1. 1 | P a g e
A holistic inventory of mammalian species at Reserva
Natural Laguna Blanca, Paraguay.
By
Simon Lowen BSc
(Internship period: 06.02.15 - 06.05.15)

2. 2 | P a g e
Section1:Introduction
The surge incamera trap use as a surveymethodfor conservationandecologyishighlightedbya50%
annual increase inthe numberof scientificpublicationsthathave adoptedthemasresearchtoolsbetween
1998 and 2008 (Rowcliffe &Carbone,2008). Ironically,cameratrapapplicationsforanalysingspecies
abundance originatedfromsporthuntingdevices(Rovero etal.,2013). Such demandforpassive animal
observationhasincreasedthe commercialavailabilityof cameratechnologiestothe extentthatreliable,
digital cameratraps are now generallyavailable forbothscientificandnon-scientificpurposes.
Cameratrap applicationsrange throughoutfieldresearchincludingcollectingspeciesinventoriesincluding
the detectionof elusive species(Sanderson&Trolle,2005; Tobler et al.,2008); investigatingactivitypatterns
(Jacomoet al., 2003); and estimatinganimal density/relativeabundance predominantlythrough
photographicrate calculations(Carbone etal.,2001). For example,Jacomo etal (2003) successfully
combinedcameratrapswithcanidscat analysistobetterdefinethe niche breadthsandresultantecological
overlapsof the ManedWolf,Crab-eatingFox andHoary Fox inEmas National Park,Brazil.
The rise of thistechnologyhasopenedavenuesinecology,especiallyinthe detectionof elusive species
(Kelly,2008).There are howeveraplethoraof methodologicalissues,primarilyregardingthe mannerin
whichthe camerasare set inthe field(Trolle &Kéry.,2003).The surroundingenvironmentandthe height&
angle at whichthe camerasare setcan bothimpactthe observationalefficiencyof variouslysizedmammals.
Likewise,changesinclimate have beenknowntoinadvertentlytriggercamera-traps(Acrenaz etal.,2012).
Conversely,cameratrapsdo bringa numberof benefitstofieldbiology.They have beennotablyvaluableas
theyprovide aconstantlevel of effort,looselydependonthe surveyor’sexperience withanimal
observationsandcanbe leftinthe fieldforlongperiodswithoutrequiringbreaksbetweensurveys(Silveira
et al., 2003). Similarly,the passive nature of thismethodallowsthe surveyortoobserve large areasovera
relativelyshortperiodparticularlyinenvironmentswithproblematicterrainwhere otherfieldmethodshave
commonlyfailed(O’Brien,Kinnaird&Wibisono.,2003).
As withmanyyoungersurveytechnologies,the mannerinwhichcameratraps can be adoptedforspecies
inventoriesisfarfromuniform.Some investigationssuggestplacingcamerasinconjunctionwithscentlures
as to enhance animal detection(Giman etal.,2007). Othersquestionthe validityof suchmethodsand
suggestthe stringentuse of anoverlyinggridsystemtoestablishcameralocationsforrepresentative data
(Séquin etal.,2003). The literature advisescontinuedinvestigationintothe use of cameratrapsfor
improvedguidelinesregardlessof the targetspecies’orecosystem(Hamel etal.,2013).
In thisreport,a continuationof the initial cameratrapinventoryatReservaNatural LagunaBlanca(RNLB),
Paraguayis evaluatedfocusingpurelyonthe detectionof mediumtolarge mammals.Datawas separately
consideredfromsubsidiaryherpetologyandprimatologyprojects.Environmental andanthropogenic
stressorsthatmay have createdany fluctuationinmammalianpopulationsare consideredinthe analysis.
The on-site environmental station,ParaLa Tierra(PLT),was establishedin2010. Priorto this,there hadbeen
no scientificinvestigationintothe ecologyof the reserve leavingagreatneedto establishanon-going
inventoryof the environment.Anunderlyingaimof thisprojectistoconsiderpreviouscomplicationswith
camera trappingsurveysandtoestablishasetof standardisedandreliable methodsallowingforcontinued
analysis.

