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112 Nanomed J, Vol. 1, No. 2, Winter 2014
Received: Jun. 26, 2013; Accepted: Jul. 29, 2013
Vol. 1, No. 2, Winter 2014, page 112-120
Received: Apr. 22, 2014; Accepted: Jul. 12, 2014
Vol. 1, No. 5, Autumn 2014, page 298-301
Online ISSN 2322-5904
http://nmj.mums.ac.ir
Original Research
In vitro transdermal delivery of propranolol hydrochloride through rat
skin from various niosomal formulations
Eskandar Moghimipour1,2
, Anayatollah Salimi1,2*
, Hassan Dagheri2
1
Nanotechnology Research Center, Jundishapur University of Medical Sciences, Ahvaz, Iran
2
Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, Jundishapur University of Medical Sciences, Ahvaz, Iran
Abstract
Objective(s): The purpose of the present study was to prepare and to evaluate a novel niosome as
transdermal drug delivery system for propranolol hydrochloride and to compare the in vitro efficiency
of niosome by either thin film hydration or hand shaking method.
Materials and Methods: Niosomes were prepared by Thin Film Hydration (TFH) or Hand Shaking
(HS) method. Propranolol niosomes were prepared using different surfactants (span20, 80) ratios and
a constant cholesterol concentration. In vitro characterization of niosomes included microscopical
observation, size distribution, laser light scattering evaluation, stability of propranolol niosomes and
permeability of formulations in phosphate buffer (pH=7) through rat abdominal skin.
Results: The percentage of entrapment efficiency (%EE) increased with increase in surfactant
concentration in all formulations. Among them, F3 formulation (containing span80:cholesterol ratio
of 3:1) showed the highest entrapment efficiency (86.74±2.01%), Jss (6.33µg/cm2
.h) and permeability
coefficient (7.02 × 10−3
cm/h). By increasing the percentage of entrapment efficiency (resulting in
increase in surfactant concentration), the drug released time is not prolonged. Among all the
formulations, F4 needed more time for maximum drug release. Among these formulations, F4 was
also found to have the maximum vesicle size as compared to other formulations. It was observed that
niosomal suspension prepared from span 80 was more stable than span 20.
Conclusion: This study demonstrates that niosomal formulations may offer a promise transdermal
delivery of propranolol which improves drug efficiency and can be used for controlled delivery of
propranolol.
Keywords: In vitro, Niosomes, Propranolol hydrochloride, Transdermal delivery
*Corresponding author: Anayatollah Salimi, Departement of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, Jundishapur
University of Medical Sciences, Ahvaz, Iran.
Tel: +98611-3738381, Email: anayatsalimi2003@yahoo.com
Niosomal formulation of propranolol for transdermal delivery
Nanomed J, Vol. 1, No. 2, Winter 2014 113
Introduction
Transdermal delivery has many
advantages over conventional methods of
drug administration, because it avoids
hepatic first‐pass metabolism, potentially
decreases side effects and improves patient
compliance. Propranolol, a beta-adrenergic
blocking agent used in the treatment of
hypertension, is reportedly subjected to an
extensive and highly variable hepatic first-
pass metabolism following oral
administration (1,3).
Controlled administration of propranolol
via transdermal delivery system could
improve its systemic bioavailability and
therapeutic efficacy by avoiding first-pass
effect, as well as decreasing the dosing
frequency required for treatment. This
study investigates the in vitro skin
permeation of propranolol delivery from
niosomal preparation.
Niosomal drug delivery has been studied
using various methods of administration
(3) including intramuscular (4),
intravenous (5), oral and transdermal (6,7).
In addition, as drug delivery systems,
niosomes have shown to enhance
absorption of some drugs across cell
membranes (8), localize drugs in targeted
organs (9) and tissues and elude the
reticuloendothelial system. Niosomes have
been used to encapsulate colchicines (10) ,
estradiol (11), tretinoin (12,13), dithranol
(14,15) enoxacin (16) and for application
such as anticancer, anti-tubercular, anti-
leishmanial, anti-inflammatory, hormonal
drugs and oral vaccine (4,5,8,17-22).
Niosomes are preferred over other
vesicular systems as they offer some
advantages (23, 24) as following: it
provides water-based vehicle suspension.
offering better patient compliance in
comparison with oily dosage forms. They
possess an infrastructure consisting of
hydrophilic, amphiphilic and lipophilic
moieties which can accommodate drug
molecules with a wide range of
solubilities. The characteristics of the
vesicle formulation are variable and
controllable. Altering vesicle composition,
size, lamellarity, tapped volume, surface
charge and concentration can control the
vesicle characteristics. The vesicles may
act as a depot, releasing the drug in a
controlled manner. Other advantage of
niosomes includes their osmotically active
and stable structures as well as their
tendency to increase the stability of
entrapped drug. Handling and storage of
surfactants requires no special conditions.
They improve oral bioavailability of
poorly absorbed drugs and enhance skin
penetration of drugs. They can be made to
reach the site of action by oral, parenteral
as well as topical routes. The surfactants
are biodegradable, biocompatible and non-
immunogenic. They improve the
therapeutic performance of the drug
molecules by delayed clearance from the
circulation, protecting the drug from
biological environment and restricting
effects to target cells. Niosomal dispersion
in an aqueous phase can be emulsified in a
non-aqueous phase to regulate the delivery
rate of drug and administer normal vesicle
in external non-aqueous phase.
