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Chapter 7
A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils, and
Sedimentary Rocks

LECTURE OUTLINE

earth

Portrait of a Planet

Third Edition
©2008 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc.
Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
A Surface Veneer:
Sediments, Soils, and Sedimentary Rocks
Prepared by

Ron Parker
Earlham College Department of Geosciences
Richmond, Indiana
Sediments
 The Nile flows over a canyon filled by thick sediments.
 The size of Grand Canyon.
 The canyon was carved by the Nile.
 Indicates the Mediterranean has evaporated and re-filled.

 Sediment:
 Rock and mineral fragments.
 Shells.
 Mineral precipitates.

 Cemented into rocks.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
Sedimentary Cover
 Earth is covered by a thin “veneer” of sediment.
 The veneer caps igneous and metamorphic “basement.”
 Sediment cover varies in thickness from 0 to 20 km.
 Thinner (or missing) where ig and meta rocks outcrop.
 Thicker in sedimentary basins.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
Weathering
 Processes that break up rock to create sediment.
 Physical - Mechanical breakage and disintegration.
 Chemical - Decomposition by reaction with water.

 Weathering processes occur at Earth’s surface.
 Rocks react with hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere.
 Low temperature and pressure.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
Physical Weathering
 Mechanical breakup; doesn’t change mineral makeup.
 Creates broken fragments or “detritus.”
 Detrital fragments classified by size.
 Coarse-grained – Boulders, cobbles, and pebbles.
 Medium-grained – Sand-sized.
 Fine-grained – Silt and clay (mud).

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
Physical Weathering
 Types of physical weathering.
 Jointing.
 Frost wedging.
 Root wedging.
 Salt wedging.
 Thermal expansion.
 Animal activity.

 Physically weathered rock fragments move by gravity.
 Large blocks often accumulate as talus below a cliff.
 Smaller fragments are carried away by water and wind.
Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
Jointing
 Deep crustal rocks are hot and under high pressure.
 Erosion removes material; deep rocks become exposed.
 At the surface, crustal rocks cool and expand.
 This causes through-going fractures called joints.
 Joints may exhibit a variety of geometries.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
Jointing
 Igneous plutons crack in onionlike “exfoliation” layers.
 These layers break off as sheets that slide off of a

pluton.
 Over time, this process creates domed remnants.
 Examples: Half-Dome (Ca.) and Stone Mountain (Ga.).

W. W. Norton

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
Chemical Weathering
 Reaction with water disintegrates many minerals.
 Water is the universal solvent.
 Maximized under warm and wet conditions.

Tropical weathering is intensive.
Turns rock into heavily decomposed “saprolite.”
 Chemical weathering is virtually absent in deserts.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
Chemical Weathering
 Forms stable minerals from unstable precursors.
 Common chemical weathering reactions include:
 Dissolution.
 Hydrolysis.
 Oxidation.
 Hydration.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
Chemical Weathering
 Dissolution
 Some minerals (halite, gypsum, calcite) dissolve.

CaCO3 + H2CO3 +2H+ = 2H2O + 2CO2 +Ca2+
(calcite) + (carbonic acid) + (hydrogen ion) = (water) + (carbon dioxide) + (calcium ion)

 Acidity (i.e. acid rain) enhances this effect.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
Hydrolysis
 Water breaks cation bonds in silicate minerals. Yields…
 Dissolved cations.
 Alteration residues.

Clay minerals.
Iron oxides (rust).

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
Chemical Weathering
 Oxidation
 A reaction whereby a metal loses electrons.
 Important process in mafic silicate decomposition.
 Rusting is a familiar example.

 Hydration
 Absorption of water into a mineral structure.
 Results in a volume increase (expansion).
 Important processes in some clay minerals.
Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
Chemical Weathering
 Minerals differ in their tendency to weather chemically.
 Silicate weathering susceptibility predicted by stability.
 Temperature (T) and pressure (P) are a dominant control.

High T and P minerals tend to weather quickly at low T and P.
Low T and P minerals are more stable at Earth’s surface.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
Biological Weathering
 Organisms often important chemical weathering agents.
 Plant roots.
 Fungi.
 Lichens.
 Bacteria.

