1. THE SOCIAL SHAPING OF
EUROPEAN DIGITAL RADIO
Master Thesis Project (M.Sc.) in Media Management
School for Computer Science and Communication
Royal Institute of Technology
Stockholm, Sweden
Matteo Campostrini
Supervisor: Prof. Nina Wormbs
Examiner: Prof. Haibo Li

2. WHY?

3. Radio Broadcasting
a hundred years
and still young!

4. Radio Broadcasting
free at the point of use
equality and democracy

5. RESEARCH
QUESTIONS

6. RESEARCH QUESTIONS
Main research question:
What are the affordances of
digital radio standards in Europe in 2015,
exemplified by DAB/DAB+, DRM and IP/Internet?
Sub-questions:
What implementation and development lines have been negotiated in Europe?
What discourses around the different standards can be discerned?

7. THEORETICAL
FRAMEWORK

8. THE SOCIAL SHAPING OF
TECHNOLOGY
• Technologies are socially and historically contingent in their implementation
and design
• Technologies are determined among the possible technical options as a result of
a selection process, which does not entails purely technical factors, but
social considerations influence the content of technologies.
• Technology does not emerge from the influence of a single dominant logic or
determinant, but its development trajectories are manifold, leading to
potentially different outcomes.
• In their diversity the final technologies have different implications for society
and more importantly for different social groups belonging to it.

9. –Williams, R. and Edge, D. (1996).
“Technology does not develop according to an inner
technical logic, but is instead a social product, patterned
by the conditions of its creation and use”

10. THE SOCIAL SHAPING OF
TECHNOLOGY
shape the technology
towards their ends
bargaining power
faceted set of
possible outcomes
Negotiability

11. THE SOCIAL SHAPING OF
TECHNOLOGY
achievement of a
consensus by
different groups
increasing
stabilization
different closure
types
Closure

12. SCOT
THE SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF TECHNOLOGY
Interpretative
Flexibility
“points in which
ambiguities are present”
different parallel
development trajectories
“Why some
technical options
prevailed over
the others?”

13. SCOT
THE SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF TECHNOLOGY
“Outwards analysis”:
From the technology to
the selection environment
The aim is to relate the content and
interpretations of a technology to a complex
socio-economic and political context

14. THE CONCEPT OF
AFFORDANCES
• Affordances are links between perception and
action upon attributes of an artefact
• Affordances are subordinated to their perception
• Affordances are perceived differently according
to culture, social environment, experiences,
expectations and intentions of the perceiver

15. AN EXAMPLE OF
AFFORDANCES
“Affordances point to the interaction between object and actor,
hence they refer both to the object’s and actor’s attributes”
HORIZONTAL
PLATE
HANDLES
afford pushing
VERTICAL
BAR
HANDLES
afford pulling

16. SCOT AS METHODOLOGY
1. Selection of the competing technologies
2. Selection of the social groups for which there is a relevant “problem” or
contingent issue
3. Selection of sub-groups with specific requirements
4. Examination of the conflicting technical requirements, conflicting solutions and
other conflicts highlighting interpretative flexibility
5. Examination of the stabilization process: arguments brought by different social
groups in support of their solutions
6. Examination of solutions that achieve closure.

17. ANALYSIS

18. SOCIAL
GROUPS

19. SOCIAL GROUPS
ENGAGED INTHE SOCIAL SHAPING OF
DIGITAL RADIO
Broadcasters
Electronics
Manufacturers
Digital Radio
Industry
Regulators Public

20. SOCIAL GROUPS
ENGAGED INTHE SOCIAL SHAPING OF
DIGITAL RADIO
Independent
Broadcasters
Broadcasters
Commercial
Broadcasters
Public Service
Broadcasters
Electronics
Manufacturers
Digital Radio
Industry
Regulators Public

21. COMPETING
TECHNOLOGIES

22. DAB/DAB+
• Created by EBU members, PSBs and Electronics Manufacturers (Bosch, Siemens,
Telefunken, Philips,Thomson etc.)
• Created to afford nation-wide coverage, low local flexibility
• Spectrum efficient and higher audio quality thanks to multiplex channelization
• Multiplex: 16 channels in 1536kHz bandwidth
• Single Frequency Network (SFN)
• Multimedia
• Conditional Access
• Operates inVHF band III and UHF L-band

23. DRM
• Created by commercial broadcasters to specifically digitalize bands below 30MHz (AM)
• Created to afford both large nation-wide areas coverage and local flexibility
• Spectrum efficient and higher audio quality thanks to multiplex channelization
• Mini-Multiplex: 1-3 channels in 96kHz
• Single Frequency Network (SFN)
• Multimedia
• Conditional Access
• Reuses part of existing analogue transmission facilities
• DRM (with DRM+) covers the whole radio spectrum