3. 3 | P a g e
Section2:Sampling design
2a. Study area
The study wasimplementedatParaLa Tierra Ecological Station(PLT) locatedwithinReservaNatural Laguna
Blanca (RNLB) (S23°48’45.4”, W56°17’41.7”). The reserve ispositionedroughly25km eastof Santa RosaDel
Aguarayin SanPedroDepartment,Paraguay.There are three majorhabitatswithinthe reserve:The
Cerrado,the AtlanticForestandan area of transitional forestlocatedontheirfrontier.The majorityof the
northernsectionof the reserve isoccupiedbythe southernextentof the Cerradohabitatwhichcontinues
north intoBrazil;thisenvironmentischaracterisedbyscruband grasslandgrowingondry,nutrient-deficient
earth(Hebblethwaite,2014).To the southof the reserve liesapatchof degradedbutrehabilitatingAtlantic
Forestwhichhaspreviouslybeenencroacheduponbysoyfielddevelopmentonthe eastandwesternsides.
A patch of semi-deciduous,semi-humidgallery‘TransitionalForest’(Smith etal.,2014) separatesthe
Cerradofrom Paraguay’sonlyspring-fednatural lake namedLagunaBlanca.

4. 4 | P a g e
The holisticapproachadoptedforthis studyalloweddatatobe gatheredfroma varietyof flexible sampling
designsasdescribedbelow.Eachdesigniswrittenasastandardisedguideline due tothe variable nature of
camera trap surveyingandthe affectsthatmanyanthropogenicandnatural confoundingfactorshave on
surveyingefficiency.Theyare alsowrittentoallow forfuture continuationsof the inventory. The studyran
throughoutthe periodof 07/02/15 to the 06/05/15.
2b. Primary design
Representative samplingsitesweredevelopedbydividing
the reserve into33 0.5km2
grid-squares.The coordinatesfor
the central pointof each square were calculatedandnoted
as the camera sites(figure i). Thissamplingdesignwas
inspiredbythe initial inventoryasperformedbyDeclan
Crace duringthe period05/04/12 to 14/06/12.
A total of 6 ‘Bushnell TrophyCam’cameratraps were
available atthe disposal of thisproject.The initialaimwasto
obtain5 nightsof data (cameranights) ateach surveysite.
Thiswas consideredflexible due tothe requirementsof side
projectsandgeneral maintenance issueswiththe cameras.
The cameras were installed underthe recommendationsof
Rovero& Marshall (2009) and Tobler et al (2008). The
formersuggestedthatcameraplacementshouldbe
opportunisticusingwildlife trailsandsleeping/eatingsitesas
camera trap locations.The latterconcludedthatinstallinga
dual camera set-upinsteadof asingle camerawill increase
capture probabilitybylessthan50%; efficiencyistherefore
enhancedwhenadoptingasingle cameramethod.
In lightof the literature,single cameraswere installedat‘areas
of interest’ locatedwithin50mof the specificcoordinatesastokeepthe datarepresentative.Human
manipulationsuchasbaitingwas avoidedwhilstestablishingthese ’areasof interest’ astoavoidissueswith
ecological validity.Once apositionwaslocated,the cameraswere mainlysecuredtotreeshoweverother
such reliable structurescouldbe useddependingonavailability.The cameraswere secured20-30cm off the
groundas advisedbyTobleret al (2008).
Figure i: Camera trap positioning as dictated
by the 0.5km2 grid-square sampling design

5. 5 | P a g e
2c. Secondary design
Betweenthe dates09/03/15 and 22/03/15,
additional datawasgatheredfroma separate
camera trap studyfocusingonobservationsof
lizards,frogsandotherherpetofaunathatpopulate a
seasonal pondlocatednearthe lake’sedge
(S23°49’30.6” W56°17’24.97”). The cameraswere
primarilysetusingbamboostructures (figure ii)
alongpathwaysor inopenspaces.The ponds’
surroundingfoliagee.g.trees,shrubs&reedbeds
were occasionallyusedasstructurestobindthe
camerasto. The cameraswere setat dusk and
removedatdawnin harmonywithanimal behaviour
and to avoidtheftof equipment.The locationsof the
camerasaround the pondwere notpre-emptedbut
placedinareas of interestwhere previoussightings
had occurredas dictatedbythe herpetologistwho
managedthe study.