 Organic acids

attack minerals.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
Weathering Feedbacks
 Weathering processes often work as a positive feedback.
 Physical weathering speeds chemical weathering. How?
 An increase in surface area accelerates chemical attack.
 Chemical weakening increases surface area via breakage.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
Chemical Weathering Rate
 Block geometry influences weathering.
 Corners weather fastest; 3 sides of attack.
 Edges weather at a moderate rate (2 sides).
 Flat faces weather slowest (1 side).

 Cube-shaped rocks develop “spheroidal weathering.”

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
Differential Weathering
 Rates of weathering attack vary due to changes in…
 Mineral stability.
 Degree of compaction or cementation.
 Subtle differences in texture, etc.

 Major control on surficial expression.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
Soil
 “Soil consists of rock and sediment that has been

modified by physical and chemical interaction with
organic material and rainwater, over time, to produce a
substrate that can support the growth of plants.”
 Soil-forming processes require long periods of time.
 Soil may be easily destroyed by human activities.
 Soil is a crucial natural resource in need of protection.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
The Soil Profile
 Soil forms a vertical sequence of layers called a profile.
 Profiles develop from the surface downward.
 Weathering generates detritus.
 Rainwater alters the detritus.

 Individual layers are horizons.
 The upper horizons form topsoil.
 The only fertile part of the profile.
 Easily removed by erosion.
 1000s of years in the making.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
Soil-Forming Processes
 Coffee is a direct analogue.
 Zone of leaching – Upper soil

profile.
 Ions from chemical weathering
 Fine silts and clays infiltrate.

 Zone of accumulation –

Lower soil profile.
Ions form new minerals.
Silts and clays clog pore

spaces.
Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
Soil Horizons
 Distinct horizons reflect soil-

forming processes.
 O Horizon – Dark organic

matter-rich surface layer.
 A Horizon – Organic and mineral
matter.
 E Horizon – Transitional layer
leached by organic acids.
 B Horizon – Organic-poor
mineral rich layer.
 C Horizon – Slightly altered
bedrock.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
Soil-Forming Factors
 Soil genesis influenced by a number of factors.
 Climate – Amount of water and warmth.
 Substrate composition – Soil parent minerals.
 Slope steepness – Soils develop best on low slopes.
 Drainage – Wet soils are more organic-rich.
 Time – Older soils are more developed.
 Vegetation – Controls type of organic matter added.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
Soil vs. Climate
 Climate exerts a dominant control on soil development.
 Latitude.
 Elevation.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
Soil Use and Misuse
 Human activities can make soil unproductive.
 Crops can strip soil nutrients.
 Topsoil erodes away when vegetation is removed.

 Topsoil is sometimes mined and sold; usually a bad

idea.
 Soil quality is degraded by…
 Overuse of pesticides.
 Industrial contamination.
 Salt build-up.

 It is wise to protect soils.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
Sedimentary Rocks
 Sediments are the building blocks of sedimentary rocks.
 Sediments are diverse, as are the rocks made from them.
 4 classes:
 Clastic – Made from weathered rock fragments (clasts).
 Biochemical – Cemented shells of organisms.
 Organic – The carbon-rich remains of plants.
 Chemical – Minerals that crystallize directly from water.
Clastic

Biochemical

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Organic

Chemical

Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
Clastic Sedimentary Rocks
 Clastic sedimentary rocks reflect several processes.
 Weathering – Generation of detritus via rock disintegration.
 Erosion – Removal of sediment grains from rock.
 Transportation – Dispersal by wind, water, and ice.
 Deposition – Accumulation after transport stops.
 Lithification – Transformation into solid rock.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
Clastic Sedimentary Rocks
 Lithification – Transforms loose sediment into solid rock.
 Burial – More sediment is added onto a previous layer.
 Compaction – Overburden weight reduces pore space.

Sand – 10-20%
Clay – 50-80%

 Cement – Minerals from groundwater that “glue” sediment.
Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
Clastic Sedimentary Rocks
 Classified on the basis of texture and composition.
 Clast (grain) size.
 Clast composition.
 Angularity and sphericity.
 Sorting.
 Character of cement.

