1.
Challenges to Union
Ethnicity and National Identity in
Europe

2.
Key Terms
 State
 Nation
 Ethnic Group
 State-Nation
 Ethnic-Nation
Nation
Ethnie
State

3.
Ethnonationalism
 Territorial ethnic movements seeking
autonomy or independence
 peripheral to the union – OR –
 pro-Europe
 'Europe of the regions'
 No threat to EU

4.
'Europe of the nations'
 Different type of ethnicity and nationalism
 Pose a challenge to the EU
1. Dominant Nationhood
2. Ethnic minorities/immigrant minorities
3. Dominant ethnicity

5.
The EU: A cosmopolitan project
 Long idea of establishing a realm of 'universal' law
and governance in Europe
 Began with the 'European Idea' of reunifying the
continent under one church and one empire
 Collapse of Roman Empire and the rise of the
Reformation led to periodic attempts
 Sully, Podiebrad – seek comity among nations and
return to Latin-Christendom ideal

6.
Enlightenment Europeanism
 Penn, Diderot, Paine, St Simon and others
 Were cosmopolitan liberals
 Europeanism and cosmopolitanism linked
 Favoured Europeanism as a ticket to peace,
prosperity and Enlightenment
 St Simon claims in 1821 that Europeanism as a
sentiment already took precedence over nationalism
 St Simon sees Anglo-French hub as motor of Europe
 End to Papal and Roman dreams; harmony among
peoples rather than rulers

7.
The Evolution of the European
Idea
 Napoleon speaks of one European fatherland
 After Napoleonic Wars, St Simon's ideas influential
and popular. Influenced Lemonnier's Les Etats-
Unis d'Europe (1872)
 Revival of interest in St Simon after WWI
 Most schemes were federal, though some post-
WWI radicals rejected the nation outright
 Paneuropa (1923) and other organisations lobby
 Link between world unity and European unity,
between peace organisations and paneuropean
ones

8.
Diplomatic Pressure of
Paneuropean Groups
 Count Richard Coudenhove-Kalergi writes Pan-Europa (1923)
manifesto. Links to French politicians like Herriot, Loucheur,
Leger, Briand
 Edouard Herriot, 1925: 'My greatest wish is to see one day the
United States of Europe become a reality'
 First Pan-European Congress, 1926. Sponsored by Chancellor
Seipel of Austria
 Many Paneuropeans also strongly supported the League of
Nations
 Briand's Memorandum on a European Federal System (1930)
circulated to European statesmen

9.
EU structure
 Degree of centralisation varies by
function:
– A Federation (i.e. 'State') in monetary
affairs, agricultural, trade and
environmental policy. Also in legal-social
aspects and citizenship
– A Confederation in social and economic
policy, consumer protection, internal affairs
– An International Organisation in foreign
affairs

10.
Council of Europe's Cultural
Cosmopolitanism
 Developed European flag
with 12 golden stars
(1955)
 Established 5 May 1949
as Europe Day (1964)
 Anthem based on
Beethoven's Ode to Joy
(1972)
 Has 46 members today:
distinct from EU, but
complementary

11.
Three Types - Three Challenges
 Dominant Nationhood (civic nationalism)
 Ethnic minorities or Immigrant Minorities
 Dominant ethnicity (ethnic nationalism)

12.
Dominant Nationhood
 (civic nationalism)
 Fears loss of sovereignty,
 loss of economic policy
 Loss of political-legal efficacy and national
democracy
 Foreign policy identity depends on the
country

13.
France: Gaullist pro-
Europeanism
 Seeks to reclaim French cultural predominance of
18th-19th c
 Seeks to challenge Anglo-Saxon hegemony of
19th-20th c
 Sees Anglo-Saxon west as ‘other’
 De Gaulle positions France at the heart of a
Europe that includes Russia and is flanked by
Anglo-Saxon West and Chinese East
 1963 crisis over UK entry into EEC which De
Gaulle seeks to block UK entry

14.
German pro-European Idealism
 Nazi period discredits nationalism
 Cosmopolitan as opposed to Gaullist spirit
 Desire for influence and self-respect without
nationalism
 Less anti-Anglo-Saxon due to post-WWII
(witness different attitudes toward English
as language)
 More truly cosmopolitan than French pro-
Europeanism

15.
Smaller Nations: Benelux
 History of neutrality and fear of larger nations
 History of pooling sovereignty in alliances
 Only chance of agency is through a larger unit
 Identity is less significant in absence of larger
blocks
 Belgium and Luxembourg lack clear linguistic or
religious markers of nationhood unlike say
Germany or France

16.
Views of Unification (1995)

17.
Growing Cosmopolitanism in
Europe?
'Very Proud' of Country, Eurobarometer
(1983)
0%
20%
40%
60%
15-24 25-34 35-44 45-54 55-64 65+

18.
Growing Cosmopolitanism in
Europe…
'Very Proud' of Country,
1970 and mid-80s
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
L
u
x
e
m
b
o
u
r
g
I
t
a
l
y
F
r
a
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N
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a
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d
s
B
e
l
g
i
u
m
G
e
r
m
a
n
y
1970
1981-85