2d. Tertiary design
The final portionof data wasextractedfroman ongoingprimatologystudybasedaroundman-madebaiting
platforms.The platformsstoodapproximately2moff the groundand were capable of carryingthe weightof
several monkeysplusthe desiredbait(oftencornorfruit.) Twobaitingtableswere locatedinthe southern
and northernsectionsof the AtlanticForestrespectively,innatural openingswithenoughcanopyand
reliable structurestosuitablypositionthe cameratraps.The heightandangle at whichthe traps were bound
to the tree was assessedonsitedependingontheirorientationtothe baitingtablesasshowninfigure iii.
Figure ii: An image showing a typical bamboo structure
Figure iii: An image showing a camera set-up at
one of the baiting stations in the Atlantic Forest
Baiting station
Camera-trap
positioning

6. 6 | P a g e
Section3:Results
3a. Primary results
This‘secondaryinventory’(14.02.15– 21.04.15) observedatotal of 5 differentmediumtolarge mammalian
species.Thissuggestsasignificantdecreaseinthe numberof speciesoccupyingthe reservecomparedto
Declan’sprevious survey(initialinventory) whichobserved10speciesduringthe period 04.04.12 to
20.06.12. Despite the lackof diversity,abundance levelswere higherforsome speciesinthe second
inventoryasdemonstratedinfigureiv.
Species
Initial inventory
sightings
Secondary inventory
sightings
Crab-eating Fox 12 20
Red Brocket Deer 5 4
Brazilian Cotton Tail 4 1
Six-Banded Armadillo 3 n/a
Azara’s Agouti 2 4
Nine-banded Armadillo 2 6
Coati 2 n/a
Lesser Grison 1 n/a
Little Spotted Cat 1 n/a
Southern Tamandua 1 n/a
Both inventoriessuggestahighabundance of the Crab-eatingFox;thiswasmore significantforthe second
inventoryhowevercomparedtoall otherspeciesthroughoutbothinventories,thiswasdefinitelythe most
common.
Figure iv: A table listing the species sightings for each inventory

7. 7 | P a g e
The initial inventoryadoptedtwenty-sevencameratraplocations,6 of whichwere inthe Transitional Forest,
fourteeninthe Cerrado and7 inthe AtlanticForest. Similarly,the secondaryinventoryhadatotal of thirty-
three trap locationswithaspatial variationof 5 locationsinthe Transitional Forest,eighteeninthe Cerrado
and 10 inthe AtlanticForest.The meantime acamera wasset at each locationwas4.9 (2 s.f.) camera nights.
Fluctuationsbetweenthe three distincthabitatsare demonstratedinfigure R3.The mostsignificant
variationisbetweenthe initialandsecondaryinventoriesof the Cerradohabitat.Despitethe vastlygreater
surveyeffort,only1species(Crab-eatingFox)wasobservedinthe secondaryinventorycomparedto8
speciesin the initial inventory;thisconstituted80% of the total numberof speciessightedthroughoutthat
inventory.The trendshowninfigure R3wouldsuggestanegative correlationbetweenthe numberof
camera trap locationsandthe numberof speciesobserved withinthathabitat.
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
4 16 28 36 48 60 72 84 96 108 120 132 144 156 168 180 188 200 212 224 236 248 260 272
Numberofspecies
Survey effort (camera nights)
Initial inventory
Secondary inventory
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
0 5 10 15 20
Numberofspecies
Number of camera trap locations
Initial Cerrado inventory
Initial Atlantic Forest
inventory
Initial Transitional Forest
inventory
Secondary Transitional
Forest inventory
Secondary Atlantic Forest
inventory
Secondary Cerrado
inventory
Figure v: Comparative species abundance lines for two inventories at
Reserva Natural Laguna Blanca, Paraguay.
Figure vi: A chartto show thenumberof camera trap locations for each
habitat compared to the number of observed species

8. 8 | P a g e
3b. Secondary results
There wasonly1 recordedindividual thatfell underthe categoryof ‘mediumtolarge mammal’throughout
the durationof thissubsidiaryproject.2birds-eye viewedimagesshowedthe backandfront feetof a
potential adultSouthernRaccoon.Thisispossiblythe firstpictorial evidenceof the specieswithinthe
reserve;furtherscientificverificationisongoingtoconfirmthe sighting.
