
identified during helicopter scanning are identified with marking
material and the use of GPS coordinates.
16 17
13. CourtesyofRemoteHelicopters
Handheld scanning is most effective on wildfires less than 1,000
hectares, or when hotspots need to be located along portions
of the fire line.
Low Altitude
(Helicopter)
Low altitude infrared scanning involves the use of a light
helicopter (Bell 206) with a gyro-stabilized gimbel mounted
infrared camera under the aircraft (Figure 12). A pilot and
infrared operator are required to conduct the scanning.
Normally the gimbel is equipped with both visible and thermal
infrared imagers. This type of operation does not require an
open door or window however weight and drag issues become
more apparent with the addition of the gimbel.
Figure 11: Handheld Operations from a helicopter and on the ground
Figure 12: Helicopter and close up of gimbel infrared sensor
Aircraft equipped with these infrared imagers allow for more
flexible scanning. The cameras have multiple focus views and
are capable of performing fast hemispherical panning.
The low altitude rotor wing scanning is a provincially managed
resource out of the Provincial Forest Fire Centre. Requests
for low altitude scanning are collected daily and priorities
are determined based on wildfire status, incident objectives,
values at risk, and moisture received in the last 24 hours. Once
assigned to a wildfire the incident controls the resource.
SRD presently has access to six qualified thermal infrared
companies that have indicated their willingness to provide
IR services on a wildfire. IR service includes a Geographic
Information System (GIS) map product (Figures 13 and 14) with
GIS data of the hotspots and the flight path of the helicopter
over a wildfire. The flight path or breadcrumb trail is extracted
from GPS coordinates. A completed IR Mission Report (FP60)
report is also provided.
The IR Mission Planning Form (FP60) is provided to the infrared
operator each time a wildfire is scanned. This ensures proper
communications between the wildfire incident and the
infrared operation.
Using existing scanning methods, approximately 160 kilometers
of perimeter can be scanned each day, depending upon the
number of hotspots and speed of the aircraft.
The low altitude approach works great for wildfires between
1,000 and 10,000 hectares.
18 19
14. High Altitude
(Air Attack Operations)
High altitude infrared scanning by an air attack officer is
directed by the operations section of an incident command
team, not the infrared coordinator. These scans play an integral
role in ongoing wildfire suppression operations.
When air attack officers direct the drops of retardant and water
by airtankers, they are often hindered by poor visibility due to
heavy smoke. In 1990, a pilot project was conducted to mount
a gyro-stabilized gimbel and infrared camera on the nose of an
air attack officer’s aircraft. The thermal imagery allowed the air
attack officer to see through the heavy smoke and precisely
locate the head and flank of a wildfire (Figure 15).
Figure 14: Low Altitude map product on ETOPO background
Figure 13: Low Altitude map product with imagery background
Figure 15: Anatomical parts of a wildfire
Typical Map products
CourtesyofRemoteHelicoptersCourtesyofC5OilfieldEnterprises
20 21
15. The imagery allowed for better target identification and more
effective guidance of airtanker drops. The increased accuracy
of the drops saved on airtanker payload costs by decreasing
the amount reloads required. The pilot project was such a
success that it has become a central component of the air
attack program since 1991.
High Altitude
(Fixed Wing)
Alberta’s high altitude infrared scanning program has been in
place since 1998. It utilizes a fixed wing aircraft capable of
creating spatially referenced thermal imagery. This type of
operation combines high thermal sensitivity imaging capabilities
with good spatial resolution.
Products available from this form of high altitude scanning
include geo-referenced GIS data for hotspots, burning areas
and fire perimeter, imagery and a high quality finished map
product called QuickLook (Figure 17). Figure 18 depicts the
geo-referenced image product that this system is also capable
of creating.
The high altitude fixed wing scanning is also managed
provincially out of the Provincial Forest Fire Centre. Requests
for high level scanning are collected daily and priorities are
determined based on wildfire status, incident objectives, values
at risk, and moisture received in the last 24 hours.
The infrared coordinator advises the contractor as to what type
of product is required and the specifics of each mission.
The infrared contractor conducts the wildfire scanning at
night and uploads the products to a secure website location
that are available for download by SRD by 6:00 a.m. the
following morning.
Figure 17: QuickLook Map Product Figure 18: Thermal image depicting head of
wildfire, physical ground features and its proximity
to a nearby community
Alberta has accessed one qualified supplier, since 1998, to
provide high altitude infrared scanning, however there has been
a noticeable increase in interest in the High Altitude program.
SRD actively seeks out any high altitude infrared provider
wishing to participate in the program.
This service is extremely useful for wildfires greater than
10,000 hectares. With the scanner’s ability to see through
smoke, high altitude infrared is extremely useful in providing on-
the-ground incident command staff with up-to-date information
on status of the wildfire by identifying hot spots as well as the
head and flanks of a wildfire.
