Computer fundamental

Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Ref Page

Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers

Slide 1/17


Learning Objectives
In this chapter you will learn about:
§ Computer
§ Data processing
§ Characteristic features of computers
§ Computers’ evolution to their present form
§ Computer generations
§ Characteristic features of each computer generation

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Slide 2/17


Computer
§ The word computer comes from the word “compute”,
which means, “to calculate”
§ Thereby, a computer is an electronic device that can
perform arithmetic operations at high speed
§ A computer is also called a data processor because it can
store, process, and retrieve data whenever desired

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Slide 3/17


Data Processing
The activity of processing data using a computer is called
data processing
Data
Capture Data
Manipulate Data
Output Results
Information
Data is raw material used as input and information is
processed data obtained as output of data processing

Ref Page 01


Slide 4/17


Characteristics of Computers
1) Automatic: Given a job, computer can work on it
automatically without human interventions
2) Speed: Computer can perform data processing jobs
very fast, usually measured in microseconds (10-6),
nanoseconds (10-9), and picoseconds (10-12)
3) Accuracy: Accuracy of a computer is consistently high
and the degree of its accuracy depends upon its design.
Computer errors caused due to incorrect input data or
unreliable programs are often referred to as GarbageIn-Garbage-Out (GIGO)
(Continued on next slide)

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Slide 5/17


(Continued from previous slide..)

4) Diligence: Computer is free from monotony, tiredness,
and lack of concentration. It can continuously work for
hours without creating any error and without grumbling
5) Versatility: Computer is capable of performing almost
any task, if the task can be reduced to a finite series of
logical steps
6) Power of Remembering: Computer can store and
recall any amount of information because of its
secondary storage capability. It forgets or looses certain
information only when it is asked to do so

Ref Page 02


Slide 6/17



7) No I.Q.: A computer does only what it is programmed
to do. It cannot take its own decision in this regard
8) No Feelings: Computers are devoid of emotions. Their
judgement is based on the instructions given to them in
the form of programs that are written by us (human
beings)


Ref Page 03


Slide 7/17


Evolution of Computers
§ Blaise Pascal invented the first mechanical adding
machine in 1642
§ Baron Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz invented the first
calculator for multiplication in 1671
§ Keyboard machines originated in the United States
around 1880
§ Around 1880, Herman Hollerith came up with the concept
of punched cards that were extensively used as input
media until late 1970s

Ref Page 03


Slide 8/17



§ Charles Babbage is considered to be the father of
modern digital computers
§

He designed “Difference Engine” in 1822

§

He designed a fully automatic analytical engine in
1842 for performing basic arithmetic functions

§

His efforts established a number of principles that
are fundamental to the design of any digital
computer


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Slide 9/17


Some Well Known Early Computers
§ The Mark I Computer (1937-44)
§ The Atanasoff-Berry Computer (1939-42)
§ The ENIAC (1943-46)
§ The EDVAC (1946-52)
§ The EDSAC (1947-49)
§ Manchester Mark I (1948)
§ The UNIVAC I (1951)

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Slide 10/17


Computer Generations
§ “Generation” in computer talk is a step in technology. It
provides a framework for the growth of computer industry
§ Originally it was used to distinguish between various
hardware technologies, but now it has been extended to
include both hardware and software
§ Till today, there are five computer generations


Ref Page 05


Slide 11/17



Some
representative
systems

Generation
(Period)

Key hardware
technologies

Key software
technologies

Key
characteristics

First
(1942-1955)

§ Vacuum tubes
§ Electromagnetic
relay memory
§ Punched
cards
secondary storage

§ Machine
and
assembly
languages
§ Stored
program
concept
§ Mostly
scientific
applications

§ Bulky in size
§ Highly unreliable
§ Limited
commercial
use and costly
§ Difficult
commercial
production
§ Difficult to use

§
§
§
§
§

ENIAC
EDVAC
EDSAC
UNIVAC I
IBM 701

Second
(1955-1964)

§ Transistors
§ Magnetic
cores
memory
§ Magnetic tapes
§ Disks for secondary
storage

§ Batch
operating
system
§ High-level
programming
languages
§ Scientific
and
commercial
applications

§ Faster, smaller, more
reliable and easier to
program than previous
generation systems
§ Commercial production
was still difficult and
costly

§
§
§
§

Honeywell 400
IBM 7030
CDC 1604
UNIVAC LARC


Ref Page 13


Slide 12/17



Generation
(Period)

Key hardware
technologies

Key software
technologies

Key
characteristics

Some rep.
systems

Third
(1964-1975)

§ ICs with SSI and
MSI technologies
§ Larger magnetic
cores memory
§ Larger capacity
disks and
magnetic tapes
secondary
storage
§ Minicomputers;
upward
compatible family
of computers

§ Timesharing
operating
system
§ Standardization
of high-level
programming
languages
§ Unbundling of
software from
hardware

reliable, easier and
cheaper to produce
§ Commercially, easier
to use, and easier to
upgrade than
previous generation
systems
§ Scientific, commercial
and interactive online applications

§ IBM 360/370
§ PDP-8
§ PDP-11
§ CDC 6600


Ref Page 13


Slide 13/17



Generation
(Period)
Fourth
(1975-1989)

Key hardware
Technologies

Key software
technologies

Key
characteristics

Some rep.
systems

§ ICs
with
VLSI
technology
§ Microprocessors;
semiconductor memory
§ Larger capacity hard
disks
as
in-built
secondary storage
§ Magnetic tapes and
floppy disks as portable
storage media
§ Personal computers
§ Supercomputers based
on
parallel
vector
processing
and
symmetric
multiprocessing
technologies
§ Spread of high-speed
computer networks

§ Operating systems for
PCs with GUI and
multiple windows on a
single terminal screen
§ Multiprocessing
OS
with
concurrent
programming
languages
§ UNIX operating system
with C programming
language
§ Object-oriented design
and programming
§ PC,
Network-based,
and
supercomputing
applications