 These variables produce a diversity of clastic rocks.
Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
Clastic Sedimentary Rocks
 Clast (grain) size – The average diameter of clasts.
 Range from very coarse to very fine.
 Boulder, cobble, pebble, and pea gravel.
 Coarse, medium, and fine sand.
 Coarse, medium, and fine silt.
 Coarse and fine clay.

 With increasing transport, average grain size decreases.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
Clastic Sedimentary Rocks
 Clast composition – Mineral makeup of clasts.
 May be individual minerals or rock fragments.
 Mineral identity important.

Stable end-products of weathering (quartz, Fe-oxides, clays).
Unstable minerals signify special conditions (feldspars).
 Composition helps to decipher depositional history.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
Clastic Sedimentary Rocks
 Angularity and sphericity – Indicate degree of transport.
 Fresh detritus is usually angular and non-spherical.
 Grain roundness and sphericity increases with transport.
 Well-rounded – Long transport distances.
 Angular – Negligible transport.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
Clastic Sedimentary Rocks
 Sorting – The uniformity of grain size.
 Well-sorted – Uniform grain size.
 Poorly sorted – Wide variety of grain sizes.

 Sorting indicates the constancy of environmental energy.
 Well-sorted – Uniform energy (i.e., a beach).
 Poorly sorted – Variable energy (i.e., an alluvial fan).

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
Clastic Sedimentary Rocks
 Cement – Minerals that fill sediment pores.
 Fluids with dissolved solids flush through pore system.
 Dissolved ions slowly crystallize in (and fill) pores.

 Cementation varies in degree.
 Weakly cemented (friable) – Grains easily pulled from rock.
 Strongly cemented (indurated) – Grains hard to dislodge.
 Common cements:
 Quartz
 Calcite
 Hematite
 Clay minerals

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
Clastic Sedimentary Rocks
 Maturity – A measure of the degree of “processing.”
 Textural maturity – Degree of roundness and sorting.
 Mineral maturity – Degree of unstable mineral removal.

 Time and transport causes sediment evolution.
 Texture - Average grain size  ; roundness and sorting  .
 Composition - Unstable minerals  ; Stable minerals  .

 Maturity is used to reconstruct depositional conditions.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
Clastic Sedimentary Rocks
 Coarse clastics - Composed of gravel-sized clasts.
 Breccia – Comprised of angular clasts.

Indicates lack of transport processing.
Deposited close to source.
 Conglomerate – Comprised of rounded clasts.

Indicates processing by transport.
Deposited away from source area.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
Biochemical and Organic Rocks
 These are sediments derived from living organisms.
 Biochemical limestone – Made from CaCO3 shell remains.
 Carbonate grains accumulate in the “carbonate factory.”

Warm (tropical and subtropical).
Normal-salinity marine water.
Wave-agitated.
Oxygenated.
Shallow.
Clear.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
Biochemical and Organic Rocks
 Organic rocks – Made from organic carbon.
 Coal – Altered remains of fossil vegetation.

Accumulates in lush tropical wetland settings.
Requires deposition in the absence of oxygen.
 Oil shale – Shale with heat-altered organic matter.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
Chemical Sedimentary Rocks
 Comprised of minerals precipitated from water solution.
 Evaporites – Created from evaporated seawater.
 Evaporation triggers deposition of chemical precipitates.
 Examples include halite (rock salt) and gypsum.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
Sedimentary Structures
 Sedimentary rocks are usually layered or “stratified.”
 Arranged in planar, horizontal “beds.”
 Bedding is often laterally continuous for long distances.
 Beds are often similar in composition, color, and texture.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
Sedimentary Structures
 Bedding caused by changing conditions during

deposition.
 These can be changes in…
 Energy conditions, and hence, grain size.
 Disturbance by organisms.

 Bedding may also reflect non-deposition or erosion.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
Sedimentary Structures
 A series of beds are referred to as strata.
 A sequence of strata that is sufficiently unique to be

recognized on a regional scale is termed a formation.
 The formation is the fundamental geologic mapping unit.

Example: Note how the prominent
white cliff-forming band of the
Coconino Formation can be visibly
traced across Grand Canyon.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
Sedimentary Structures
 Water flowing over loose sediment creates bedforms.
 Bedforms are linked to flow velocity and sediment size.
 Ripples, cm-scale ridges, and troughs indicate flow.