Materials and Methods
Materials
Propranolol was purchased from Daro-
pakhsh Pharmaceuticals Company, Iran;
Spans (20, 80), cholesterol, diethyl ether
and methanol were obtained from Merck
Chemical Industries, Germany. All
chemicals and solvents were of analytical
grade.
Methods
Preparation of niosomes
Niosomes were prepared by thin film hyd-
ration method using different grades of
surfactants (span 20 & 80) and cholesterol
in constant ratio as the composition shown
in Table 1. The surfactants and cholesterol
were dissolved in diethyl ether and solvent
was then evaporated under reduced
pressure using rotary flash evaporator
(super fit rotary vacuum) at 150 rpm for 5-
10 min. This intermittent vortexing at
50°C results in deposition of thin layer of
solid mixture on the sides of the flask.
Moghimipour M, et al
114 Nanomed J, Vol. 1, No. 2, Winter 2014
Table 1. percentage drug Entrapment Efficiency
(%EE) of selected niosomal formulations (mean ± S.D,
n=3).
Then it was hydrated with aqueous phase
containing the drug (1 mg/ml) in 40 ml of
distilled water, vortexed and heated at 60-
70°C for 1 hour. The resulting
multilamellar vesicles were cooled in an
ice bath and sonicated by using probe type
Ultrasonicator (Elma, Germany) for 3 min
at 150V for preparing of unilamellar
vesicles of niosomes. These niosomal
vesicles are stored at 4°C in a refrigerator.
Plain niosomes, as control for each
formulation, were prepared without the
drug using the same procedure (25).
Entrapment efficiency percentage (%EE)
Percentage of entrapment efficiency was
determined by centrifuge method. A nioso-
mal suspension (15 ml) was centrifuged at
2000 rpm for 30 min at 4o
C.
The supernatant liquid was diluted with
phosphate buffer (pH=7) and was assayed
by UV spectrophotometry at 289 nm (26).
The percentage of drug encapsulation was
calculated by the following equation:
EE (%) = [(Ct - Cf)/Ct] × 100
Where Ct is the concentration of total drug
and Cf is the concentration of unentrapped
drug.
Stability of propranolol niosomes
The samples were stored at 4o
C and 25o
C
for 8 weeks and stability and drug content
per gram of all samples were determined
after 8 week (27).
Animal experiments
Male adult Albino Wistar rats (weighing
150-200 g and aged 10-12 weeks) were
obtained from Animals Laboratory, Ahvaz
Jundishapur University of Medical Scie-
nces. The hair on the abdominal skin was
removed with an electric clipper, taking
care not to damage the skin. The rats were
anaesthesized with ether prior to
sacrificing them. Abdominal full-thickness
skin was removed and any extraneous
subcutaneous fats cleaned from the dorsa
side using cooled acetone solution. Whole
skin thickness was measured using a
digital micrometer (AAOC, France).
Vesicle size determination
Mean size of niosomal formulations were
measured at 25o
C by photon correlation
spectroscopy, Scaterscop particle size
analyzer (Malvern-Korea( . Light
scattering was monitored at 25o
C at a
scattering angle of 90o
.
Scanning Electron Microscopy(SEM)
The prepared niosomes size and shape was
studied using SEM. The niosomes
prepared by thin film hydration method
were mounted on an aluminum stub with
double-sided adhesive carbon tape. The
vesicles were then sputter-coated with
silver using a vacuum evaporator and
examined with the scanning electron
microscope (LEO, VP 1455- Germany)
(Figure1).
In vitro skin permeation studies
In vitro skin permeation of propranolol
niosomes were studied using modified
vert-ical Franz-diffusion cells with an
effective diffusion area of approximately
3.46 cm2.
Full thickness Albino Wistar rat skin was
placed securely between donor and
receptor compartment with the epidermis
site facing the donor compartment.
The receptor com-partment was filled with
20 ml phosphate buffer (pH=7) solution
Formulation (%EE)
F1 77.05±1.22
F2 81.19±1.09
F3 86.74±2.01
F4 62.01±1.85
F5 66.85±1.66
F6 70.99±0.97
Niosomal formulation of propranolol for transdermal delivery
Nanomed J, Vol. 1, No. 2, Winter 2014 115
Figure 1. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)
photographs of F4 formulation.
which was continuously stirred with a
small magnetic bead at 300 rpm and
thermo stated at 37Co
± 1Co
throughout the
experiment.
After 16 hr equilibrium, 3 g of propranolol
niosomal were placed on to the skin
surface. At predetermined time intervals
(0.5, 1, 2, 3,……, 120 h) a 2 ml of sample
was withdrawn and replaced with an equal
volume of fresh phosphate buffer(pH=7)
solution to ensure sink conditions.
Statistical analysis
All data are expressed as mean ±SD. Stati-
stical comparison was made using one-
way ANOVA and p<0.05 was considered
statistically significant.
Results
Entrapment efficiency percentage (%EE)
The percentage of entrapment efficiency
of all formulations was found to be
in decreasing order of
F3>F2>F1>F6>F5>F4. EE (%) of different
formulations are shown in (Table1).
In niosomal formulations prepared using
sorbitan monoesters, span 80 showed the
maximum entrapment efficiency at 3:1
(surfactant:cholesterol) molar ratio.