§ Small, affordable,
reliable, and easy
to use PCs
§ More
powerful
and
reliable
mainframe
systems
and
supercomputers
§ Totally
general
purpose machines
§ Easier to produce
commercially
§ Easier to upgrade
§ Rapid
software
development
possible

§ IBM PC and
its clones
§ Apple II
§ TRS-80
§ VAX 9000
§ CRAY-1
§ CRAY-2
§ CRAY-X/MP


Ref Page 13


Slide 14/17



Generation
(Period)
Fifth
(1989Present)

Ref Page 13

Key hardware
technologies

Key software
technologies

Key
characteristics

§ ICs
with
ULSI
technology
§ Larger
capacity
main
memory,
hard disks with
RAID support
§ Optical disks as
portable read-only
storage media
§ Notebooks,
powerful
desktop
PCs
and
workstations
§ Powerful servers,
supercomputers
§ Internet
§ Cluster computing

§ Micro-kernel based,
multithreading,
distributed OS
§ Parallel
programming
libraries like MPI &
PVM
§ JAVA
§ World Wide Web
§ Multimedia,
Internet
applications
§ More
complex
supercomputing
applications

§ Portable computers
§ Powerful, cheaper,
reliable, and easier
to
use
desktop
machines
§ Powerful
supercomputers
§ High uptime due to
hot-pluggable
components
§ Totally
general
purpose machines
commercially,
easier to upgrade
§ Rapid
software
development
possible


Some rep.
systems
§ IBM notebooks
§ Pentium PCs
§ SUN
Workstations
§ IBM SP/2
§ SGI Origin 2000
§ PARAM 10000

Slide 15/17


Electronic Devices Used in Computers of Different Generations

(a) A Vacuum Tube

Ref Page 07

(b) A Transistor

(c) An IC Chip


Slide 16/17


Key Words/Phrases
§ Computer
§ Computer Supported Cooperative
Working (CSCW)
§ Data
§ Data processing
§ Data processor
§ First-generation computers
§ Fourth-generation computers
§ Garbage-in-garbage-out (GIGO)
§ Graphical User Interface (GUI)
§ Groupware
§ Information

Ref Page 12

Integrated Circuit (IC)
Large Scale Integration (VLSI)
Medium Scale Integration (MSI)
Microprocessor
Personal Computer (PC)
Second-generation computers
Small Scale Integration (SSI)
Stored program concept
Third-generation computers
Transistor
Ultra Large Scale Integration
(ULSI)
§ Vacuum tubes
§
§
§
§
§
§
§
§
§
§
§


Slide 17/17


Ref Page


Slide 1/17


Learning Objectives
§ Computer
§ Data processing

Ref Page 01


Slide 2/17

1


Computer

Ref Page 01


Slide 3/17


Data Processing
data processing
Data
Capture Data
Manipulate Data
Output Results
Information

Ref Page 01


Slide 4/17

2



Ref Page 02


Slide 5/17



logical steps

Ref Page 02


Slide 6/17

3



beings)


Ref Page 03


Slide 7/17


machine in 1642
around 1880

Ref Page 03


Slide 8/17

4



§


§


§

computer


Ref Page 03


Slide 9/17


§ The ENIAC (1943-46)
§ The EDVAC (1946-52)
§ The EDSAC (1947-49)

Ref Page 03


Slide 10/17

5




Ref Page 05


Slide 11/17



Some
representative
systems

Key hardware
technologies

Key software
technologies

Key
characteristics

First
(1942-1955)

§ Vacuum tubes
§ Electromagnetic
relay memory
§ Punched
cards
secondary storage

§ Machine
and
assembly
languages
§ Stored
program
concept
§ Mostly
scientific
applications

§ Bulky in size
§ Limited
commercial
use and costly
§ Difficult
commercial
production
§ Difficult to use

§
§
§
§
§

ENIAC
EDVAC
EDSAC
UNIVAC I
IBM 701

Second
(1955-1964)

§ Transistors
§ Magnetic
cores
memory
§ Magnetic tapes
storage

§ Batch
operating
system
§ High-level
programming
languages
§ Scientific
and
commercial
applications

generation systems
costly

§
§
§
§

Honeywell 400
IBM 7030
CDC 1604
UNIVAC LARC

Generation
(Period)


Ref Page 13


Slide 12/17

6



Generation
(Period)

Key hardware
technologies

Key software
technologies

Key
characteristics

Some rep.
systems

Third
(1964-1975)

§ ICs with SSI and
MSI technologies
§ Larger magnetic
cores memory
§ Larger capacity
disks and
magnetic tapes
secondary
storage
§ Minicomputers;
upward
compatible family
of computers

§ Timesharing
operating
system
§ Standardization
of high-level
programming
languages
§ Unbundling of
software from
hardware

cheaper to produce
upgrade than
previous generation
systems

§ IBM 360/370
§ PDP-8
§ PDP-11
§ CDC 6600


Ref Page 13


Slide 13/17



Generation
(Period)
Fourth
(1975-1989)

Key hardware
Technologies

Key software
technologies

Key
characteristics

Some rep.
systems

§ ICs
with
VLSI
technology
§ Microprocessors;
disks
as
in-built
secondary storage
storage media
on
parallel
vector
processing
and
symmetric
multiprocessing
technologies
computer networks

PCs with GUI and
§ Multiprocessing
OS
with
concurrent
programming
languages
with C programming
language
and programming
§ PC,
Network-based,
and
supercomputing
applications

reliable, and easy
to use PCs
§ More
powerful
and
reliable
mainframe
systems
and
supercomputers
§ Totally
general
purpose machines
commercially
§ Rapid
software
development
possible

§ IBM PC and
its clones
§ Apple II
§ TRS-80
§ VAX 9000
§ CRAY-1
§ CRAY-2
§ CRAY-X/MP