Asymmetric ripples – Unidirectional flow.
Symmetric ripples – Wave oscillation.
Ripples are commonly preserved in sedimentary rocks.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
Bedforms
 Dunes – Similar to ripples except much larger.
 Cross-bedding – Created by ripple and dune migration.
 Sediment moves up the gentle side of a ripple or dune.
 Sediment piles up, then slips down the steep face.

The slip face continually moves downstream.
Added sediment forms sloping “cross-bedded” layers.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
Bedforms
 Graded Beds – Bedding layers that fine upward.
 Transition from coarse to medium to fine grain sizes.

Base of coarse sand and gravel.
Mid-level sands.
A fine silt and clay cap.
Abrupt contact with overlying coarse base.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
Depositional Environments
 Locations where sediment accumulates. They differ in…
 Energy regime (mostly comes from the sun; gravitational
and chemical potential energy)
 Sediment delivery, transport and depositional conditions.
 Chemical, physical and biological characteristics.
 Environments range from continental to marine.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
Depositional Environments
 Terrestrial environments – Deposited above sea level.
 Glacial – Due to movement of ice.

Ice carries and dumps every grain size.
Creates glacial till; poorly sorted gravel, sand, silt, and clay.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
Depositional Environments
 Terrestrial environments.
 Mountain streams.

Water carries large clasts during floods.
During low flow, boulders are immobile.
Course conglomerate is characteristic.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
Depositional Environments
 Terrestrial environments.
 Alluvial fan - Sediments that pile up at a mountain front.

Rapid drop in stream velocity creates a cone-shaped wedge.
Sediments are immature conglomerates and arkoses.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
Depositional Environments
 Terrestrial environments.
 Rivers – Channelized flow transports sediment.

Sand and gravel fills concave-up channels.
Fine sand, silt, and clay is deposited on flood plains.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
Depositional Environments
 Marine environments – Deposited at or below sea-level.
 Deltas – Sediments dropped where a river enters the sea.

River flow halts at the ocean.
Sediment carried by the river is dumped when velocity drops.
Deltas grow over time, building out into the basin.
Often develop a topset – foreset – bottomset geometry.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
Depositional Environments
 Marine environments.
 Shallow marine – Finer version of beach sediment.

Fine silts and muds.
Biologically active.
Siltstone and mudstone.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
Depositional Environments
 Marine environments.
 Shallow water carbonates – Tropical.

Skeletons of marine invertebrates.
Born in the carbonate factory.
Warm, clear, shallow, normal salinity marine water.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
Depositional Environments
 Marine environments.
 Deep marine – Fines predominate far from land sources.

Skeletons of planktonic organisms make chalk or chert.
Fine silts and clays turn to shale.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
Sedimentary Basins
 Sediments vary in thickness across Earth’s surface.
 Thin to a zero edge where non-sedimentary rocks outcrop.
 Thicken to 10 to 20+ km where the surface has subsided.

 Subsidence – Sinking of the land during sedimentation.
 Due to crustal flexure and faulting.
 Compounded by the weight of added sediments.

 Basins are important locations for natural resources.
 Coal
 Petroleum
 Natural gas
 Uranium

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
Sedimentary Basins
 Basins form where tectonic activity creates space.
 Rift basins – Divergent (pull-apart) plate boundaries.

Crust thins by stretching and rotational normal faulting.
Thinned crust subsides.
Sediment fills the down-dropped basin.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
Sedimentary Basins
 Basins form where tectonic activity creates space.
 Passive margins – Non-plate boundary continental edge.