3c. Tertiary results
The ongoingprimatologyprojectatLagunaBlanca has deducedthe currentCapuchinMonkeypopulation
withinthe reserve tobe fifteenin‘groupO’and8 in‘groupF’. The surveyperiodconsideredforthisresearch
ran from 07.02.15 to 06.05.15. Duringthistime there were 3 recordedvisitstothe feedingtables.One by‘F
group’at the tablesinthe northernsectionof the AtlanticForestinwhichthere were 4sightedindividuals.
The other 2 recordedvisitsoccurredat the feedingtablesinthe southernsectionof the AtlanticForest;
Acrossthese 2 visitsthere were 9sightedindividualsall of whichwere membersof ‘Ogroup’.Itshouldbe
notedthat the camera trapswere not active throughoutthe entire surveyperiod;the datawas extrapolated
froma total of sixteencameranights.We candeduce that50% of ‘groupO’ and 60% of ‘groupF’ were
observedduringthe periodof thisstudy.

9. 9 | P a g e
Section4:Discussion
4a. Variation as a result of changing habitats
ReservaNatural LagunaBlanca boastsa varietyof natural habitatsand sub-habitats. Figurevi
suggesta significantvariationinuseable observationsbetweenthe Cerrado,AtlanticForestandTransitional
Forest.Thisvariationislikelythe resultof species nichesandrespectivepopulationswithinthe givenhabitat
e.g. the RedBrocket Deerwere onlyrecordedinthe degradedsectionof the AtlanticForestwhere
vegetationissparse;thisispossiblythe resultof responsetohighground-waterlevelsinthe southof the
AtlanticForesthoweversuchungulatesare comfortable eatingsuchawoodybrowse diet(Bodmer,1990).
Similarly,the Azara’sAgouti were only recordedinthe Transitional Forestandthe AtlanticForest due to
theirfrugivorousdiet;evolutionaryadaptationshave giventhisspeciesexceptionallysharpteethallowing
themto eatfallennutsandseedswhichare commoninthese dense environments(Ribeiro&Vieira,2014).
As the resultssuggestfromfigure vi,anegative correlationwasfoundbetweenthe numberof
camera trap locationsandthe numberof recordedspeciesforeachgivenhabitat.Perhapsalackof data
frommany of the locationscouldbe avoidedbyfollowinga ‘clustered’designwhere thereare high
concentrationsof cameratrap locationsasopposedtothe representativedesignadheredto inthis
inventory.These ‘clustered’designsshouldbe positionedineachof the sub-habitatsastoincrease the
recordingefficiencyof specieswithvariedecological characteristics(Kelly&Holub,2008) e.g.the Atlantic
Forestshouldbe dividedintothe FloodedForest,NorthAtlantic,SouthAtlanticanddegradedterritories.
As discussedinsection2b, ‘areasof interest’ werelocatedonsiteandinmostcaseswere unnatural
influencerssuchasroads or footpaths. Itwaspre-emptedthatthese pathswere active habitatcorridorsfor
mammalsespeciallyindensefloral environments(Bennett,1990). It wasconverselynotedthat the majority
of recordings were limited tonighttime possiblythe resultof alearnedresponsebymammalianspeciesto
recognise andavoidodoursof sympatricpredators(Swihart,1991). In lightof this,itis advisedthat‘areasof
interest’are more carefullypre-emptedandpositionedinharmonywiththe respectivenatural attractorsof
each sub-habitat.

10. 10 | P a g e
4b. Targeting specific species
Whencomparingthe primaryand secondaryresultstothe tertiaryresultsitisclearthat the
efficiencyof lureswhenattractingmammalscannotbe understated.Thisisdemonstratedbyhigh
photographicdetectionsuccessof the reserve’sAzara’sCapuchinpopulationsoverarelativelyshort
samplingperiod(16cameranights).The corn usedinthisprimatologyprojectnotonlyattractedthe
monkeysbutduringeachvisit,there were sightingsof atleasttwo PlushCrestedJays. Conversely,the results
fromthe primaryandsecondarydesignsare comparativelyrandomindetectingmammalse.g.the initial and
secondaryinventory fromthe primarydesign sharedthe same numberof cameranightshoweverthe
numberof speciesrecordedissignificantlygreaterinthe initial inventory (figure v).We candeduce that
luresprovide sufficientincentive inanatural environmenttoincrease capture rate andimprove survey
reliability.