Ref Page 13


Slide 14/17

7



Generation
(Period)
Fifth
(1989Present)

Key hardware
technologies

Key software
technologies

Key
characteristics

§ ICs
with
ULSI
technology
§ Larger
capacity
main
memory,
hard disks with
RAID support
§ Optical disks as
portable read-only
storage media
§ Notebooks,
powerful desktop
PCs
and
workstations
supercomputers
§ Internet

multithreading,
distributed OS
§ Parallel
programming
PVM
§ JAVA
§ World Wide Web
§ Multimedia,
Internet
applications
§ More
complex
supercomputing
applications

to
use
desktop
machines
§ Powerful
supercomputers
hot-pluggable
components
§ Totally
general
purpose machines
commercially,
easier to upgrade
§ Rapid
software
development
possible

Ref Page 13


Some rep.
systems
§ IBM notebooks
§ Pentium PCs
§ SUN
Workstations
§ IBM SP/2
§ SGI Origin 2000
§ PARAM 10000

Slide 15/17



(a) A Vacuum Tube

Ref Page 07

(b) A Transistor

(c) An IC Chip


Slide 16/17

8


Key Words/Phrases
§ Computer
Working (CSCW)
§ Data
§ Data processing
§ Data processor
§ Groupware
§ Information

Ref Page 12

Microprocessor
Transistor
(ULSI)
§ Vacuum tubes
§
§
§
§
§
§
§
§
§
§
§


Slide 17/17

9


Ref Page


Slide 1/17


Learning Objectives
§ Computer
§ Data processing

Ref Page 01


Slide 2/17


Computer

Ref Page 01


Slide 3/17

1


Data Processing
data processing
Data
Capture Data
Manipulate Data
Output Results
Information

Ref Page 01


Slide 4/17



Ref Page 02


Slide 5/17



logical steps

Ref Page 02


Slide 6/17

2



beings)


Ref Page 03


Slide 7/17


machine in 1642
around 1880

Ref Page 03


Slide 8/17



§


§


§

computer


Ref Page 03


Slide 9/17

3


§ The ENIAC (1943-46)
§ The EDVAC (1946-52)
§ The EDSAC (1947-49)

Ref Page 03


Slide 10/17




Ref Page 05


Slide 11/17



Some
representative
systems

Generation
(Period)

Key hardware
technologies

Key software
technologies

Key
characteristics

First
(1942-1955)

§ Vacuum tubes
§ Electromagnetic
relay memory
§ Punched
cards
secondary storage

§ Machine
and
assembly
languages
§ Stored program
concept
§ Mostly
scientific
applications

§ Bulky in size
§ Limited
commercial
use and costly
§ Difficult
commercial
production
§ Difficult to use

§
§
§
§
§

ENIAC
EDVAC
EDSAC
UNIVAC I
IBM 701

Second
(1955-1964)

§ Transistors
§ Magnetic
cores
memory
§ Magnetic tapes
storage

§ Batch operating
system
§ High-level
programming
languages
§ Scientific
and
commercial
applications

generation systems
costly

§
§
§
§

Honeywell 400
IBM 7030
CDC 1604
UNIVAC LARC


Ref Page 13


Slide 12/17

4



Generation
(Period)

Key hardware
technologies

Key software
technologies

Key
characteristics

Some rep.
systems

Third
(1964-1975)

§ ICs with SSI and
MSI technologies
§ Larger magnetic
cores memory
§ Larger capacity
disks and
magnetic tapes
secondary
storage
§ Minicomputers;
upward
compatible family
of computers

§ Timesharing
operating
system
§ Standardization
of high-level
programming
languages
§ Unbundling of
software from
hardware

cheaper to produce
upgrade than
previous generation
systems

§ IBM 360/370
§ PDP-8
§ PDP-11
§ CDC 6600


Ref Page 13


Slide 13/17



Generation
(Period)

Key hardware
Technologies

Key software
technologies

Key
characteristics

Some rep.
systems

Fourth
(1975-1989)

§ ICs
with
VLSI
technology
§ Microprocessors;
disks
as
in-built
secondary storage
storage media
on
parallel
vector
processing
and
symmetric
multiprocessing
technologies
computer networks

PCs with GUI and
§ Multiprocessing
OS
with
concurrent
programming
languages
with C programming
language
and programming
§ PC,
Network-based,
and
supercomputing
applications

reliable, and easy
to use PCs
§ More
powerful
and
reliable
mainframe
systems
and
supercomputers
§ Totally
general
purpose machines
commercially
§ Rapid
software
development
possible

§ IBM PC and
its clones
§ Apple II
§ TRS-80
§ VAX 9000
§ CRAY-1
§ CRAY-2
§ CRAY-X/MP


Ref Page 13


Slide 14/17



Generation
(Period)
Fifth
(1989Present)

Ref Page 13

Key hardware
technologies

Key software
technologies

Key
characteristics

§ ICs
with
ULSI
technology
§ Larger
capacity
main
memory,
hard disks with
RAID support
§ Optical disks as
portable read-only
storage media
§ Notebooks,
powerful desktop
PCs
and
workstations
supercomputers
§ Internet

multithreading,
distributed OS
§ Parallel
programming
PVM
§ JAVA
§ World Wide Web
§ Multimedia,
Internet
applications
§ More
complex
supercomputing
applications

to
use
desktop
machines
§ Powerful
supercomputers
hot-pluggable
components
§ Totally
general
purpose machines
commercially,
easier to upgrade
§ Rapid
software
development
possible


Some rep.
systems
§ IBM notebooks
§ Pentium PCs
§ SUN
Workstations
§ IBM SP/2
§ SGI Origin 2000
§ PARAM 10000