Underlain by crust thinned by previous rifting.
Thinned crust subsides as it cools.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
Diagenesis
 Physical, chemical, and biological changes to sediment.
 Bioturbation (The stirring or mixing of sediment or soil by

organisms)
 Lithification.
 Dissolution.
 Mineral precipitation.
 Pressure solution.
 Temp range between burial and metamorphism (~300oC).
 Integrates changes across the entire sediment history.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
This concludes the
Chapter 7
A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils, and
Sedimentary Rocks

LECTURE OUTLINE

earth

Portrait of a Planet

Third Edition
©2008 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc.
Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks

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Op ch07 lecture_earth3,sedimentary

  • 1. Chapter 7 A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils, and Sedimentary Rocks LECTURE OUTLINE earth Portrait of a Planet Third Edition ©2008 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
  • 2. A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils, and Sedimentary Rocks Prepared by Ron Parker Earlham College Department of Geosciences Richmond, Indiana
  • 3. Sediments  The Nile flows over a canyon filled by thick sediments.  The size of Grand Canyon.  The canyon was carved by the Nile.  Indicates the Mediterranean has evaporated and re-filled.  Sediment:  Rock and mineral fragments.  Shells.  Mineral precipitates.  Cemented into rocks. Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
  • 4. Sedimentary Cover  Earth is covered by a thin “veneer” of sediment.  The veneer caps igneous and metamorphic “basement.”  Sediment cover varies in thickness from 0 to 20 km.  Thinner (or missing) where ig and meta rocks outcrop.  Thicker in sedimentary basins. Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
  • 5. Weathering  Processes that break up rock to create sediment.  Physical - Mechanical breakage and disintegration.  Chemical - Decomposition by reaction with water.  Weathering processes occur at Earth’s surface.  Rocks react with hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere.  Low temperature and pressure. Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
  • 6. Physical Weathering  Mechanical breakup; doesn’t change mineral makeup.  Creates broken fragments or “detritus.”  Detrital fragments classified by size.  Coarse-grained – Boulders, cobbles, and pebbles.  Medium-grained – Sand-sized.  Fine-grained – Silt and clay (mud). Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
  • 7. Physical Weathering  Types of physical weathering.  Jointing.  Frost wedging.  Root wedging.  Salt wedging.  Thermal expansion.  Animal activity.  Physically weathered rock fragments move by gravity.  Large blocks often accumulate as talus below a cliff.  Smaller fragments are carried away by water and wind. Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
  • 8. Jointing  Deep crustal rocks are hot and under high pressure.  Erosion removes material; deep rocks become exposed.  At the surface, crustal rocks cool and expand.  This causes through-going fractures called joints.  Joints may exhibit a variety of geometries. Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
  • 9. Jointing  Igneous plutons crack in onionlike “exfoliation” layers.  These layers break off as sheets that slide off of a pluton.  Over time, this process creates domed remnants.  Examples: Half-Dome (Ca.) and Stone Mountain (Ga.). W. W. Norton Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
  • 10. Chemical Weathering  Reaction with water disintegrates many minerals.  Water is the universal solvent.  Maximized under warm and wet conditions. Tropical weathering is intensive. Turns rock into heavily decomposed “saprolite.”  Chemical weathering is virtually absent in deserts. Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
  • 11. Chemical Weathering  Forms stable minerals from unstable precursors.  Common chemical weathering reactions include:  Dissolution.  Hydrolysis.  Oxidation.  Hydration. Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
  • 12. Chemical Weathering  Dissolution  Some minerals (halite, gypsum, calcite) dissolve. CaCO3 + H2CO3 +2H+ = 2H2O + 2CO2 +Ca2+ (calcite) + (carbonic acid) + (hydrogen ion) = (water) + (carbon dioxide) + (calcium ion)  Acidity (i.e. acid rain) enhances this effect. Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
  • 13. Hydrolysis  Water breaks cation bonds in silicate minerals. Yields…  Dissolved cations.  Alteration residues. Clay minerals. Iron oxides (rust). Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
  • 14. Chemical Weathering  Oxidation  A reaction whereby a metal loses electrons.  Important process in mafic silicate decomposition.  Rusting is a familiar example.  Hydration  Absorption of water into a mineral structure.  Results in a volume increase (expansion).  Important processes in some clay minerals. Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