Roveroet al., (2010) useda varietyof scentedluresatan Acaciaplantationincentral Sarawakto
monitorterrestrial mammal populations.Some luresfaileddue toheavyrainfallhoweveroilyluressuchas
FishOilse.g.Magna Glandproducesa strong odourwhichremainedpungenttothe researcherforone
monthevenduringthe rainyseason. The benefitsof natural luressuchas Wheat,oats,millet,canaryseed,
and hemp are effective inincreasingcapture ratesof elusive species(Blair, 1941) howeverintroducing
anthropogenicelements couldcreate unrepresentative datawhenresearchingpopulationdynamicsas
intelligentspecies mayreturntothe pointof attraction as some capture-recapture modelswouldsuggest
(Karanthet al., 2004) . In thisproject,lureswould have beenbeneficial asthe aim wasto furthera basic
inventoryasopposedto understandingthe complexitiesof variousmammalianspecies.
From an ethical standpoint,the importance of choosingappropriate lureshasbeenhighlightedby
Schlexer(2008).His research considersthe serioushealththreatsassociatedwithraw fishbait,commonly
usedto surveycarnivores.Salmonpoisoningdisease (SPD) andElokominfluke fever(EFF) were bothshown
to be acute infectiousdiseasestransferredthroughthe ingestionof salmonandothercommonfish,‘SPDcan
kill upto 90% of infectedanimals,while EFFusuallymanifestsinamilderform’ (Aiello,1998). To avoidthis
ethical issue,researchingthe dietof eachtargeted mammal speciescouldoffereducated insightintosafe
and effective lures.

11. 11 | P a g e
4c. Survey intensification
Figuresv& vi wouldbothsuggestnopositive relationshipbetween increasedsurveyeffortand
mammal capture rate. The data fromfigure vi wouldactuallysuggesta significantnegativecorrelation
betweenthe numberof onsite cameralocationsand the numberof speciesobservede.g.only4of the 18
camera sitesinthe secondaryCerradoinventoryrecordedcollectabledata.Consideringeachsite was
allocated≥5 camera nights,the resultswouldsuggestaninefficiencyof surveyeffort.
As a relativelymodern ecological tool there are still questionsregardingthe ideal surveydesignto
adoptfor camera trap studies.Soria-Diazetal., (2010) discussedthe variationof abundance anddensityof
Puma concolorinzonesof highand lowconcentration of cameratraps inSierraNanchititlaNatural Reserve,
Central Mexicoi.e.arepresentative orintensivesurveydesign.The representative designwasmore
expansive(anaverage distance betweencameras of 4.6 km with56-618 trap days) comparedto the
intensivedesign (anaverage distance betweencamerasof1.6kmwith 491-618 trap days).The
representative designrecordedanaverage of 1.21±0.41 (individuals/100km²) whereasthe representative
designrecordedanaverage of 5.49±0.54 (individuals/100km²).
In the case of Soria-Diazetal., (2010) we can deduce thata greaterconcentrationof camera
traps/unitareadid increase the likelihoodof registeringthe targetspecies.Itwasnotedhowever that
considerationforthe niche widthandtherefore recapture probabilityisessential toconfirmimproved
surveydesignthroughintensification(Maffei etal., 2004). In thisstudy,recapture ratesare lessof a concern
as the aim was to establish abasicinventory whilstconfiguringthe niche widthof everypossiblemammalian
speciesonthe reserve wouldbe ineffective.A more intensive design(asopposedtothe 0.5km2
grid system)
wouldtherefore offershorterdistancesbetweencamerasites(allowingforsimplerretrieval of devices&
checkingfortechnical issues) whilstpossibly improvingcapture ratesaspreviouslydiscussed.