Slide 15/17

5



(a) A Vacuum Tube

Ref Page 07

(b) A Transistor

(c) An IC Chip


Slide 16/17


Key Words/Phrases
§ Computer
Working (CSCW)
§ Data
§ Data processing
§ Data processor
§ Groupware
§ Information

Ref Page 12

Microprocessor
Transistor
(ULSI)
§ Vacuum tubes
§
§
§
§
§
§
§
§
§
§
§


Slide 17/17

6


Ref. Page

Chapter 2: Basic Computer Organization

Slide 1/16


Learning Objectives
§ Basic operations performed by all types of computer
systems
§ Basic organization of a computer system
§ Input unit and its functions
§ Output unit and its functions
§ Storage unit and its functions
§ Types of storage used in a computer system


Ref. Page 15


Slide 2/16


Learning Objectives

§ Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
§ Control Unit (CU)
§ Central Processing Unit (CPU)
§ Computer as a system

Ref. Page 15


Slide 3/16


The Five Basic Operations of a Computer System
§ Inputting. The process of entering data and instructions
into the computer system
§ Storing. Saving data and instructions to make them
readily available for initial or additional processing
whenever required
§ Processing. Performing arithmetic operations (add,
subtract, multiply, divide, etc.) or logical operations
(comparisons like equal to, less than, greater than, etc.)
on data to convert them into useful information


Ref. Page 15


Slide 4/16


§ Outputting. The process of producing useful information
or results for the user such as a printed report or visual
display
§ Controlling. Directing the manner and sequence in which
all of the above operations are performed

Ref. Page 15


Slide 5/16


Basic Organization of a Computer System
Storage Unit
Secondary
Storage
Program
and
Data

Input
Unit

Primary
Storage

Output
Unit

Information
(Results)

Control
Unit
Indicates flow of
instructions and data
Arithmetic
Logic Unit

Indicates the control
exercised by the
control unit

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

Ref. Page 16


Slide 6/16


Input Unit
An input unit of a computer system performs the
following functions:
1. It accepts (or reads) instructions and data from outside
world
2. It converts these instructions and data in computer
acceptable form
3. It supplies the converted instructions and data to the
computer system for further processing

Ref. Page 16


Slide 7/16


Output Unit
An output unit of a computer system performs the
1. It accepts the results produced by the computer, which
are in coded form and hence, cannot be easily
understood by us
2. It converts these coded results to human acceptable
(readable) form
3. It supplies the converted results to outside world

Ref. Page 16


Slide 8/16


Storage Unit
The storage unit of a computer system holds (or stores)
the following :
1. Data and instructions required for processing (received
from input devices)
2. Intermediate results of processing
3. Final results of processing, before they are released to
an output device

Ref. Page 17


Slide 9/16


Two Types of Storage
§ Primary storage
§ Used to hold running program instructions
§ Used to hold data, intermediate results, and
results of ongoing processing of job(s)
§ Fast in operation
§ Small Capacity
§ Expensive
§ Volatile (looses data on power dissipation)


Ref. Page 17


Slide 10/16



§ Secondary storage
§ Used to hold stored program instructions
§ Used to hold data and information of stored jobs
§ Slower than primary storage
§ Large Capacity
§ Lot cheaper that primary storage
§ Retains data even without power

Ref. Page 17


Slide 11/16


Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
Arithmetic Logic Unit of a computer system is the place
where the actual executions of instructions takes place during
processing operation

Ref. Page 18


Slide 12/16


Control Unit (CU)
Control Unit of a computer system manages and coordinates
the operations of all other components of the computer
system

Ref. Page 18


Slide 13/16


Arithmetic
Logic Unit
(ALU)

+

Control Unit
(CU)

=

Central
Processing
Unit (CPU)

§ It is the brain of a computer system
§ It is responsible for controlling the operations of
all other units of a computer system

Ref. Page 18


Slide 14/16


The System Concept
A system has following three characteristics:
1. A system has more than one element
2. All elements of a system are logically related
3. All elements of a system are controlled in a manner to
achieve the system goal
A computer is a system as it comprises of integrated
components (input unit, output unit, storage unit, and CPU)
that work together to perform the steps called for in the
executing program

Ref. Page 18


Slide 15/16


Key Words/Phrases
§
§
§
§
§
§
§
§
§
§

Auxiliary storage
Computer system
Control Unit (CU)
Controlling
Input interface
Input unit
Inputting
Main memory

Ref. Page 19

§
§
§
§
§
§
§
§
§

Output interface
Output unit
Outputting
Primate storage
Processing
Secondary storage
Storage unit
Storing
System


Slide 16/16


Ref. Page


Slide 1/16


Learning Objectives
systems


Ref. Page 15


Slide 2/16

1


Learning Objectives


Ref. Page 15


Slide 3/16


whenever required


Ref. Page 15


Slide 4/16

2


display

Ref. Page 15


Slide 5/16


Storage Unit
Secondary
Storage
Program
and
Data

Input
Unit

Primary
Storage

Output
Unit

Information
(Results)

Control
Unit
Indicates flow of
Arithmetic
Logic Unit

exercised by the
control unit


Ref. Page 16


Slide 6/16

3


Input Unit
world
acceptable form

Ref. Page 16


Slide 7/16


Output Unit
understood by us
(readable) form

Ref. Page 16


Slide 8/16

4


Storage Unit
the following :
from input devices)
an output device

Ref. Page 17


Slide 9/16


§ Primary storage
§ Small Capacity
§ Expensive


Ref. Page 17


Slide 10/16

5



§ Large Capacity

Ref. Page 17


Slide 11/16



Ref. Page 18


Slide 12/16

6


Control Unit (CU)
system

Ref. Page 18


Slide 13/16


Arithmetic
Logic Unit
(ALU)

+

Control Unit
(CU)

=

Central
Processing
Unit (CPU)