Suggestion for use: Great for larger fires > 10,000 Ha. ,
determining head of fire in dense smoke, scanning large fire in
the shortest period of time.
Satellite (MODIS)
Rounding off Alberta’s four-tiered infrared scanning approach are
Earth orbiting satellites. MODIS (Moderate Resolution Imaging
Spectroradiometer) is a key instrument aboard the Terra (EOS
AM) and Aqua (EOS PM) satellites. Terra MODIS and Aqua MODIS
view the entire Earth’s surface every 1 to 2 days, covering the
province of Alberta twice a day. Fire detection data is derived
from Terra and Aqua MODIS data, which is collected and
processed by the Remote Sensing Applications Centre (RSAC),
NASA-Goddard Space Flight Centre and University of Maryland.
The United States Forest Service (USFS) out of the Remote
Sensing Applications Centre analyzes MODIS data and creates a
variety of products related to hotspot detection. This information
is published daily on their website: http://activefiremaps.
fs.fed.us/activefiremaps.php?sensor=modis&extent=canada.
Figure 16: Head of wildfire in thermal infrared (left) and true color (right).
Notice how Infrared penetrates through smoke
22 23
16. This data has a spatial resolution of approximately 250 metres. Figure 19 is an
example of a provincial hotspot map from MODIS.
The MODIS mapping provides fire managers with an overview of what is
happening in and around their Province. Figure 20 is a MODIS image taken during
the active wildfire season in July of 2003.
Figure 19: MODIS Map created by RSAC
Figure 20: Active Wildfires effecting Alberta
Comparison of Areas Covered
Figure 21 depicts a comparison of areas covered between Low
Altitude IR Operations (blue box) and High Altitude IR operations
(Yellow and Purple boxes) after two minutes of flight.
Figure 21: Area Covered by Various Low and High Altitude platforms
24 25
17. How to Request
Infrared Scanning
A number of tools and forms have
been developed to aid you in
requesting an infrared service.
These tools and forms will provide you with a
basic understanding of an infrared service for
your wildfire from start to finish.
Each tool has a specific use and each form has
specific requirements.
Use them wisely.
27
18. Thermal Infrared
Decision tool
The Thermal Infrared Decision tool was
developed to help you when the decision arises
to use infrared.
It is to be used for High Altitude, Low Altitude
and Handheld Infrared operations
It takes into account Fire Status, Objectives,
Values at Risk, Delivery Priority, Suggested
Platform and Follow Through.
If you look in the lower right hand corner, you’ll
notice that we have included the Precipitation
Rule of Thumb guidelines.
It is only a TOOL and if used properly will aid
you in determining which method to call for.
28 29
19. Infrared Scanning
Request Flow Chart
The Infrared Scanning Request Flow Chart can
be used for all types of IR operations Handheld,
Low Altitude and High Altitude.
This flow chart indicates which forms are
required and when to use them and the
responsibilities are at each step.
30 31
20. INFRARED FORMS
Thermal Imaging
Request Form (FP 59)
The Thermal Imaging Request Form was
developed to provide the Provincial Forest Fire
Center, Area Office and the Incident Command
Team (ICT) at the fire with sufficient information
to determine proper usage of Infrared services.
It gives us a good idea of what is happening
out in the field and the degree of understanding
of infrared.
It can also help US help YOU to come up with
the most appropriate infrared method to be
used on your fire when you ask for help.
This form is very easy to understand
and complete.
This form must be completed when requesting
High and Low Altitude Contractor Operations
and sent to the Provincial Forest Fire Center
for authorization as these are a provincial
resource.
Please ensure a bounding box shapefile is sent
with the FP59 form.
32 33
21. IR Mission Planning
Form (FP60)
The IR Mission Planning Form was developed to
create a line of communication between the ICT
and the infrared operations.
So many times we send out the IR provider
with virtually no direction and yet we expect
big results.
The top (white) portion of the form is filled out
prior to each infrared mission that is performed
and is provided to the infrared provider either
in paper format or electronically. The infrared
provider is responsible to complete the area
in RED and handed back to the incident upon
completing the mission.
This form is an excellent source of
documentation in providing the fire with
statistics on the infrared operations and will
aid you in completing the IR Contractor
Evaluation Form.
34 35
22. IR Contractor
Evaluation Form (FP58)
The IR Contractor Evaluation Form has been
created not only to inform your peers of the
performance of the Infrared contractor but also
to provide feedback to the Infrared Contractor
in the form of improvements or satisfaction.
Laptops are more prevalent at fires today so
these forms were created so that they can be
completed electronically. Handwritten faxed
copies are very difficult to read.
Any questions regarding these forms can be
directed to the Provincial Thermal Infrared
Coordinator at the Provincial Forest Fire Center.
36 37