19.
Predictors of Lack of National Pride, 1982-2002
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
back EU
membrshp
year education level low or non-church
attender
z-score Growing Cosmopolitanism in
Europe…

20.
National Pride and Opinion of EU Membership,
1982-2002
70%
75%
80%
85%
90%
95%
1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1988 1994 1997 1999 2000 2001 2002
Pride in Nation
Membership Good or
Bad EU

21.
Do you feel national,
European or Both (2004)?

22.
Ethnic minorities/
immigrant minorities -
 Religious beliefs may challenge
Enlightenment beliefs
 EU identity diluted (i.e. 'from Tsar to
Sultan')
 Strengthens dominant ethnicity

23.
Immigrant Integration
 Different paths to integration
 In UK, second generation is doing much
better (esp. Hindu, Chinese)
 UK: Intermarriage more among Afro-Caribs
than Indo-Pakistani
 UK & Holland: Caribbean Christians &
'Indos' better integrated than Muslim ethnic
groups
 Evidence of racial segregation in friendships

24.
'Superdiversity'?: Inflow by
region UK 2001
Eastern Europe
West Africa
Other Africa
North America
Southern Africa
East Africa
other Asia
West Asia
South-East Asia
South-Central Asia
Central Americ
Caribbean
Middle Africa
North Africa
Other America
South America
North Europe
South Europe
West Europe
East Asia
Other Europe
Source: Home Office

25.
Newham (London) by country of birth, 2001
Iran
Cyprus
United Kingdom
USA
Canada
Poland
Non EU countries in Western Europe
EU Countries Republic of Ireland
Other Eastern Europe
North Africa
Central and Western Africa
Nigeria
Other Central and Western Africa
Kenya
South Africa
Zimbabwe
Other South and Eastern Africa
Other Middle East
China
Hong Kong
Japan
Malaysia
Singapore
Other Far East
Bangladesh
India
Pakistan
Jamaica
Other Caribbean
South America
Australia
New Zealand
Other
Other Oceania
Other South Asia

26.
Religious Retention by Faith and Birthplace, UK, 2001-3
(Excludes nonidentifiers. 'Practice' is self-description)
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
2001 2003
Attend Worship* Retain Religious Practice*
UK BPMuslims
Foreign BPMuslims
UK Afro Christians
Foreign Afro Christians
UK White Christians
Foreign White Christians
Religious Retention among Second
Generation Immigrant Stock in the UK

27.
Dominance: Ethnic, National, or
State?
 A group can be BOTH ethnic and
national (ie. Welsh in Wales)
 A group can be ethnic, national, and
possess its own state (ie. Japanese)
 Dominant Ethnic groups can dominant
states or sub-state nations (ie. Ethnic
Germans in Germany, Scots-Protestants
in Scotland, Jews in Israel)

28.
Dominant Ethnic Group
 Ethnic Community which possesses
political power in a given state
 2 types:
•Elite Minority (Tutsi, ‘WASP’, Gulf Arab)
•Majority Group (English in England,
Japanese in Japan)
 Most in Europe are dominant majorities
 Omission in Current Literature

29.
Dominant Ethnicity
 (mainly ethnic nationalism)
 Fear of internal migration
 Possible cultural fears (language, religion)
 Ethno-national congruence
 Friction with OSCE codes, multiculturalism
and EU human rights conventions
 Expressed as rise of the far right &
accommodation by centre-right parties

30.
Dominant Ethno-Nationalism
 Ethno-national
congruence
 Fear of immigration
 Possible cultural fears
(language, religion)
 Friction with OSCE
codes, multiculturalism
and EU human rights
conventions
 Expressed as rise of the
far right &
accommodation by
centre-right parties

31.
A Rising Force?
Far Right Share of Popular
Vote, c. 2000
0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
25%
30%
A
u
s
t
r
i
a
S
w
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l
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D
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N
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F
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F
r
a
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I
t
a
l
y
U
K
G
e
r
m
a
n
y

32.
The Role of Education & Age,
Germany
Support For Republikaner Party,
by Age & Education, Bavaria 1989
0%
2%
4%
6%
8%
10%
12%
18-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 60+
Low
Med
High

33.
The Far Right as a Worker's
Party?
 Anti-elitist, anti-political
class
 Claim that elite
consensus 'represses'
debate on immigration
 In virtually no European
country does main left-
wing party retain
majority support among
white male workers

34.
Dominant Ethno-Nationalism:
Theories
 Instrumentalist - dominant ethno-
nationalism is driven by immigrant
competition with natives for jobs
 Ethno-symbolist - perceived violation of
‘sacred,’ historicised ethnie-nation link is the
key
 ‘Constructivist’ (Psychological) - Rapid
change brings disorientation and a quest for
order among those affected by change

35.
Multiculturalism
 Kymlicka's Liberalism,
Community and Culture
(1989), followed by a
number of works in 1990s
 Taylor's Multiculturalism and
the Politics of Recognition
(1994)
 Inspired partly by
'multicultural' movement of
minorities for 'recognition' vis
a vis majority culture in
Canada
 Canadian multiculturalism
policy dates from 1971,
similar demands in US since
late 60s