Vesicle size determination
The vesicle size was found in the range of
3.1 µm to 35.35 µm as shown in Table 2.
The vesicle size of propranolol niosomal
formulation was found to be in decreasing
order of F4> F5> F6>F1> F2>F3. Among
these formulations, F4 was found to have
maximum vesicle size and F3 have
minimum vesicle size as compared to
other formulations.
Stability study
Stability studies were performed on F1 and
F4 niosomal formulations for a period of 8
weeks by subjecting them to aging at 4o
C.
Indirect relationship between the entrap-
ment efficiency of the drug in the vesicles
and aging was observed.
As the storage period increased, the degree
of entrapment efficiency decreased. It was
observed that formulations prepared by
span 80 were more stable than niosomes
prepared by span 20.
Also, niosomal suspensions were more
stable in 4o
C than 25o
C. The results are
shown in Table 3.
In vitro permeation studies
The results of in vitro skin permeation are
shown in Table 4.
Permeation profiles of propranolol
hydrochloride through the excised rat skin
from the niosomal formulations and
control is shown Figure 2.
The results showed in Figure (2) and
tabulated in Table (3) indicate that the
propranolol permeation through rat skin in
successfully controlled.
The results indicate that all noisome
formulations decreased the permeability
across rat skin compared with control.
While propranolol is released from the
water drug solution (control sample) and
permeated completely in less than 3
hrs, niosomal formulations were able to
delay the process up to 62.38 h.
Formulations F4 and F3 showed the
minimum and maximum JSS, respectively,
with a range of 3-6.33 µg/cm2
/h for all of
the formulations. The JSS values of all of
the formulations were significantly less
than that of control (p<0.05). The results
of permeability coefficient (P) showed the
maximum value of 7.02 × 10−3
cm/h and
a minimum of . 03 × 10−3
cm/h for F3 and
F4 samples, respectively.
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
0 50 100 150
CumulativePermeated
Amount(mgcm2)
Time(hr)
F1
F2
F3
Moghimipour M, et al
116 Nanomed J, Vol. 1, No. 2, Winter 2014
Table 2. Compositions of selected noisome formulations and particle size (mean±SD, n=3).
Them was a significant decrease in
permeability coefficient (P) for all of the
formulations when compared with control
(p<0.05), indicating their ability to control
drug permeation. There was also
a significant increase in TLag for different
formulations if compared with control
p<0.05), confirming their retarding
properties.
Discussion
Amongst many reported methods for the
preparation of niosomes, thin film
hydration method was selected since this
method was able to encapsulate
hydrophobic drug with higher entrapment
efficiency and smaller particle size. The
niosomal formulations with Tweens display
poor entrapment with lipophilic or
amphiphilic drugs whereas Spans give
higher entrapment with high stability.
This is due to the fact that hydrophilic
surfactants (such as Tweens) owing to
high aqueous solubility do not form
proper vesicular structure in aqueous
medium, whereas due to more lipophilic
nature, Spans form vesicles and entrap the
lipophilic drug or amphiphilic drugs.
Niosomes are composed of non-ionic sur-
factants which are biocompatible and rela-
tively non-toxic and themselves serve as
an excellent permeation enhancer (15).
In this study in order to assess the
influence of the drug carrier on the
diffusion of drug through skin, in vitro
permeation studies (Figure 2), using
stripped Albino Wistar rat skin and
vertical Franz diffusion cell was utilized.
In the present study transdermal controlled
permeability of propranolol hydrochloride
molecule (water-soluble and low
molecular weight (295.8 Da) drug was
studied. One of the mechanism by which
niosomes may contribute to transdermal
drug delivery may be described to the
fusion of vesicles on the surface of the
skin and hence enhanced skin permeation
(28, 29). Moreover, it has been proven that
niosomes enhance penetration and
retention of topically applied drug (30).
Niosomal propranolol formulations were
designed to control drug transdermal
permeation. The higher TLag of the
formulations, it is expected that they may
cause structural changes in skin layers and
hence affect the drug distribution in
different layers. The results also show that
Span 80, a surfactant with HLB of
4.3,has increased loading efficiency in
comparison to Span 20 (HLB=8.6). The
reason may be the ability of more
lipophilic surfactant (Span 80) which
results in enhanced solubility of
hydrophilic drug (propranolol) in lipid
phase. Practically, increase of surfactant-
lipid ratio has enhanced permeability rate
of niosomal formulations. The average
particle size of Span 80 formulations is
also less than that of Span 20 containing
samples. The minimum and maximum
mean particle size was obtained for F3 and
F4 formula, respectively, which is in
accordance with their release and
permeation results.
Formulations Surfectant Drug surfactant Cholesterol Particle Size(µm) Poly dispersity Index (PDI)
0.375±0.1416.51 ± 1.063 g3 g1mg/mlSurfactant 80F1
0.389±0.056.93 ± 2.153 g6 g1mg/mlF2
0.379±0.113.10 ± 1.083 g9 g1mg/mlF3
0.395±0.0835.96 ± 2.913 g3 g1mg/mlSurfactant 20F4
0.371±0.0730 ± 3.383 g6 g1mg/mlF5
0.383±0.02122.96 ± 2.593 g9 g1mg/mlF6
Niosomal formulation of propranolol for transdermal delivery
Nanomed J, Vol. 1, No. 2, Winter 2014 117
Table 3. Physical stability of niosomal formulations at room (25o
C) temperature and refrigerate (4o
C)
(Mean±SD, n=3).