24. RADIOVIA IP
• Webcasting, Podcasting,Audio Streaming Services
• Convergence
• On-Demand
• Global distribution for every station
• Broadens (and sometimes confuses) the traditional idea of radio
***Used to benchmark the state of art of digital radio standards***

25. INTERPRETATIVE
FLEXIBILITY

26. ANALYSIS OF 5 COUNTRIES

27. INTERPRETATIVE FLEXIBILITY:
DISCOURSES AROUND DIGITAL RADIO
AFFORDANCES
Higher
Spectrum
Efficiency
Affordance:
Higher
Audio
Quality
Additional
Radio
Channels
Interpretative
Flexibility:

28. INTERPRETATIVE FLEXIBILITY:
HIGHER AUDIO QUALITY
Every
Group
“Increased value
for the listener”
“The economics of
DAB/DAB+
are related to the number
of channels available”

29. INTERPRETATIVE FLEXIBILITY:
MORE AVAILABLE CHANNELS
Commercial
Broadcasters
“Increased ROI”
“More channels means
more diversity”
Independent
Broadcasters
“No means and interest
to expand their output.
No regulation
about diversity.”

30. INTERPRETATIVE FLEXIBILITY:
CONDITIONAL ACCESS
Commercial
Broadcasters
“New Revenue Streams”
Independent
Broadcasters
“Community Broadcasters
are not for profit.
It disrupts the typical
free-to-air
radio transmission.”

31. INTERPRETATIVE FLEXIBILITY:
DISCOURSES AROUND DIGITAL RADIO
AFFORDANCES
Other arguments:
• Requires to invest in completely new machinery
• Licenses mandate to fill 1536kHz or share the
multiplex with other broadcasters
• Designed for nation wide areas: low local flexibility.

32. INTERPRETATIVE FLEXIBILITY:
DISCOURSES AROUND DIGITAL RADIO
AFFORDANCES
Closure:
• Free analog licenses renewal
• Free digital licenses
• Government contribution (33%) to digital licenses
• Switchover mandated by the government (2017)

33. INTERPRETATIVE FLEXIBILITY:
DISCOURSES AROUND DIGITAL RADIO
AFFORDANCES
Closure:
• Independent Broadcasters engaged by
implementing “digital islands” through a low cost
DAB+ software solution (Digris AG)
• Independent Broadcasters engaged “must-carry”
agreement between RAI and Aeranti-Corallo (local
and community broadcasters association)

34. INTERPRETATIVE FLEXIBILITY:
FLEXIBILITY & FULL SPECTRUM
OPERATION
Independent
Broadcasters
“Better local coverage
No need to share facilities
Need to only fill 96 kHz
1-3 channels”

35. INTERPRETATIVE FLEXIBILITY:
FLEXIBILITY & FULL SPECTRUM
OPERATION
Electronics
Manufacturers
“Potential global market
(different channelisations,
frequency band allocation)”

36. INTERPRETATIVE FLEXIBILITY:
REUSE PART OF
ANALOG MACHINERY
Radio
Industry
“Lower Profit
Margins”Independent
Broadcasters
“More Affordable
Investment”

37. INTERPRETATIVE FLEXIBILITY:
DISCOURSES AROUND DIGITAL RADIO
AFFORDANCES
Other arguments:
• Still in testing and evaluation phase
• No infrastructure and political support
• Low market penetration (in Europe).

38. CONCLUSIONS
Affordances effectively set the limits for the
political and economic goals of their use

39. CONCLUSIONS
Maintain existing industry
structures by creating
new technological barriers
• Nation wide coverage design
• Large multiplex bandwidth
• High investments costs

40. CONCLUSIONS
The economic
legitimisation
of a cultural industry
•Vertical integration
• Cost-effective products
• No guarantee of diversity

41. CONCLUSIONS
Legitimating complex decisions
in terms of narrow technical concerns
The social shaping of digital radio affordances
in Europe followed:
Technocratic Values
and the Marketplace Rules
“Economic” remains the determinant

42. DISCUSSION

43. APPENDIX

44. TIMELINE
1981 1987 1992 1993 1995 1996
1985 1988 1993 1994 1995 1997
European
Research
Project
Start
Eureka 147
Project
Foundation
Eureka 147
counts 19
Broadcasters
and
Electronics
Manufacturers
First DAB
trials in
Germany
Foundation
of AER
(Association
of European
Radios)
First public
DAB
transmissions
in UK
First
IP-Radio
“Internet
Talk Radio”
DAB
receives ITU
specification
BBC builds
first fully
operative
Multiplex
First
generation
of streaming
audio players
Virgin FM
London
First
Simulcast
Online
DAB
receives
ETSI
specification