12. 12 | P a g e
4d. Future research
As previouslydiscussed,atheme of this projectwasto finda setof standardisedmethodstoallow forthe
continuousrecordingof mammalianspeciesonthe reserve. The core inventoriesof the ‘primary
methodology’were comparabledue totheirsimilarsamplingdesigns. The resultsof the primaryand
secondaryinventories suggestsignificantvariationinspeciesabundance whencomparedagainstsurvey
effortandhabitat (figuresv& vi).The 0.5km2
grid-square samplingdesignissoundwhenassessingageneral
inventoryof the reserve.Anyfutureinventoriesusingthisstyle will onlyvalidate the previouslydiscussed
results.Standardisingandcarefullyrecitingthismethodologywill alsocreate opportunitiesforvolunteers
whovisitthe reserve tocontribute toan ongoingscientificprojectwithoutnecessarilypossessing previous
experience inEcological principles.
A separate camera-trapprojectcouldbe undertakento
improve the capture rate of mammalsthroughoutthe various
habitatsas depictedinfigure vii.The ‘location indicators’
suggestsites forcameratraps that are to be accompaniedby
non-lethal lures.Surroundingcamerasshouldpointinwardsto
the central camera. The central camera shouldbe pointing in
the optimumdirectionasdictatedbythe geographyof the
respective site. Toestablishvalidresults,7-10camera night
surveysshouldbe implementedin eachof the varioussub-
habitatsthat the Cerrado,AtlanticForestandTransitional
forestpossesse.g.the Cerradoischaracterisedbycampotype
vegetation,galleryforestandwell-drainedsavannahtype
habitats.Thisdesignwill givebettersurveyarea intensification
whilststill consideringthe shiftingmosaicthatthese habitats
possess(Soria-Diazet al., 2010). A less generalised survey area
design will also improvethe efficiency of the surveyor’s time in
placingcameras in thefield therefore increasingthenumber of
recordablecamera nights; an essential element of reliabledata
(Rovero et al., 2010).
Future developments to the herpetology camera trap study should involvechanges to the bamboo structures that held
the cameras in place.It was often the casethat the structurehad collapsed duringthe night possibly dueto passing
animals.Many of the pictures were also unclear becausethe cameras were set too closeto the ground. Amending
these issues with higher standing,more physically reliable structures could improvethe capture rate of small
herpetofauna; however, a significantchangein survey design would have to occur to improve the capture rate of
mammals,specifically larger mammals thatwould not fitthrough small ‘gate’structures as shown in figure ii.
With regards to the primatology camera trap project, any considerationsfor future research should be sourced from
the on-site primatologist.Dueto the longstandingnatureof this study, the Azara’s Capuchin population of ‘Group O’
and ‘Group F’ are reliably understood.Currently the project focuses on feeding behaviours as opposed to population
changes. Perhaps a future projectmight involveusingcamera traps to observe the less studied Howler Monkey
population thatare occasionally heard in the Flooded Forest sub-habitatatthe southern extent of the Atlantic Forest.
Unfortunately, such research might be difficultdueto the elusivenature of the species and the inaccessible
environment that they populate.
Figure vii: A possible sampling design in light of
research performed by Soria-Diaz et al., (2010)
& Rovero et al., (2010)
Location
Indicators

13. 13 | P a g e
Conclusion
Thisprojectgivesevidence of the needfor careful considerationwhenestablishingan appropriate
surveydesignforan inventory. The holisticapproachgave insightintoavarietyof techniquesforrecording
mediumtolarge mammals usingcameratraps.
Regardingthe primarydesign,the initial inventoryobtained agreateryieldof usable images thanthe
secondaryinventory.The nearidentical designs usedforbothinventories wouldsuggestthatthisvariationis
the resultof natural factors as opposedtoany anthropogenicissues.Fromatechnical perspective,the initial
inventorypromotedthe use of pathsandroadsas attractors formammalswhereasthe secondaryinventory
suggestedthatnatural attractors suchas the educatedimplementationof diet-specificlures wouldoffera
well-roundedviewof the mammalianpopulationsof eachhabitat. Furtherresearchintoavarietyof
attractors isrequiredtobetterunderstand where the camerasshouldbe pointedtowards.The grid-square
designisunarguablyrepresentativeasitcoversthe entire reserve inanequal manner;itshouldhoweverbe
notedthat 9 of the 33 camera trap locationsfromthe secondaryinventoryyieldednousable images,a
numberthatmightbe improvedbyadoptingamore concentratedsurvey design.