Table 4. In Vitro permeability parameters for propranolol hydrochloride and control ( Mean±SD, n=3).
It can be suggested that along with
decrease in particle size, the surface area
of particles increase and subsequently
release and permeation increase. Figure 1
shows the SEM images of F4 niosomal
formulation.According to the results,
niosomal formulations caused a reservoir
effect for drug that lead to the drug
entrapment in niosomal composition and
also skin layers and therefore showed a
retardation effect. Other words, niosomes
have lowered diffusion coefficient (D) and
hence their P and JSS indices. Ruckmani et
al have also previously reported
retardation in cytarabine hydrochloride
release for niosomal formulations
containing sorbitan ester/cholesterol or
polyoxyethlene sorbitan esters/cholesterol
(20).
Comparing their results with our findings,
it could be suggested that high molar ratio
of cholesterol can significantly lower the
release rate of propranolol HCl.
Our findings are in accordance with Bisby
et al study that reported the effect of
cholesterol concentration on release of
calcein from niosomal formulations.
Their results showed that increasing
the cholesterol molar control content to
more than 5% was considerably decreased
the drug release (31). It is generally
accepted that higher surfactant ratio
increases hydrophilic drug solubility in
lipid phase, cholesterol, the drug affinity to
the vehicle, and therefore enhances their
entrapment efficacy. Another suggested
mechanism is lowering the size average of
particles, increasing the surface area and
hence enhancing their loading and
permeability properties (33). The results of
permeation study are evidences for such
mechanisms. There have been the most
rapid release and permeation for F3 which
had the minimum particle size and the
maximum loading index. On the contrary,
F4 that had the largest particle size and
minimum loading efficacy, showed a
considerable delay in drug release and
permeation. Also, due to relatively higher
lipophilicity of external skin layers, i.e.
Formulations Storage
Temperature
% Entrapment Efficiency
1st Day 3 weeks 8 weeks
F1 Room (250
C) 61.04± 0.057 57.35 ± 0.066 51.42 ± 0.017
F1 Refrigerator (40
C) 62.51± 0.023 61.49 ± 0.071 59.24 ± 0.013
F4 Room (250
C) 59.73±0.099 50.07 ± 0.072 46.86 ± 0.028
F4 Refrigerator (40
C) 60.27 ± 0.087 57.83 ± 0.068 54.98 ± 0.023
P(cm/h)D(cm2
.h-1
)TLag (hr)JSS(µg/cm2
.h)Formulations
5.94 × 10−3
± 0.0071.4 × 10−5
± 3.06 × 10−7
58.33 ± 0.14.34 ± 0.015F1
6.72 × 10−3
± 0.0031.45 × 10−5
± 9.87 × 10−7
56.16 ± 3.925.3 ± 0.011F2
7.02 × 10−3
± 0.0091.59 × 10−5
± 6.24 × 10−6
51.26 ± 2.026.33 ± 0.012F3
5.03 × 10−3
± 0.0011.31 × 10−5
± 1.21 × 10−6
62.38 ± 5.63 ± 0.001F4
5.9 × 10−3
± 0.0041.44 × 10−5
± 2.35 × 10−6
57.68 ± 9.63.660 ± 0.017F5
6.58 × 10−3
± 0.0051.6 × 10−5
± 1.14 × 10−6
51.14 ± 3.44.66 ± 0.01F6
0.02 ± 0.00362.91 × 10−4
± 8.69 × 10−53.01 ± 1.086.066 ± 0.009Control
Moghimipour M, et al
118 Nanomed J, Vol. 1, No. 2, Winter 2014
stratum corneum, more lipophilic vehicle
prepared from Span 80 have more readily
penetrated into the skin, interacted with
skin constituents followed by the release
of their drug content, a phenomenon
that may not be considered for Span 20
containing formulations.
Therefore, it may be concluded that
niosomal formulations of propranolol HCl
are able to reduce P and JSS coefficients by
decreasing diffusion coefficient.
The proposed mechanisms are the
reservoir effect and retention capacity of
niosomes.The effect is a concentration-
dependent phenomenon. In other words,
the more molar ratio of surfactant, the
higher diffusion coefficient followed by P
and JSS enhancement. The effect of
surfactants is due to disruption of lipid
bilayer in the stratum corneum (34).
Conclusions
Thin film hydration method used for the
preparation of propranolol niosomes was
found to be a proper technique to
encapsulate hydrophobic drug in non-ionic
surfactants. The non-ionic surfactant
prepared showed reasonable drug entrap-
ment, suitable size and good controlled
drug permeability. In this work, niosomes
were prepared by variable surfactant and
constant cholesterol concentrations. The
impact of surfactant and cholesterol in the
entrapment efficiency and release rate was
significant.
From this work, it is concluded that by
increasing surfactant concentration entrap-
ment efficiency increases. Among all the
formulations, F3 formulation (with span 80
& cholesterol ratio 3:1) showed highest
entrapment efficiency of 86.74±2.01%. It
was observed that niosomal formulation
prepared from span 80 was more stable
than that of span 20.
Also, all of the niosomal formulations
were more stable in refrigerator
temperature than room temperature.