Ref. Page 18


Slide 14/16

7


The System Concept
executing program

Ref. Page 18


Slide 15/16


Key Words/Phrases
§
§
§
§
§
§
§
§
§
§

Auxiliary storage
Computer system
Control Unit (CU)
Controlling
Input interface
Input unit
Inputting
Main memory

Ref. Page 19

§
§
§
§
§
§
§
§
§

Output interface
Output unit
Outputting
Primate storage
Processing
Secondary storage
Storage unit
Storing
System


Slide 16/16

8


Ref. Page

Slide 1/16



Learning Objectives
systems


Ref. Page 15


Slide 2/16


Learning Objectives


Ref. Page 15


Slide 3/16

1


whenever required


Ref. Page 15


Slide 4/16


display

Ref. Page 15


Slide 5/16


Storage Unit
Secondary
Storage
Program
and
Data

Input
Unit

Primary
Storage

Output
Unit

Information
(Results)

Control
Unit
Indicates flow of
Arithmetic
Logic Unit

exercised by the
control unit


Ref. Page 16


Slide 6/16

2


Input Unit
world
acceptable form

Ref. Page 16


Slide 7/16


Output Unit
understood by us
(readable) form

Ref. Page 16


Slide 8/16


Storage Unit
the following :
from input devices)
an output device

Ref. Page 17


Slide 9/16

3


§ Primary storage
§ Small Capacity
§ Expensive


Ref. Page 17


Slide 10/16



§ Large Capacity

Ref. Page 17


Slide 11/16



Ref. Page 18


Slide 12/16

4


Control Unit (CU)
system

Ref. Page 18


Slide 13/16


Arithmetic
Logic Unit
(ALU)

+

Control Unit
(CU)

=

Central
Processing
Unit (CPU)


Ref. Page 18


Slide 14/16


The System Concept
executing program

Ref. Page 18


Slide 15/16

5


Key Words/Phrases
§
§
§
§
§
§
§
§
§
§

Auxiliary storage
Computer system
Control Unit (CU)
Controlling
Input interface
Input unit
Inputting
Main memory

Ref. Page 19

§
§
§
§
§
§
§
§
§

Output interface
Output unit
Outputting
Primate storage
Processing
Secondary storage
Storage unit
Storing
System


Slide 16/16

6


Ref Page

Chapter 3: Number Systems

Slide 1/40


Learning Objectives
§ Non-positional number system
§ Positional number system
§ Decimal number system
§ Binary number system
§ Octal number system
§ Hexadecimal number system


Ref Page 20


Slide 2/40


Learning Objectives

§ Convert a number’s base
§ Another base to decimal base
§ Decimal base to another base
§ Some base to another base
§ Shortcut methods for converting
§ Binary to octal number
§ Octal to binary number
§ Binary to hexadecimal number
§ Hexadecimal to binary number
§ Fractional numbers in binary number system

Ref Page 20


Slide 3/40


Number Systems
Two types of number systems are:
§ Non-positional number systems
§ Positional number systems

Ref Page 20


Slide 4/40


Non-positional Number Systems
§ Characteristics
§ Use symbols such as I for 1, II for 2, III for 3, IIII
for 4, IIIII for 5, etc
§ Each symbol represents the same value regardless
of its position in the number
§ The symbols are simply added to find out the value
of a particular number
§ Difficulty
§ It is difficult to perform arithmetic with such a
number system

Ref Page 20


Slide 5/40


Positional Number Systems
§

Characteristics
§

Use only a few symbols called digits

§

These symbols represent different values depending
on the position they occupy in the number


Ref Page 20


Slide 6/40



§

The value of each digit is determined by:
1. The digit itself
2. The position of the digit in the number
3. The base of the number system

(base = total number of digits in the number
system)
§

Ref Page 21

The maximum value of a single digit is
always equal to one less than the value of
the base


Slide 7/40


Decimal Number System
Characteristics
§

A positional number system

§

Has 10 symbols or digits (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,
8, 9). Hence, its base = 10

§

The maximum value of a single digit is 9 (one
less than the value of the base)

§

Each position of a digit represents a specific
power of the base (10)

§

We use this number system in our day-to-day
life


Ref Page 21


Slide 8/40



Example
258610 = (2 x 103) + (5 x 102) + (8 x 101) + (6 x 100)
= 2000 + 500 + 80 + 6

Ref Page 21


Slide 9/40


Binary Number System
Characteristics
§


§

Has only 2 symbols or digits (0 and 1). Hence its
base = 2

§

The maximum value of a single digit is 1 (one less
than the value of the base)

§

Each position of a digit represents a specific power
of the base (2)

§

This number system is used in computers


Ref Page 21


Slide 10/40



Example
101012 = (1 x 24) + (0 x 23) + (1 x 22) + (0 x 21) x (1 x 20)
= 16 + 0 + 4 + 0 + 1
= 2110

Ref Page 21


Slide 11/40


Representing Numbers in Different Number
Systems

In order to be specific about which number system we
are referring to, it is a common practice to indicate the
base as a subscript. Thus, we write:
101012 = 2110

Ref Page 21


Slide 12/40


Bit
§ Bit stands for binary digit
§ A bit in computer terminology means either a 0 or a 1
§ A binary number consisting of n bits is called an n-bit
number

Ref Page 22


Slide 13/40


Octal Number System
Characteristics
§ A positional number system
§ Has total 8 symbols or digits (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7).
Hence, its base = 8
§ The maximum value of a single digit is 7 (one less
than the value of the base
§ Each position of a digit represents a specific power of
the base (8)


Ref Page 22


Slide 14/40


Octal Number System

§ Since there are only 8 digits, 3 bits (23 = 8) are
sufficient to represent any octal number in binary
Example
20578 = (2 x 83) + (0 x 82) + (5 x 81) + (7 x 80)
= 1024 + 0 + 40 + 7
= 107110