  • 15. Chemical Weathering  Minerals differ in their tendency to weather chemically.  Silicate weathering susceptibility predicted by stability.  Temperature (T) and pressure (P) are a dominant control. High T and P minerals tend to weather quickly at low T and P. Low T and P minerals are more stable at Earth’s surface. Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
  • 16. Biological Weathering  Organisms often important chemical weathering agents.  Plant roots.  Fungi.  Lichens.  Bacteria.  Organic acids attack minerals. Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
  • 17. Weathering Feedbacks  Weathering processes often work as a positive feedback.  Physical weathering speeds chemical weathering. How?  An increase in surface area accelerates chemical attack.  Chemical weakening increases surface area via breakage. Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
  • 18. Chemical Weathering Rate  Block geometry influences weathering.  Corners weather fastest; 3 sides of attack.  Edges weather at a moderate rate (2 sides).  Flat faces weather slowest (1 side).  Cube-shaped rocks develop “spheroidal weathering.” Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
  • 19. Differential Weathering  Rates of weathering attack vary due to changes in…  Mineral stability.  Degree of compaction or cementation.  Subtle differences in texture, etc.  Major control on surficial expression. Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
  • 20. Soil  “Soil consists of rock and sediment that has been modified by physical and chemical interaction with organic material and rainwater, over time, to produce a substrate that can support the growth of plants.”  Soil-forming processes require long periods of time.  Soil may be easily destroyed by human activities.  Soil is a crucial natural resource in need of protection. Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
  • 21. The Soil Profile  Soil forms a vertical sequence of layers called a profile.  Profiles develop from the surface downward.  Weathering generates detritus.  Rainwater alters the detritus.  Individual layers are horizons.  The upper horizons form topsoil.  The only fertile part of the profile.  Easily removed by erosion.  1000s of years in the making. Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
  • 22. Soil-Forming Processes  Coffee is a direct analogue.  Zone of leaching – Upper soil profile.  Ions from chemical weathering  Fine silts and clays infiltrate.  Zone of accumulation – Lower soil profile. Ions form new minerals. Silts and clays clog pore spaces. Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
  • 23. Soil Horizons  Distinct horizons reflect soil- forming processes.  O Horizon – Dark organic matter-rich surface layer.  A Horizon – Organic and mineral matter.  E Horizon – Transitional layer leached by organic acids.  B Horizon – Organic-poor mineral rich layer.  C Horizon – Slightly altered bedrock. Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
  • 24. Soil-Forming Factors  Soil genesis influenced by a number of factors.  Climate – Amount of water and warmth.  Substrate composition – Soil parent minerals.  Slope steepness – Soils develop best on low slopes.  Drainage – Wet soils are more organic-rich.  Time – Older soils are more developed.  Vegetation – Controls type of organic matter added. Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
  • 25. Soil vs. Climate  Climate exerts a dominant control on soil development.  Latitude.  Elevation. Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
  • 26. Soil Use and Misuse  Human activities can make soil unproductive.  Crops can strip soil nutrients.  Topsoil erodes away when vegetation is removed.  Topsoil is sometimes mined and sold; usually a bad idea.  Soil quality is degraded by…  Overuse of pesticides.  Industrial contamination.  Salt build-up.  It is wise to protect soils. Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
  • 27. Sedimentary Rocks  Sediments are the building blocks of sedimentary rocks.  Sediments are diverse, as are the rocks made from them.  4 classes:  Clastic – Made from weathered rock fragments (clasts).  Biochemical – Cemented shells of organisms.  Organic – The carbon-rich remains of plants.  Chemical – Minerals that crystallize directly from water. Clastic Biochemical Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak Organic Chemical Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
  • 28. Clastic Sedimentary Rocks  Clastic sedimentary rocks reflect several processes.  Weathering – Generation of detritus via rock disintegration.  Erosion – Removal of sediment grains from rock.  Transportation – Dispersal by wind, water, and ice.  Deposition – Accumulation after transport stops.  Lithification – Transformation into solid rock. Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
  • 29. Clastic Sedimentary Rocks  Lithification – Transforms loose sediment into solid rock.  Burial – More sediment is added onto a previous layer.  Compaction – Overburden weight reduces pore space. Sand – 10-20% Clay – 50-80%  Cement – Minerals from groundwater that “glue” sediment. Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