Figure 2. Permeation profiles of propranolol
hydrochloride through the excised rat skin from the
niosomal formulations and control.
Acknowledgements
This paper is derived from the Pharm.D
thesis of one of the authors (Hassan
Dagheri).
Ahvaz Jundishapur University of Medical
Sciences is acknowledged for providing
financial support.
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8 nmj 1-2

  • 1. 112 Nanomed J, Vol. 1, No. 2, Winter 2014 Received: Jun. 26, 2013; Accepted: Jul. 29, 2013 Vol. 1, No. 2, Winter 2014, page 112-120 Received: Apr. 22, 2014; Accepted: Jul. 12, 2014 Vol. 1, No. 5, Autumn 2014, page 298-301 Online ISSN 2322-5904 http://nmj.mums.ac.ir Original Research In vitro transdermal delivery of propranolol hydrochloride through rat skin from various niosomal formulations Eskandar Moghimipour1,2 , Anayatollah Salimi1,2* , Hassan Dagheri2 1 Nanotechnology Research Center, Jundishapur University of Medical Sciences, Ahvaz, Iran 2 Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, Jundishapur University of Medical Sciences, Ahvaz, Iran Abstract Objective(s): The purpose of the present study was to prepare and to evaluate a novel niosome as transdermal drug delivery system for propranolol hydrochloride and to compare the in vitro efficiency of niosome by either thin film hydration or hand shaking method. Materials and Methods: Niosomes were prepared by Thin Film Hydration (TFH) or Hand Shaking (HS) method. Propranolol niosomes were prepared using different surfactants (span20, 80) ratios and a constant cholesterol concentration. In vitro characterization of niosomes included microscopical observation, size distribution, laser light scattering evaluation, stability of propranolol niosomes and permeability of formulations in phosphate buffer (pH=7) through rat abdominal skin. Results: The percentage of entrapment efficiency (%EE) increased with increase in surfactant concentration in all formulations. Among them, F3 formulation (containing span80:cholesterol ratio of 3:1) showed the highest entrapment efficiency (86.74±2.01%), Jss (6.33µg/cm2 .h) and permeability coefficient (7.02 × 10−3 cm/h). By increasing the percentage of entrapment efficiency (resulting in increase in surfactant concentration), the drug released time is not prolonged. Among all the formulations, F4 needed more time for maximum drug release. Among these formulations, F4 was also found to have the maximum vesicle size as compared to other formulations. It was observed that niosomal suspension prepared from span 80 was more stable than span 20. Conclusion: This study demonstrates that niosomal formulations may offer a promise transdermal delivery of propranolol which improves drug efficiency and can be used for controlled delivery of propranolol. Keywords: In vitro, Niosomes, Propranolol hydrochloride, Transdermal delivery *Corresponding author: Anayatollah Salimi, Departement of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, Jundishapur University of Medical Sciences, Ahvaz, Iran. Tel: +98611-3738381, Email: anayatsalimi2003@yahoo.com
  • 2. Niosomal formulation of propranolol for transdermal delivery Nanomed J, Vol. 1, No. 2, Winter 2014 113 Introduction Transdermal delivery has many advantages over conventional methods of drug administration, because it avoids hepatic first‐pass metabolism, potentially decreases side effects and improves patient compliance. Propranolol, a beta-adrenergic blocking agent used in the treatment of hypertension, is reportedly subjected to an extensive and highly variable hepatic first- pass metabolism following oral administration (1,3). Controlled administration of propranolol via transdermal delivery system could improve its systemic bioavailability and therapeutic efficacy by avoiding first-pass effect, as well as decreasing the dosing frequency required for treatment. This study investigates the in vitro skin permeation of propranolol delivery from niosomal preparation. Niosomal drug delivery has been studied using various methods of administration (3) including intramuscular (4), intravenous (5), oral and transdermal (6,7). In addition, as drug delivery systems, niosomes have shown to enhance absorption of some drugs across cell membranes (8), localize drugs in targeted organs (9) and tissues and elude the reticuloendothelial system. Niosomes have been used to encapsulate colchicines (10) , estradiol (11), tretinoin (12,13), dithranol (14,15) enoxacin (16) and for application such as anticancer, anti-tubercular, anti- leishmanial, anti-inflammatory, hormonal drugs and oral vaccine (4,5,8,17-22). Niosomes are preferred over other vesicular systems as they offer some advantages (23, 24) as following: it provides water-based vehicle suspension. offering better patient compliance in comparison with oily dosage forms. They possess an infrastructure consisting of hydrophilic, amphiphilic and lipophilic moieties which can accommodate drug molecules with a wide range of solubilities. The characteristics of the vesicle formulation are variable and controllable. Altering vesicle composition, size, lamellarity, tapped volume, surface charge and concentration can control the vesicle characteristics. The vesicles may act as a depot, releasing the drug in a controlled manner. Other advantage of niosomes includes their osmotically active and stable structures as well as their tendency to increase the stability of entrapped drug. Handling and storage of surfactants requires no special conditions. They improve oral bioavailability of poorly absorbed drugs and enhance skin penetration of drugs. They can be made to reach the site of action by oral, parenteral as well as topical routes. The surfactants are biodegradable, biocompatible and non- immunogenic. They improve the therapeutic performance of the drug molecules by delayed clearance from the circulation, protecting the drug from biological environment and restricting effects to target cells. Niosomal dispersion in an aqueous phase can be emulsified in a non-aqueous phase to regulate the delivery rate of drug and administer normal vesicle in external non-aqueous phase. Materials and Methods Materials Propranolol was purchased from Daro- pakhsh Pharmaceuticals Company, Iran; Spans (20, 80), cholesterol, diethyl ether and methanol were obtained from Merck Chemical Industries, Germany. All chemicals and solvents were of analytical grade. Methods Preparation of niosomes Niosomes were prepared by thin film hyd- ration method using different grades of surfactants (span 20 & 80) and cholesterol in constant ratio as the composition shown in Table 1. The surfactants and cholesterol were dissolved in diethyl ether and solvent was then evaporated under reduced pressure using rotary flash evaporator (super fit rotary vacuum) at 150 rpm for 5- 10 min. This intermittent vortexing at 50°C results in deposition of thin layer of solid mixture on the sides of the flask.