Ref Page 22


Slide 15/40


Hexadecimal Number System
Characteristics
§ Has total 16 symbols or digits (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,
8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F). Hence its base = 16
§ The symbols A, B, C, D, E and F represent the
decimal values 10, 11, 12, 13, 14 and 15
respectively


Ref Page 22


Slide 16/40



§ Each position of a digit represents a specific power
of the base (16)
sufficient to represent any hexadecimal number in
binary
Example
1AF16

= (1 x 162) + (A x 161) + (F x 160)
= 1 x 256 + 10 x 16 + 15 x 1
= 256 + 160 + 15
= 43110

Ref Page 22


Slide 17/40


Converting a Number of Another Base to a
Decimal Number
Method
Step 1: Determine the column (positional) value of
each digit
Step 2: Multiply the obtained column values by the
digits in the corresponding columns
Step 3: Calculate the sum of these products


Ref Page 23


Slide 18/40


Decimal Number

Example
47068 = ?10

47068 = 4 x 83 + 7 x 82 + 0 x 81 + 6 x 80
= 4 x 512 + 7 x 64 + 0 + 6 x 1
= 2048 + 448 + 0 + 6
= 250210

Ref Page 23

Common
values
multiplied
by the
corresponding
digits

Sum of these
products


Slide 19/40


Converting a Decimal Number to a Number of
Another Base
Division-Remainder Method
Step 1: Divide the decimal number to be converted by
the value of the new base
Step 2: Record the remainder from Step 1 as the
rightmost digit (least significant digit) of the
new base number
Step 3:

Divide the quotient of the previous divide by the
new base


Ref Page 25


Slide 20/40


Another Base

Step 4: Record the remainder from Step 3 as the next
digit (to the left) of the new base number
Repeat Steps 3 and 4, recording remainders from right to
left, until the quotient becomes zero in Step 3
Note that the last remainder thus obtained will be the most
significant digit (MSD) of the new base number


Ref Page 25


Slide 21/40


Another Base

Example
95210 = ?8
Solution:
8 952
119
14
1
0

Remainder
s 0
7
6
1

Hence, 95210 = 16708
Ref Page 26


Slide 22/40


Converting a Number of Some Base to a Number
of Another Base
Method
Step 1: Convert the original number to a decimal
number (base 10)
Step 2: Convert the decimal number so obtained to
the new base number


Ref Page 27


Slide 23/40


of Another Base

Example
5456 = ?4
Solution:
Step 1: Convert from base 6 to base 10
5456 = 5 x 62 + 4 x 61 + 5 x 60
= 5 x 36 + 4 x 6 + 5 x 1
= 180 + 24 + 5
= 20910


Ref Page 27


Slide 24/40


of Another Base

Step 2: Convert 20910 to base 4
4

209

Remainders

52

1

13

0

3

1
3

0
Hence, 20910 = 31014
So, 5456 = 20910 = 31014
Thus, 5456 = 31014

Ref Page 28


Slide 25/40


Shortcut Method for Converting a Binary Number
to its Equivalent Octal Number
Method
Step 1: Divide the digits into groups of three starting
from the right
Step 2: Convert each group of three binary digits to
one octal digit using the method of binary to
decimal conversion


Ref Page 29


Slide 26/40



Example
11010102 = ?8
Step 1: Divide the binary digits into groups of 3 starting
from right
001

101

010

Step 2: Convert each group into one octal digit
0012 = 0 x 22 + 0 x 21 + 1 x 20 = 1
1012 = 1 x 22 + 0 x 21 + 1 x 20 = 5
0102 = 0 x 22 + 1 x 21 + 0 x 20 = 2
Hence, 11010102 = 1528

Ref Page 29


Slide 27/40


Shortcut Method for Converting an Octal
Number to Its Equivalent Binary Number
Method
Step 1:

Convert each octal digit to a 3 digit binary
number (the octal digits may be treated as
decimal for this conversion)

Step 2: Combine all the resulting binary groups
(of 3 digits each) into a single binary
number


Ref Page 30


Slide 28/40



Example
5628 = ?2
Step 1: Convert each octal digit to 3 binary digits
58 = 1012,
68 = 1102,
28 = 0102
Step 2: Combine the binary groups
110
010
5628 = 101
5
6
2
Hence, 5628 = 1011100102

Ref Page 30


Slide 29/40


Shortcut Method for Converting a Binary
Number to its Equivalent Hexadecimal Number
Method
Step 1:

Divide the binary digits into groups of four
starting from the right

Step 2:

Combine each group of four binary digits to
one hexadecimal digit


Ref Page 30


Slide 30/40



Example
1111012 = ?16
Step 1:

0011

1101

Step 2: Convert each group into a hexadecimal digit
00112 = 0 x 23 + 0 x 22 + 1 x 21 + 1 x 20 = 310 = 316
11012 = 1 x 23 + 1 x 22 + 0 x 21 + 1 x 20 = 310 = D16
Hence, 1111012 = 3D16

Ref Page 31


Slide 31/40


Shortcut Method for Converting a Hexadecimal
Number to its Equivalent Binary Number
Method
Step 1: Convert the decimal equivalent of each
hexadecimal digit to a 4 digit binary
number
(of 4 digits each) in a single binary number


Ref Page 31


Slide 32/40



Example
2AB16 = ?2
Step 1: Convert each hexadecimal digit to a 4 digit
binary number
216 = 210 = 00102
A16 = 1010 = 10102
B16 = 1110 = 10112

Ref Page 32


Slide 33/40



2AB16 = 0010 1010 1011
2
A
B
Hence, 2AB16 = 0010101010112

Ref Page 32


Slide 34/40


Fractional Numbers
Fractional numbers are formed same way as decimal
number system
In general, a number in a number system with base b
would be written as:
an an-1… a0 . a-1 a-2 … a-m
And would be interpreted to mean:
an x bn + an-1 x bn-1 + … + a0 x b0 + a-1 x b-1 + a-2 x b-2 +
… + a-m x b-m
The symbols an, an-1, …, a-m in above representation
should be one of the b symbols allowed in the number
system

Ref Page 33


Slide 35/40


Formation of Fractional Numbers in
Binary Number System (Example)
Binary Point
Position

4

3

2

1

0

-1

-2

-3

-4

Position Value

24

23

22

21

20

2-1

2-2

2-3

2-4

Quantity
Represented

16

8

4

2

1

1/
2

1/
4

1/
8

1/
16

.