  • 30. Clastic Sedimentary Rocks  Classified on the basis of texture and composition.  Clast (grain) size.  Clast composition.  Angularity and sphericity.  Sorting.  Character of cement.  These variables produce a diversity of clastic rocks. Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
  • 31. Clastic Sedimentary Rocks  Clast (grain) size – The average diameter of clasts.  Range from very coarse to very fine.  Boulder, cobble, pebble, and pea gravel.  Coarse, medium, and fine sand.  Coarse, medium, and fine silt.  Coarse and fine clay.  With increasing transport, average grain size decreases. Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
  • 32. Clastic Sedimentary Rocks  Clast composition – Mineral makeup of clasts.  May be individual minerals or rock fragments.  Mineral identity important. Stable end-products of weathering (quartz, Fe-oxides, clays). Unstable minerals signify special conditions (feldspars).  Composition helps to decipher depositional history. Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
  • 33. Clastic Sedimentary Rocks  Angularity and sphericity – Indicate degree of transport.  Fresh detritus is usually angular and non-spherical.  Grain roundness and sphericity increases with transport.  Well-rounded – Long transport distances.  Angular – Negligible transport. Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
  • 34. Clastic Sedimentary Rocks  Sorting – The uniformity of grain size.  Well-sorted – Uniform grain size.  Poorly sorted – Wide variety of grain sizes.  Sorting indicates the constancy of environmental energy.  Well-sorted – Uniform energy (i.e., a beach).  Poorly sorted – Variable energy (i.e., an alluvial fan). Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
  • 35. Clastic Sedimentary Rocks  Cement – Minerals that fill sediment pores.  Fluids with dissolved solids flush through pore system.  Dissolved ions slowly crystallize in (and fill) pores.  Cementation varies in degree.  Weakly cemented (friable) – Grains easily pulled from rock.  Strongly cemented (indurated) – Grains hard to dislodge.  Common cements:  Quartz  Calcite  Hematite  Clay minerals Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
  • 36. Clastic Sedimentary Rocks  Maturity – A measure of the degree of “processing.”  Textural maturity – Degree of roundness and sorting.  Mineral maturity – Degree of unstable mineral removal.  Time and transport causes sediment evolution.  Texture - Average grain size  ; roundness and sorting  .  Composition - Unstable minerals  ; Stable minerals  .  Maturity is used to reconstruct depositional conditions. Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
  • 37. Clastic Sedimentary Rocks  Coarse clastics - Composed of gravel-sized clasts.  Breccia – Comprised of angular clasts. Indicates lack of transport processing. Deposited close to source.  Conglomerate – Comprised of rounded clasts. Indicates processing by transport. Deposited away from source area. Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
  • 38. Biochemical and Organic Rocks  These are sediments derived from living organisms.  Biochemical limestone – Made from CaCO3 shell remains.  Carbonate grains accumulate in the “carbonate factory.” Warm (tropical and subtropical). Normal-salinity marine water. Wave-agitated. Oxygenated. Shallow. Clear. Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
  • 39. Biochemical and Organic Rocks  Organic rocks – Made from organic carbon.  Coal – Altered remains of fossil vegetation. Accumulates in lush tropical wetland settings. Requires deposition in the absence of oxygen.  Oil shale – Shale with heat-altered organic matter. Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
  • 40. Chemical Sedimentary Rocks  Comprised of minerals precipitated from water solution.  Evaporites – Created from evaporated seawater.  Evaporation triggers deposition of chemical precipitates.  Examples include halite (rock salt) and gypsum. Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
  • 41. Sedimentary Structures  Sedimentary rocks are usually layered or “stratified.”  Arranged in planar, horizontal “beds.”  Bedding is often laterally continuous for long distances.  Beds are often similar in composition, color, and texture. Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
  • 42. Sedimentary Structures  Bedding caused by changing conditions during deposition.  These can be changes in…  Energy conditions, and hence, grain size.  Disturbance by organisms.  Bedding may also reflect non-deposition or erosion. Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
  • 43. Sedimentary Structures  A series of beds are referred to as strata.  A sequence of strata that is sufficiently unique to be recognized on a regional scale is termed a formation.  The formation is the fundamental geologic mapping unit. Example: Note how the prominent white cliff-forming band of the Coconino Formation can be visibly traced across Grand Canyon. Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
  • 44. Sedimentary Structures  Water flowing over loose sediment creates bedforms.  Bedforms are linked to flow velocity and sediment size.  Ripples, cm-scale ridges, and troughs indicate flow. Asymmetric ripples – Unidirectional flow. Symmetric ripples – Wave oscillation. Ripples are commonly preserved in sedimentary rocks. Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