  • 3. Moghimipour M, et al 114 Nanomed J, Vol. 1, No. 2, Winter 2014 Table 1. percentage drug Entrapment Efficiency (%EE) of selected niosomal formulations (mean ± S.D, n=3). Then it was hydrated with aqueous phase containing the drug (1 mg/ml) in 40 ml of distilled water, vortexed and heated at 60- 70°C for 1 hour. The resulting multilamellar vesicles were cooled in an ice bath and sonicated by using probe type Ultrasonicator (Elma, Germany) for 3 min at 150V for preparing of unilamellar vesicles of niosomes. These niosomal vesicles are stored at 4°C in a refrigerator. Plain niosomes, as control for each formulation, were prepared without the drug using the same procedure (25). Entrapment efficiency percentage (%EE) Percentage of entrapment efficiency was determined by centrifuge method. A nioso- mal suspension (15 ml) was centrifuged at 2000 rpm for 30 min at 4o C. The supernatant liquid was diluted with phosphate buffer (pH=7) and was assayed by UV spectrophotometry at 289 nm (26). The percentage of drug encapsulation was calculated by the following equation: EE (%) = [(Ct - Cf)/Ct] × 100 Where Ct is the concentration of total drug and Cf is the concentration of unentrapped drug. Stability of propranolol niosomes The samples were stored at 4o C and 25o C for 8 weeks and stability and drug content per gram of all samples were determined after 8 week (27). Animal experiments Male adult Albino Wistar rats (weighing 150-200 g and aged 10-12 weeks) were obtained from Animals Laboratory, Ahvaz Jundishapur University of Medical Scie- nces. The hair on the abdominal skin was removed with an electric clipper, taking care not to damage the skin. The rats were anaesthesized with ether prior to sacrificing them. Abdominal full-thickness skin was removed and any extraneous subcutaneous fats cleaned from the dorsa side using cooled acetone solution. Whole skin thickness was measured using a digital micrometer (AAOC, France). Vesicle size determination Mean size of niosomal formulations were measured at 25o C by photon correlation spectroscopy, Scaterscop particle size analyzer (Malvern-Korea( . Light scattering was monitored at 25o C at a scattering angle of 90o . Scanning Electron Microscopy(SEM) The prepared niosomes size and shape was studied using SEM. The niosomes prepared by thin film hydration method were mounted on an aluminum stub with double-sided adhesive carbon tape. The vesicles were then sputter-coated with silver using a vacuum evaporator and examined with the scanning electron microscope (LEO, VP 1455- Germany) (Figure1). In vitro skin permeation studies In vitro skin permeation of propranolol niosomes were studied using modified vert-ical Franz-diffusion cells with an effective diffusion area of approximately 3.46 cm2. Full thickness Albino Wistar rat skin was placed securely between donor and receptor compartment with the epidermis site facing the donor compartment. The receptor com-partment was filled with 20 ml phosphate buffer (pH=7) solution Formulation (%EE) F1 77.05±1.22 F2 81.19±1.09 F3 86.74±2.01 F4 62.01±1.85 F5 66.85±1.66 F6 70.99±0.97
  • 4. Niosomal formulation of propranolol for transdermal delivery Nanomed J, Vol. 1, No. 2, Winter 2014 115 Figure 1. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) photographs of F4 formulation. which was continuously stirred with a small magnetic bead at 300 rpm and thermo stated at 37Co ± 1Co throughout the experiment. After 16 hr equilibrium, 3 g of propranolol niosomal were placed on to the skin surface. At predetermined time intervals (0.5, 1, 2, 3,……, 120 h) a 2 ml of sample was withdrawn and replaced with an equal volume of fresh phosphate buffer(pH=7) solution to ensure sink conditions. Statistical analysis All data are expressed as mean ±SD. Stati- stical comparison was made using one- way ANOVA and p<0.05 was considered statistically significant. Results Entrapment efficiency percentage (%EE) The percentage of entrapment efficiency of all formulations was found to be in decreasing order of F3>F2>F1>F6>F5>F4. EE (%) of different formulations are shown in (Table1). In niosomal formulations prepared using sorbitan monoesters, span 80 showed the maximum entrapment efficiency at 3:1 (surfactant:cholesterol) molar ratio. Vesicle size determination The vesicle size was found in the range of 3.1 µm to 35.35 µm as shown in Table 2. The vesicle size of propranolol niosomal formulation was found to be in decreasing order of F4> F5> F6>F1> F2>F3. Among these formulations, F4 was found to have maximum vesicle size and F3 have minimum vesicle size as compared to other formulations. Stability study Stability studies were performed on F1 and F4 niosomal formulations for a period of 8 weeks by subjecting them to aging at 4o C. Indirect relationship between the entrap- ment efficiency of the drug in the vesicles and aging was observed. As the storage period increased, the degree of entrapment efficiency decreased. It was observed that formulations prepared by span 80 were more stable than niosomes prepared by span 20. Also, niosomal suspensions