Ref Page 33


Slide 36/40



Example
110.1012 = 1 x 22 + 1 x 21 + 0 x 20 + 1 x 2-1 + 0 x 2-2 + 1 x 2-3
= 4 + 2 + 0 + 0.5 + 0 + 0.125
= 6.62510

Ref Page 33


Slide 37/40


Octal Number System (Example)
Octal Point
Position

3

2

1

0

Position Value

83

82

81

80

8

1

Quantity
Represented

512

64

.

-1

-2

-3

8-1

8-2

8-3

1/
8

1/
64

1/
512


Ref Page 33


Slide 38/40



Example
127.548

= 1 x 82 + 2 x 81 + 7 x 80 + 5 x 8-1 + 4 x 8-2
= 64 + 16 + 7 + 5/8 + 4/64
= 87 + 0.625 + 0.0625
= 87.687510

Ref Page 33


Slide 39/40


Key Words/Phrases
§
§
§
§
§
§
§
§

Base
Binary number system
Binary point
Bit
Decimal number system
Division-Remainder technique
Fractional numbers
Hexadecimal number system

Ref Page 34

Least Significant Digit (LSD)
Memory dump
Most Significant Digit (MSD)
Non-positional number
system
§ Number system
§
§
§
§


Slide 40/40


Ref Page


Slide 1/40


Learning Objectives


Ref Page 20


Slide 2/40

1


Learning Objectives


Ref Page 20


Slide 3/40


Number Systems

Ref Page 20


Slide 4/40

2


§ Characteristics
§ Difficulty
number system

Ref Page 20


Slide 5/40


§

Characteristics
§


§



Ref Page 20


Slide 6/40

3



§

1. The digit itself

system)
§

the base

Ref Page 21


Slide 7/40


Characteristics
§


§


§


§


§

life


Ref Page 21


Slide 8/40

4



Example
258610 = (2 x 103) + (5 x 102) + (8 x 101) + (6 x 100)
= 2000 + 500 + 80 + 6

Ref Page 21


Slide 9/40


Characteristics
§


§

Has only 2 symbols or digits (0 and 1). Hence its
base = 2

§

The maximum value of a single digit is 1 (one less

§

Each position of a digit represents a specific power
of the base (2)

§

This number system is used in computers


Ref Page 21


Slide 10/40

5



Example
101012 = (1 x 24) + (0 x 23) + (1 x 22) + (0 x 21) x (1 x 20)
= 16 + 0 + 4 + 0 + 1
= 2110

Ref Page 21


Slide 11/40


Representing Numbers in Different Number
Systems

In order to be specific about which number system we
are referring to, it is a common practice to indicate the
base as a subscript. Thus, we write:
101012 = 2110

Ref Page 21


Slide 12/40

6


Bit
§ Bit stands for binary digit
§ A bit in computer terminology means either a 0 or a 1
§ A binary number consisting of n bits is called an n-bit
number

Ref Page 22


Slide 13/40


Octal Number System
Characteristics
§ Has total 8 symbols or digits (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7).
Hence, its base = 8
than the value of the base
§ Each position of a digit represents a specific power of
the base (8)


Ref Page 22


Slide 14/40

7


Octal Number System

sufficient to represent any octal number in binary
Example
20578 = (2 x 83) + (0 x 82) + (5 x 81) + (7 x 80)
= 1024 + 0 + 40 + 7
= 107110

Ref Page 22


Slide 15/40


Characteristics
§ Has total 16 symbols or digits (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,
8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F). Hence its base = 16
§ The symbols A, B, C, D, E and F represent the
decimal values 10, 11, 12, 13, 14 and 15
respectively


Ref Page 22


Slide 16/40

8



§ Each position of a digit represents a specific power
of the base (16)
sufficient to represent any hexadecimal number in
binary
Example
1AF16

= (1 x 162) + (A x 161) + (F x 160)
= 1 x 256 + 10 x 16 + 15 x 1
= 256 + 160 + 15
= 43110

Ref Page 22


Slide 17/40


Decimal Number
Method
Step 1: Determine the column (positional) value of
each digit
Step 2: Multiply the obtained column values by the
digits in the corresponding columns
Step 3: Calculate the sum of these products


Ref Page 23


Slide 18/40

9


Decimal Number

Example
47068 = ?10

47068 = 4 x 83 + 7 x 82 + 0 x 81 + 6 x 80
= 4 x 512 + 7 x 64 + 0 + 6 x 1
= 2048 + 448 + 0 + 6
= 250210

Ref Page 23

Common
values
multiplied
by the
corresponding
digits

Sum of these
products


Slide 19/40


Another Base
Division-Remainder Method
Step 1: Divide the decimal number to be converted by
the value of the new base
Step 2: Record the remainder from Step 1 as the
rightmost digit (least significant digit) of the
new base number
Step 3:

Divide the quotient of the previous divide by the
new base


Ref Page 25


Slide 20/40

10


Another Base

Step 4: Record the remainder from Step 3 as the next
digit (to the left) of the new base number
Repeat Steps 3 and 4, recording remainders from right to
left, until the quotient becomes zero in Step 3
Note that the last remainder thus obtained will be the most
significant digit (MSD) of the new base number


Ref Page 25


Slide 21/40


Another Base

Example
95210 = ?8
Solution:
8

952
119
14
1
0

Remainder
s 0
7
6
1

Hence, 95210 = 16708
Ref Page 26


Slide 22/40

11


of Another Base
Method
Step 1: Convert the original number to a decimal
number (base 10)
Step 2: Convert the decimal number so obtained to
the new base number