45. TIMELINE
1997 2001 2005 2006 2009 2012
1999 2003 2005 2006 2011 2015
DRM
Foundation
in China
First DRM
Presentation
at NAB
DRM counts
80 members in
30 countries
DRM
recommended
by Community
Media Forum
DAB+
receives
ETSI & ITU
specification
DAB
covers 20
countries
and 284M
listeners
DRM+
First
Presentation
DAB covers
40 countries
and 500M
listeners
RRC06
Frequency
Plan
DRM+
receives
ETSI
specification
Digital
Switchover
date for
CEPT
Digital
Switchover
date for
RRC06

46. PRIMARY SOURCES
• Technical specifications, Recommendations, Implementations guidelines [Ex:“Final draft ETSI ES 201 980
V4.1.1 (2013-11) - Digital Radio Mondiale (DRM); System Specification”].
• Legislations and Regulations [Ex:“St.meld. nr. 62 (1996-97) Kringkasting og dagspresse 1996 m.v.”]
• Licenses [Ex:“Ofcom Local Multiplex License (Fac-Simile)”]
• Reports and Strategy plans [Ex:“From FM to DAB+, Final Report of the Digital Migration Working Group”]
• Presentations [Ex:“Cornell, Lindsay. 'Unified Hybrid Radio'. 2015. Presentation.”]
• Press releases and Newspaper articles [Ex:“Sveriges Radio,. Cilla Benkö Comments OnThe Swedish
Government’S Decision Regarding DAB. 2015.”]
• Websites [Ex:“Worlddab.org,. 'Current Situation | History -Sweden | Country Information | Worlddmb’.”]
• Consultations,White papers and Position papers [Ex:“Risposte alla Consultazione AGCOM per i Servizi
Radiofonici (Delibera AGCOM n.665 del 23.11.06)”].

47. UNITED KINGDOM
• Only country implementing DAB (not DAB+)
• DAB started by the BBC, subsequently joined by commercial broadcasters
• First public DAB transmissions in 1995
• 1990 Broadcasting Act shifts the license issue responsibility from Radio Authority Ofcom to
the network operators
• Vertical integration: Media conglomerates can expand into network operation business
• DAB network planning replicates the analogue one
• Incentives were offered to broadcasters willing to take up DAB
• No regulation about audio quality / number of stations per multiplex
• Digital switchover currently set to 2020-2022.

48. • DAB+ started by commercial and independent broadcasters consortia
• First public DAB+ transmissions in 2007
• RAI signed an agreement for the must-carry obligation of local and
community broadcasters transmissions from its facilities
• Very numerous local and community stations (4600 in FM)
• Regulation states the number of channels per multiplex must be between 5
and 12, and it sets limits for audio quality accordingly
• No single network operator: Every broadcaster consortium owns its facilities
• No digital switchover planned
ITALY

49. • DAB+ started by SRG SSR
• First public DAB+ transmissions in 1999
• SRG SSR and some commercial broadcasters founded joint-ventures for the
deployment of DAB+ networks in the German- and French-speaking regions
• Regulators allowed the implementations of digital islands, small-scale DAB+ networks for
community and local stations
• Every broadcaster (even web-radios) is offered to join DAB+ with incentives on the
licensing
• Regulation states that number of channels per multiplex and the limits for audio quality
must be agreed with every actor in the industry
• Digital switchover currently set to 2020-2022.
SWITZERLAND

50. NORWAY
• DAB+ started by NRK
• First public DAB+ transmissions in 1995
• The only country which already set the digital switchover hard date to 2017
• Regulation states that where the capacity of a multiplex can not be filled by local stations,
those willing to be transmitted by DAB+ must cover the full licensing fee
• NRK and the main commercial broadcasters founded a joint-venture with the ambition of
becoming the organization issuing digital licenses in the future
• Norkring is the only network operator in the country
• Some 22 local stations were enforced to stop FM transmissions
• The only local licenses were awarded with no coverage requirements, no warranty over
investment risks and the possibility of officialization after the trials.

51. • DAB+ started by Sveriges Radio
• First public DAB+ transmissions in 1995
• Commercial broadcasters were involved only with the 2010 Radio & TV Act, which opened digital licenses
for commercial broadcasters
• Regulation states that where the capacity of a multiplex can not be filled by local stations, those willing to be
transmitted by DAB+ must cover the full licensing fee
• Regulation does not mandate any bitrate requirement, instead the minimal accommodation of services on
the multiplex is 16 channels at 72kbps
• Teracom is the only network operator in the country
• In Sweden the experience of community närradio is well established and no solution in DAB+ was yet found
for this sector.
• A digital switchover was formulated in cooperation with SR and the main commercial broadcasters for 2020.
The National Audit criticized the plan and in 2015 the Ministry of Culture announced it was postponed.
SWEDEN

52. Matteo Campostrini
Thank you!