were more stable in 4o C than 25o C. The results are shown in Table 3. In vitro permeation studies The results of in vitro skin permeation are shown in Table 4. Permeation profiles of propranolol hydrochloride through the excised rat skin from the niosomal formulations and control is shown Figure 2. The results showed in Figure (2) and tabulated in Table (3) indicate that the propranolol permeation through rat skin in successfully controlled. The results indicate that all noisome formulations decreased the permeability across rat skin compared with control. While propranolol is released from the water drug solution (control sample) and permeated completely in less than 3 hrs, niosomal formulations were able to delay the process up to 62.38 h. Formulations F4 and F3 showed the minimum and maximum JSS, respectively, with a range of 3-6.33 µg/cm2 /h for all of the formulations. The JSS values of all of the formulations were significantly less than that of control (p<0.05). The results of permeability coefficient (P) showed the maximum value of 7.02 × 10−3 cm/h and a minimum of . 03 × 10−3 cm/h for F3 and F4 samples, respectively. 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 50 100 150 CumulativePermeated Amount(mgcm2) Time(hr) F1 F2 F3
  • 5. Moghimipour M, et al 116 Nanomed J, Vol. 1, No. 2, Winter 2014 Table 2. Compositions of selected noisome formulations and particle size (mean±SD, n=3). Them was a significant decrease in permeability coefficient (P) for all of the formulations when compared with control (p<0.05), indicating their ability to control drug permeation. There was also a significant increase in TLag for different formulations if compared with control p<0.05), confirming their retarding properties. Discussion Amongst many reported methods for the preparation of niosomes, thin film hydration method was selected since this method was able to encapsulate hydrophobic drug with higher entrapment efficiency and smaller particle size. The niosomal formulations with Tweens display poor entrapment with lipophilic or amphiphilic drugs whereas Spans give higher entrapment with high stability. This is due to the fact that hydrophilic surfactants (such as Tweens) owing to high aqueous solubility do not form proper vesicular structure in aqueous medium, whereas due to more lipophilic nature, Spans form vesicles and entrap the lipophilic drug or amphiphilic drugs. Niosomes are composed of non-ionic sur- factants which are biocompatible and rela- tively non-toxic and themselves serve as an excellent permeation enhancer (15). In this study in order to assess the influence of the drug carrier on the diffusion of drug through skin, in vitro permeation studies (Figure 2), using stripped Albino Wistar rat skin and vertical Franz diffusion cell was utilized. In the present study transdermal controlled permeability of propranolol hydrochloride molecule (water-soluble and low molecular weight (295.8 Da) drug was studied. One of the mechanism by which niosomes may contribute to transdermal drug delivery may be described to the fusion of vesicles on the surface of the skin and hence enhanced skin permeation (28, 29). Moreover, it has been proven that niosomes enhance penetration and retention of topically applied drug (30). Niosomal propranolol formulations were designed to control drug transdermal permeation. The higher TLag of the formulations, it is expected that they may cause structural changes in skin layers and hence affect the drug distribution in different layers. The results also show that Span 80, a surfactant with HLB of 4.3,has increased loading efficiency in comparison to Span 20 (HLB=8.6). The reason may be the ability of more lipophilic surfactant (Span 80) which results in enhanced solubility of hydrophilic drug (propranolol) in lipid phase. Practically, increase of surfactant- lipid ratio has enhanced permeability rate of niosomal formulations. The average particle size of Span 80 formulations is also less than that of Span 20 containing samples. The minimum and maximum mean particle size was obtained for F3 and F4 formula, respectively, which is in accordance with their release and permeation results. Formulations Surfectant Drug surfactant Cholesterol Particle Size(µm) Poly dispersity Index (PDI) 0.375±0.1416.51 ± 1.063 g3 g1mg/mlSurfactant 80F1 0.389±0.056.93 ± 2.153 g6 g1mg/mlF2 0.379±0.113.10 ± 1.083 g9 g1mg/mlF3 0.395±0.0835.96 ± 2.913 g3 g1mg/mlSurfactant 20F4 0.371±0.0730 ± 3.383 g6 g1mg/mlF5 0.383±0.02122.96 ± 2.593 g9 g1mg/mlF6