The secondarysurveydesigndemonstratedanalternative meansof hoistingthe cameratraps.The
vertical imageswere oftenuncleardue tothe reflectionfrom the groundandthe relativelysmall bamboo
framesmeantthat a lotof the largermammals wouldnotbe able to fitthroughthe structures. It shouldbe
notedthat thiscouldbe considered the mostsuccessfulof the three designsdue tothe possible sightingof a
previouslyunseenspeciesonthe reserve;aSouthernRacoon.
The tertiarydesign demonstratedhow beneficial lurescanbe inenticingmammals.Inthiscase,the
use of feedingtablesrestrictedthe benefitsof the lure tomobile speciessuchasCapuchinMonkeys.A more
accessible structure andamore universal lure e.g.fruits&nuts mightdemonstrate the true potentialof
luresinestablishingathoroughinventory.
Overall,continuedsurveyingof the reserve isessentialincompletingafull speciesinventory.Itis
clearthat there are still unrecordedspeciesthatinhabitthe reserveasdemonstratedbysection3b.A
continuationof the primarydesignwouldbe advisedhoweverconsiderationforwhere the camerasare
placedisimportantto improve surveyefficiency.Itisalsoimportantthatdata iscollectedfromoutside of
the summermonthsto allowforseasonal variation.Incorporatingall of the suggestionsfromeachof the
surveydesignsdiscussedwithinthisprojectshouldgivesufficientguidance toestablishasetof reliable
methodsallowingforcontinuedanalysisof mammalian populationsonthe reserve.

14. 14 | P a g e
Bibliography
Ancrenaz, M., Hearn, A. J., Ross, J., Sollmann, R., & Wilting, A. (2012). Handbook for wildlife monitoring
using camera-traps. Sabah, Malaysai.
Carbone, C., Christie, S., Conforti, K., Coulson, T., Franklin, N., Ginsberg, J. R., & Wan Shahruddin, W. N.
(2001). The use of photographic rates to estimate densities of tigers and other cryptic mammals. Animal
Conservation, 4(01), 75-79.
De Almeida Jácomo, A. T., Silveira, L., & Diniz-Filho, J. A. F. (2004). Niche separation between the maned
wolf (Chrysocyon brachyurus), the crab-eating fox (Dusicyon thous) and the hoary fox (Dusicyon vetulus) in
central Brazil. Journal of Zoology, 262(01), 99-106.
Giman, B., Stuebing, R., Megum, N., Mcshea, W. J., & Stewart, C. M. (2007). A camera trapping inventory for
mammals in a mixed use planted forest in Sarawak. Raffles Bulletin of Zoology, 55(1), 209-215.
Hamel, S., Killengreen, S. T., Henden, J. A., Eide, N. E., Roed‐Eriksen, L., Ims, R. A., & Yoccoz, N. G. (2013).
Towards good practice guidance in using camera‐traps in ecology: influence of sampling design on validity of
ecological inferences. Methods in Ecology and Evolution, 4(2), 105-113.
Kelly, M. J. (2008). Design, evaluate, refine: camera trap studies for elusive species. Animal Conservation,
11(3), 182-184.
O'Brien, T. G., Kinnaird, M. F., & Wibisono, H. T. (2003). Crouching tigers, hidden prey: Sumatran tiger and
prey populations in a tropical forest landscape.Animal Conservation, 6(02), 131-139.
Rowcliffe, J. M., & Carbone, C. (2008). Surveys using camera traps: are we looking to a brighter future?.
Animal Conservation, 11(3), 185-186.
Rovero, F., Zimmermann, F., Berzi, D., & Meek, P. (2013). " Which camera trap type and how many do I
need?" A review of camera features and study designs for a range of wildlife research applications. Hystrix,
the Italian Journal of Mammalogy, 24(2), 148-156.
Sanderson, J. G., & Trolle, M. (2005). Monitoring Elusive Mammals-Unattended cameras reveal secrets of
some of the world's wildest places. American Scientist, 93(2), 148-155.
Séquin, E. S., Jaeger, M. M., Brussard, P. F., & Barrett, R. H. (2003). Wariness of coyotes to camera traps
relative to social status and territory boundaries. Canadian Journal of Zoology, 81(12), 2015-2025.
Silveira, L., Jacomo, A. T., & Diniz-Filho, J. A. F. (2003). Camera trap, line transect census and track surveys:
a comparative evaluation. Biological Conservation, 114(3), 351-355.