  • 45. Bedforms  Dunes – Similar to ripples except much larger.  Cross-bedding – Created by ripple and dune migration.  Sediment moves up the gentle side of a ripple or dune.  Sediment piles up, then slips down the steep face. The slip face continually moves downstream. Added sediment forms sloping “cross-bedded” layers. Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
  • 46. Bedforms  Graded Beds – Bedding layers that fine upward.  Transition from coarse to medium to fine grain sizes. Base of coarse sand and gravel. Mid-level sands. A fine silt and clay cap. Abrupt contact with overlying coarse base. Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
  • 47. Depositional Environments  Locations where sediment accumulates. They differ in…  Energy regime (mostly comes from the sun; gravitational and chemical potential energy)  Sediment delivery, transport and depositional conditions.  Chemical, physical and biological characteristics.  Environments range from continental to marine. Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
  • 48. Depositional Environments  Terrestrial environments – Deposited above sea level.  Glacial – Due to movement of ice. Ice carries and dumps every grain size. Creates glacial till; poorly sorted gravel, sand, silt, and clay. Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
  • 49. Depositional Environments  Terrestrial environments.  Mountain streams. Water carries large clasts during floods. During low flow, boulders are immobile. Course conglomerate is characteristic. Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
  • 50. Depositional Environments  Terrestrial environments.  Alluvial fan - Sediments that pile up at a mountain front. Rapid drop in stream velocity creates a cone-shaped wedge. Sediments are immature conglomerates and arkoses. Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
  • 51. Depositional Environments  Terrestrial environments.  Rivers – Channelized flow transports sediment. Sand and gravel fills concave-up channels. Fine sand, silt, and clay is deposited on flood plains. Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
  • 52. Depositional Environments  Marine environments – Deposited at or below sea-level.  Deltas – Sediments dropped where a river enters the sea. River flow halts at the ocean. Sediment carried by the river is dumped when velocity drops. Deltas grow over time, building out into the basin. Often develop a topset – foreset – bottomset geometry. Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
  • 53. Depositional Environments  Marine environments.  Shallow marine – Finer version of beach sediment. Fine silts and muds. Biologically active. Siltstone and mudstone. Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
  • 54. Depositional Environments  Marine environments.  Shallow water carbonates – Tropical. Skeletons of marine invertebrates. Born in the carbonate factory. Warm, clear, shallow, normal salinity marine water. Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
  • 55. Depositional Environments  Marine environments.  Deep marine – Fines predominate far from land sources. Skeletons of planktonic organisms make chalk or chert. Fine silts and clays turn to shale. Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
  • 56. Sedimentary Basins  Sediments vary in thickness across Earth’s surface.  Thin to a zero edge where non-sedimentary rocks outcrop.  Thicken to 10 to 20+ km where the surface has subsided.  Subsidence – Sinking of the land during sedimentation.  Due to crustal flexure and faulting.  Compounded by the weight of added sediments.  Basins are important locations for natural resources.  Coal  Petroleum  Natural gas  Uranium Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
  • 57. Sedimentary Basins  Basins form where tectonic activity creates space.  Rift basins – Divergent (pull-apart) plate boundaries. Crust thins by stretching and rotational normal faulting. Thinned crust subsides. Sediment fills the down-dropped basin. Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
  • 58. Sedimentary Basins  Basins form where tectonic activity creates space.  Passive margins – Non-plate boundary continental edge. Underlain by crust thinned by previous rifting. Thinned crust subsides as it cools. Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
  • 59. Diagenesis  Physical, chemical, and biological changes to sediment.  Bioturbation (The stirring or mixing of sediment or soil by organisms)  Lithification.  Dissolution.  Mineral precipitation.  Pressure solution.  Temp range between burial and metamorphism (~300oC).  Integrates changes across the entire sediment history. Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks
  • 60. This concludes the Chapter 7 A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils, and Sedimentary Rocks LECTURE OUTLINE earth Portrait of a Planet Third Edition ©2008 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak Chapter 7: A Surface Veneer: Sediments, Soils and Sedimentary Rocks