Ref Page 27


Slide 23/40


of Another Base

Example
5456 = ?4
Solution:
Step 1: Convert from base 6 to base 10
5456 = 5 x 62 + 4 x 61 + 5 x 60
= 5 x 36 + 4 x 6 + 5 x 1
= 180 + 24 + 5
= 20910


Ref Page 27


Slide 24/40

12


of Another Base

Step 2: Convert 20910 to base 4
4

209

Remainders

52

1

13

0

3

1
3

0
Hence, 20910 = 31014
So, 5456 = 20910 = 31014
Thus, 5456 = 31014

Ref Page 28


Slide 25/40


Method
Step 1: Divide the digits into groups of three starting
from the right
Step 2: Convert each group of three binary digits to
one octal digit using the method of binary to
decimal conversion


Ref Page 29


Slide 26/40

13



Example
11010102 = ?8
Step 1: Divide the binary digits into groups of 3 starting
from right
001

101

010

Step 2: Convert each group into one octal digit
0012 = 0 x 22 + 0 x 21 + 1 x 20 = 1
1012 = 1 x 22 + 0 x 21 + 1 x 20 = 5
0102 = 0 x 22 + 1 x 21 + 0 x 20 = 2
Hence, 11010102 = 1528

Ref Page 29


Slide 27/40


Method
Step 1:

Convert each octal digit to a 3 digit binary
number (the octal digits may be treated as
decimal for this conversion)

(of 3 digits each) into a single binary
number


Ref Page 30


Slide 28/40

14



Example
5628 = ?2
Step 1: Convert each octal digit to 3 binary digits
58 = 1012,
68 = 1102,
28 = 0102
5628 = 101
110
010
5
6
2
Hence, 5628 = 1011100102

Ref Page 30


Slide 29/40


Method
Step 1: Divide the binary digits into groups of four
Step 2:

Combine each group of four binary digits to
one hexadecimal digit


Ref Page 30


Slide 30/40

15



Example
1111012 = ?16
Step 1:

0011

1101

Step 2: Convert each group into a hexadecimal digit
00112 = 0 x 23 + 0 x 22 + 1 x 21 + 1 x 20 = 310 = 316
11012 = 1 x 23 + 1 x 22 + 0 x 21 + 1 x 20 = 310 = D16
Hence, 1111012 = 3D16

Ref Page 31


Slide 31/40


Method
Step 1: Convert the decimal equivalent of each
hexadecimal digit to a 4 digit binary
number
(of 4 digits each) in a single binary number


Ref Page 31


Slide 32/40

16



Example
2AB16 = ?2
Step 1: Convert each hexadecimal digit to a 4 digit
binary number
216 = 210 = 00102
A16 = 1010 = 10102
B16 = 1110 = 10112

Ref Page 32


Slide 33/40



2AB16 = 0010 1010 1011
2
A
B
Hence, 2AB16 = 001010101011 2

Ref Page 32


Slide 34/40

17


Fractional Numbers
Fractional numbers are formed same way as decimal
number system
In general, a number in a number system with base b
would be written as:
an an-1… a0 . a-1 a-2 … a-m
And would be interpreted to mean:
an x bn + an-1 x bn-1 + … + a0 x b0 + a-1 x b-1 + a-2 x b-2 +
… + a-m x b-m
The symbols an, an-1, …, a-m in above representation
should be one of the b symbols allowed in the number
system

Ref Page 33


Slide 35/40


Binary Point
Position

4

3

2

1

0

-1

-2

-3

-4

Position Value

24

23

22

21

20

2-1

2-2

2-3

2-4

Quantity
Represented

16

8

4

2

1

1/
2

1/
4

1/
8

1/
16

.


Ref Page 33


Slide 36/40

18



Example
110.1012 = 1 x 22 + 1 x 21 + 0 x 20 + 1 x 2-1 + 0 x 2-2 + 1 x 2-3
= 4 + 2 + 0 + 0.5 + 0 + 0.125
= 6.62510

Ref Page 33


Slide 37/40


Octal Point
Position

3

2

1

0

Position Value

83

82

81

80

8

1

Quantity
Represented

512

64

.

-1

-2

-3

8-1

8-2

8-3

1/
8

1/
64

1/
512


Ref Page 33


Slide 38/40

19



Example
127.548

Ref Page 33

= 1 x 82 + 2 x 81 + 7 x 80 + 5 x 8-1 + 4 x 8-2
= 64 + 16 + 7 + 5/8 + 4/64
= 87 + 0.625 + 0.0625
= 87.687510


Slide 39/40


Key Words/Phrases
§
§
§
§
§
§
§
§

Base
Binary number system
Binary point
Bit
Decimal number system
Division-Remainder technique
Fractional numbers
Hexadecimal number system

Ref Page 34

Least Significant Digit (LSD)
Memory dump
Most Significant Digit (MSD)
Non-positional number
system
§ Number system
§
§
§
§


Slide 40/40

20


Ref Page


Slide 1/40


Learning Objectives


Ref Page 20


Slide 2/40


Learning Objectives


Ref Page 20


Slide 3/40

1


Number Systems

Ref Page 20


Slide 4/40


§ Characteristics
§ Difficulty
number system

Ref Page 20


Slide 5/40


§

Characteristics
§


§



Ref Page 20


Slide 6/40

2



§

1. The digit itself

system)
§

the base

Ref Page 21


Slide 7/40


Characteristics
§


§


§


§


§

life


Ref Page 21


Slide 8/40



Example
258610 = (2 x 103) + (5 x 102) + (8 x 101) + (6 x 100)
= 2000 + 500 + 80 + 6

Ref Page 21


Slide 9/40

3

Computer fundamental

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