Tobler, M. W., Carrillo‐Percastegui, S. E., Leite Pitman, R., Mares, R., & Powell, G. (2008). An evaluation of
camera traps for inventorying large‐and medium‐sized terrestrial rainforest mammals. Animal
Conservation, 11(3), 169-178.
Trolle, M., & Kéry, M. (2003). Estimation of ocelot density in the Pantanal using capture-recapture analysis of
camera-trapping data. Journal of mammalogy, 84(2), 607-614.
Tobler, M. W., Carrillo‐Percastegui, S. E., Leite Pitman, R., Mares, R., & Powell, G. (2008). An evaluation of
camera traps for inventorying large‐and medium‐sized terrestrial rainforest mammals. Animal Conservation,
11(3), 169-178.
Rovero, F., & Marshall, A. R. (2009). Camera trapping photographic rate as an index of density in forest
ungulates. Journal of Applied Ecology, 46(5), 1011-1017.
Tobler, M. W., Carrillo‐Percastegui, S. E., Leite Pitman, R., Mares, R., & Powell, G. (2008). Further notes on
the analysis of mammal inventory data collected with camera traps. Animal Conservation, 11(3), 187-189.

15. 15 | P a g e
Hebblethwaite, M. (2014). Paraguay. Bradt travel guides.
Smith, P., Cacciali, P., Scott, N., del Castillo, H., Pheasey, H., & Atkinson, K. (2014). First record of the
globally-threatened Cerrado endemic snake Philodryas livida (Amaral, 1923) (Serpentes, Dipsadidae) from
Paraguay, and the importance of the Reserva Natural Laguna Blanca to its conservation. Cuadernos de
Herpetología, 28(2).
Soria-Díaz,L., Monroy-Vilchis,O.,Rodríguez-Soto,C.,Zarco-González,M.M., & Urios, V.(2010). Variationof
abundance anddensityof Puma concolorinzonesof highandlow concentrationof camera trapsin Central
Mexico. AnimalBiology,60(4), 361-371.
Rovero, F., Tobler, M., & Sanderson, J. (2010). Camera-trapping for inventorying terrestrial
vertebrates. Manual on field recording techniques and protocols for All Taxa Biodiversity Inventories and
Monitoring. The Belgian National Focal Point to the Global Taxonomy Initiative, 100-128.
Schlexer,F.V.(2008). Attractinganimalstodetectiondevices. Noninvasivesurvey methodsforcarnivores,
263-292.
Blair,W. F. (1941). Techniquesforthe studyof mammal populations. Journalof Mammalogy,22(2),148-157.
Aiello,S.E.(1998).The Merck VeterinaryManual,8thEdition,Merck& Co.,Inc, USA.
Maffei ,L. & Noss, A. (2008) How small istoo small?Cameratrap surveyareasanddensityestimatesfor
ocelotsinthe BolivianChaco.Biotropica,40(1), 71-75.
Karanth, K. U., Chundawat, R. S., Nichols, J. D., & Kumar, N. (2004). Estimation of tiger densities in the
tropical dry forests of Panna, Central India, using photographic capture–recapture sampling. Animal
Conservation, 7(03), 285-290.
Bodmer, R. E. (1990). Responses of ungulates to seasonal inundations in the Amazon floodplain. Journal of
tropical Ecology, 6(02), 191-201.
Ribeiro, J. F., & Vieira, E. M. (2014). Interactions between a seed‐eating neotropical rodent, the Azara's agouti
(Dasyprocta azarae), and the Brazilian ‘pine’Araucaria angustifolia. Austral Ecology, 39(3), 279-287.
Kelly, M. J., & Holub, E. L. (2008). Camera trapping of carnivores: trap success among camera types and
across species, and habitat selection by species, on Salt Pond Mountain, Giles County, Virginia. Northeastern
Naturalist, 15(2), 249-262.
Bennett, A. F. (1990). Habitat corridors and the conservation of small mammals in a fragmented forest
environment. Landscape Ecology, 4(2-3), 109-122.
Swihart, R. K., Pignatello, J. J., & Mattina, M. J. I. (1991). Aversive responses of white-tailed deer, Odocoileus
virginianus, to predator urines. Journal of Chemical Ecology, 17(4), 767-777.