36.
Typology of Multiculturalism
Multiculturalism
State Policy
Demographic
Fact
Ideology
Varieties of Multiculturalism
Polyethnicity Multinationality
Federalism
(Yugoslavia,
Switzerland)
Consociationalism
(Lebanon, Bosnia)
Integration
(UK, United States)
Cosmopolitan
Multiculturalism
Communitarian
Multiculturalism
Cultural Recognition
Political Empowerment
Socio-Economic Redistribution

37.
Cosmopolitan-multiculturalist vision
 Dominant ethnic groups lose identity and
members become cosmopolitan
individualists
 Ethnic minorities retain their identity and
provide consumer choice and 'colour'
 Bourne, c. 1916: WASPs 'breathe a larger
air', Jews 'stick to their faith'
 Contradiction: cosmopolitanism among
hosts, ethnicity among immigrants

38.
The New Cultural Cosmopolitanism
 European idea was mainly one of political
unity rather than cultural unity
 American idea had a much earlier emphasis
on melting (i.e. Crevecoeur's 'strange
mixture of races', c. 1782)
 But Europe has now adopted the cultural
cosmopolitanism once found only in America

39.
The EU and Cultural
Cosmopolitanism
 EU approach: Multiculturalism, Human
Rights, Border Control - in tension.
 Reflects tensions between cosmopolitan
and realpolitik/intergovernmental spheres
 Multiculturalism and human rights reflects
cosmopolitan side

40.
Cosmopolitanism for Majorities
 All become consumers and world citizens
 Weak identities, apart from European
project, lifestyle and egalitarian-liberalism
 Identity forged vs USA. Defined by liberal
egalitarianism, i.e. 'European Dream'
(Rifkin)
 Hope given by rise in university education,
generational replacement
 Effect shown in social surveys

41.
The Reaction to Multiculturalism
 Dominant ethnic nationalists resist all forms
of multiculturalism
 Surveys show that anti-immigration and anti-
EU attitudes are linked
 Even those who are willing to accept
immigrants are afraid of threat to secular
culture, language and civic-national identity
 A majority of most electorates

42.
90s Intellectual Opposition
 Individualist Liberals (i.e. Brian Barry, Michael
Ignatieff)
 Civic Nationalists (David Miller, David
Goodhart, New Labour, Francis Fukuyama,
etc)
 'Civic Nationalist' Critiques:
– Hinders welfare state
– Reduces civic trust and political participation
– Decline in common values and national identity
– Increased ethnic conflict
 Ethnic Nationalists: threat to survival of
dominant ethnic groups, 'reverse
discrimination'

43.
Multiculturalism in Retreat
 Multiculturalism in retreat in the US and
Australia in the 1990s
 Changes in France, Holland, and elsewhere in
Europe (partly linked to challenge from far
right) since 1990s
 Change in Britain (criticism of Parekh report;
Trevor Phillips of CRE) in 2000-2004 (linked to
9/11)

44.
The Return of Assimilation
 An attempt to navigate between ethnic nationalism
and multiculturalism
 Ethnic conflict prompts increased call for national
unity in the face of diversity (i.e. Germany,
Holland, UK, France)
 Hopes are for integration into nations, reducing
inter-ethnic conflict
 Shift from multiculturalism to integration. Even a
return of assimilation/republicanism and civic
nationalism

45.
Civic or Liberal Nationalism
 From Kohn (1944) to Miller (1995) and Tamir
(1993)
 Civic nationalism will reinforce resistance to EU as
nations become more 'American'
 Will not assuage anxieties of dominant group
 Minorities must organically come to feel
attachment to the nation, cannot be cajoled out of
old identities
 Civic identities must be universal and thin, difficult
to compete with ethnic traditions

46.
Dominant groups will not go away,
Minorities may not assimilate
 Dominant groups may reject newcomers entirely
 Assimilation a long-term process. European and
US examples
 May not be fast enough to absorb immigrants or
respond to demographic crisis
 Real key is at the level of the dominant ethnic
group, and its ability to assimilate
 Ethnic groups should not be rigid, but retain their
cores and engage in assimilation

47.
Liberal Ethnicity (Kaufmann 2000)
 Recognition of both minority and dominant
ethnic groups
 Devolves task of assimilation to ethnic
groups
 Longer-term view
 Ethnic cores remain relatively fixed, but
boundaries can absorb newcomers
 No coercive state-nationalism from above

48.
A Europe of Liberal Nations
 Need to consider better guarantees of
ontological security: including limits on
migration between member states
 EU as Europe of nations, pooling many
functions
 Recognition of both dominant and minority
ethnic groups
 May in time lead to closer political
integration

49.
Summary
 EU as cosmopolitan movement
 Three forms of ethnic and nationalist
resistance to EU
 Multiculturalism and 'Europe of the regions'
idea are inspired by cosmopolitanism
 Will not succeed with electorates
 Integration, liberal ethnicity and 'Europe of
the nations' more promising