  • 6. Niosomal formulation of propranolol for transdermal delivery Nanomed J, Vol. 1, No. 2, Winter 2014 117 Table 3. Physical stability of niosomal formulations at room (25o C) temperature and refrigerate (4o C) (Mean±SD, n=3). Table 4. In Vitro permeability parameters for propranolol hydrochloride and control ( Mean±SD, n=3). It can be suggested that along with decrease in particle size, the surface area of particles increase and subsequently release and permeation increase. Figure 1 shows the SEM images of F4 niosomal formulation.According to the results, niosomal formulations caused a reservoir effect for drug that lead to the drug entrapment in niosomal composition and also skin layers and therefore showed a retardation effect. Other words, niosomes have lowered diffusion coefficient (D) and hence their P and JSS indices. Ruckmani et al have also previously reported retardation in cytarabine hydrochloride release for niosomal formulations containing sorbitan ester/cholesterol or polyoxyethlene sorbitan esters/cholesterol (20). Comparing their results with our findings, it could be suggested that high molar ratio of cholesterol can significantly lower the release rate of propranolol HCl. Our findings are in accordance with Bisby et al study that reported the effect of cholesterol concentration on release of calcein from niosomal formulations. Their results showed that increasing the cholesterol molar control content to more than 5% was considerably decreased the drug release (31). It is generally accepted that higher surfactant ratio increases hydrophilic drug solubility in lipid phase, cholesterol, the drug affinity to the vehicle, and therefore enhances their entrapment efficacy. Another suggested mechanism is lowering the size average of particles, increasing the surface area and hence enhancing their loading and permeability properties (33). The results of permeation study are evidences for such mechanisms. There have been the most rapid release and permeation for F3 which had the minimum particle size and the maximum loading index. On the contrary, F4 that had the largest particle size and minimum loading efficacy, showed a considerable delay in drug release and permeation. Also, due to relatively higher lipophilicity of external skin layers, i.e. Formulations Storage Temperature % Entrapment Efficiency 1st Day 3 weeks 8 weeks F1 Room (250 C) 61.04± 0.057 57.35 ± 0.066 51.42 ± 0.017 F1 Refrigerator (40 C) 62.51± 0.023 61.49 ± 0.071 59.24 ± 0.013 F4 Room (250 C) 59.73±0.099 50.07 ± 0.072 46.86 ± 0.028 F4 Refrigerator (40 C) 60.27 ± 0.087 57.83 ± 0.068 54.98 ± 0.023 P(cm/h)D(cm2 .h-1 )TLag (hr)JSS(µg/cm2 .h)Formulations 5.94 × 10−3 ± 0.0071.4 × 10−5 ± 3.06 × 10−7 58.33 ± 0.14.34 ± 0.015F1 6.72 × 10−3 ± 0.0031.45 × 10−5 ± 9.87 × 10−7 56.16 ± 3.925.3 ± 0.011F2 7.02 × 10−3 ± 0.0091.59 × 10−5 ± 6.24 × 10−6 51.26 ± 2.026.33 ± 0.012F3 5.03 × 10−3 ± 0.0011.31 × 10−5 ± 1.21 × 10−6 62.38 ± 5.63 ± 0.001F4 5.9 × 10−3 ± 0.0041.44 × 10−5 ± 2.35 × 10−6 57.68 ± 9.63.660 ± 0.017F5 6.58 × 10−3 ± 0.0051.6 × 10−5 ± 1.14 × 10−6 51.14 ± 3.44.66 ± 0.01F6 0.02 ± 0.00362.91 × 10−4 ± 8.69 × 10−53.01 ± 1.086.066 ± 0.009Control
  • 7. Moghimipour M, et al 118 Nanomed J, Vol. 1, No. 2, Winter 2014 stratum corneum, more lipophilic vehicle prepared from Span 80 have more readily penetrated into the skin, interacted with skin constituents followed by the release of their drug content, a phenomenon that may not be considered for Span 20 containing formulations. Therefore, it may be concluded that niosomal formulations of propranolol HCl are able to reduce P and JSS coefficients by decreasing diffusion coefficient. The proposed mechanisms are the reservoir effect and retention capacity of niosomes.The effect is a concentration- dependent phenomenon. In other words, the more molar ratio of surfactant, the higher diffusion coefficient followed by P and JSS enhancement. The effect of surfactants is due to disruption of lipid bilayer in the stratum corneum (34). Conclusions Thin film hydration method used for the preparation of propranolol niosomes was found to be a proper technique to encapsulate hydrophobic drug in non-ionic surfactants. The non-ionic surfactant prepared showed reasonable drug entrap- ment, suitable size and good controlled drug permeability. In this work, niosomes were prepared by variable surfactant and constant cholesterol concentrations. The impact of surfactant and cholesterol in the entrapment efficiency and release rate was significant. From this work, it is concluded that by increasing surfactant concentration entrap- ment efficiency increases. Among all the formulations, F3 formulation (with span 80 & cholesterol ratio 3:1) showed highest entrapment efficiency of 86.74±2.01%. It was observed that niosomal formulation prepared from span 80 was more stable than that of span 20. Also, all of the niosomal formulations were more stable in refrigerator temperature than room temperature. Figure 2. Permeation profiles of propranolol hydrochloride through the excised rat skin from the niosomal formulations and control. Acknowledgements This paper is derived from the Pharm.D thesis of one of the authors (Hassan Dagheri). Ahvaz Jundishapur University of Medical Sciences is acknowledged for providing financial support. References 1. Midha K K, Roscoe R M, Wilson W, Cooper J K. Biopharm. Drug Dispos. 1983; 4: 331-338. 2. Walle T, Fagan T, Conrad E, Walle U K, Gafney T. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 1976; 26: 167-172. 3. Routlage P A, Shand D G. Clin. Pharmacokintic. 1979; 4:73-90.
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