rural water 1-4 compressed.pdf

P E N N A N C H I N N A S A M Y
A S S I S T A N T P R O F E S S O R
C E N T E R F O R T E C H N O L O G Y A L T E R N A T I V E S F O R
R U R A L A R E A S
I N D I A N I N S T I T U T E O F T E C H N O L O G Y - B O M B A Y
N P T E L - R U R A L W A T E R R E S O U R C E S
M A N A G E M E N T
Rural Water Resources
Management
P.Chinnasamy@iitb.ac.in

R U R A L A R E A S
M A N A G E M E N T
Management
Week 1: Lecture 1

Personal Introduction
 Graduate Degrees: Physics
 Doctoral Degree: Hydrology
 Surface water, Groundwater, nutrient dynamics and micro climate, GIS
 Remote Sensing and Hydrological Models
 Research Profile
 Post doctoral fellow - ATREE
 Researcher - International Water Management Institute – India, Sri
Lanka, Nepal
 Groundwater/Remote sensing/water allocation/climate change
 Senior Researcher – Nanyang Technological University – Singapore
 Flood prediction and climate change
 Visiting Scientist – Dahod
 Visiting Professor – University of Oulu, Finland
3

Personnel
 Prof. Pennan Chinnasamy
 Mr. Pranad M
 Mr. Mohammad Kasim Khan
4

Reference Materials
 Freeze P.A., Cherry J. 1979
Groundwater. Prentice-Hall
 Ward, R.C and Robinson. M. 1967.
Principles of Hydrology. Tata
McGraw Hill
 Dingman, S.L. 2015. Physical
hydrology (Vol. 575). Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
5

Reference Materials…
 Viessman, W., Lewis, G.L. and Knapp, J.W.
2003. Introduction to hydrology (No. GB
661.2. V53 1972.). Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Prentice Hall.
 Fetter, C.W. 2018. Applied hydrogeology.
Waveland Press.
 Raghunath H.M. 2006. Hydrology:
principles, analysis and design
6
Many field
notes

Course Introduction and topics to be covered
 Importance of Water Resources
 Importance in India
 Focus on Rural India
7
Source: Pennan Chinnasamy

Week – 1
 Course Introduction
 Week by Week topics – what to expect?
 Hydrological Cycle
8
Source: https://www.usgs.gov/media/images/natural-water-cycle-jpg

Course week by week topics
 Week 1:
 Importance of water resource management in India and
Introduction to Hydrological Cycle and representations
 Week 2:
 Key Hydrological Parameters 1
 Week 3:
 Key Hydrological Parameters 2
 Week 4:
 Introduction to Groundwater hydrology
9

Course week by week topics…
 Week 5:
 Groundwater components
 Week 6:
 Surface water hydrology and components
 Week 7:
 Water Mass Balance Equation (Rural Focus)
 Week 8:
 Rural water management issues, data challenges and
observation records
10

Course week by week topics…
 Week 9:
 Rural water resource management infrastructure (engineered)
 Week 10:
 Rural water resource management infrastructure (nature
based)
 Week 11:
 Solving case studies in rural water resource management
 Week 12:
 Rural hydrological databases for India
11

R U R A L A R E A S
L E C T U R E : I M P O R T A N C E O F W A T E R R E S O U R C E
M A N A G E M E N T I N I N D I A A N D I N T R O D U C T I O N
T O H Y D R O L O G I C A L C Y C L E A N D
R E P R E S E N T A T I O N S
Management
Week 1: Lecture 2

Importance of water resource management in India and
2
How much of fresh
water is there?

Importance of water resource management
3
Source: https://www.fao.org/3/u8480e/U8480E3h.jpg
• Most water is salty and
in Oceans
• Even fresh water is
locked
• Easily accessible is a
very small portion
• Groundwater
20+1% of 2.5% of
all water is
approximately 0.5%
of all water!

Water Stress!
5
Source: WRI 2013
Is the water use
same across
different countries?
Why?

Why this disparity in water?
6
Let us compare the
water. But before
that…

While accessing these data, please note the units!
7
Source: Hydrology and the Management of Watersheds, Fourth Edition. Kenneth N. Brooks, Peter F. Ffolliott and Joseph A.
Magner and https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/9781118459751.app1

8
Source: Adapted from American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), 1976, Standard for Metric Practice
(Philadelphia: ASTM) and https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/9781118459751.app1

R U R A L A R E A S
L E C T U R E : I M P O R T A N C E O F W A T E R R E S O U R C E
M A N A G E M E N T I N I N D I A A N D I N T R O D U C T I O N
T O H Y D R O L O G I C A L C Y C L E A N D
R E P R E S E N T A T I O N S
Management
Week 1: Lecture 3

Importance of water resource management in India and
2
How do we know
how much we use?

Water Availability in India
3
Source: http://mospi.nic.in/
How do we know
each use?

Projected Water Demand by Different uses
4
How do we know
each person’s use?

Litres per Capita per Day (LPCD)
 Defined as the water volume (in litres) needed per
day per person for a particular region
 4o to 55 LPCD in Rural regions
 150 to 200 LPCD in Urban regions
 Government missions are working on increasing the
values
 by 2022, every rural person in the country will have access to
70 lpcd
5
Source: National Rural Drinking Water Programme (NRDWP 2013)

While implementing the Rural Water Supply Schemes,
the following norms are adopted for
providing potable drinking water to the population:
6
Source: https://megphed.gov.in/standards/guiderural.pdf

 Individual (how much water is used per day)
 Households
 District
 Nations
 Calculator
(http://www.csgnetwork.com/waterusagecalc.html)
(HW)
 https://ourworldindata.org/water-use-stress
 Water Footprints – sum of total water (summed up) for
manufacturing a product (e.g. 1500 lit for 1kg sugar)
7
Source: https://megphed.gov.in/standards/guiderural.pdf

Recap
 Introduction to course content
 Importance of water management
 Units and quantification of water
 LPCD
 Hydrological cycle
9

R U R A L A R E A S
M A N A G E M E N T
Management
Week 1: Lecture 4

Hydrological Cycle
2
Definitions
 Hydrology – study of the movement of water
 describes the continuous movement of water on,
above, and below the surface of the Earth (USGS)
 Definition of hydrologic cycle: the sequence of
conditions through which water passes from vapor in
the atmosphere through precipitation upon land or
water surfaces and ultimately back into the
atmosphere as a result of evaporation and
transpiration — called also hydrological cycle
(Merriam dictionary)

Introduction to Hydrological Cycle and
representations (Rural Regions)
3

Can be a pathway diagram
1. Direct evaporation from wetted leaf
surfaces.
2. Surface runoff/stormflow.
3. Direct evaporation from the soil surface.
4, 5, 6. Plant-available soil moisture within
root-range of existing weeds, crops, trees.
7. Soil moisture within root-range of
existing plants but held at tensions
unavailable to them.
8. Soil moistures held at all tensions, but
below root-depth of existing plants.
9. Water not captured by roots and small
pores, moving to groundwater and
streamflow.
10. Leakage to deep groundwater beneath
catchment floor.
4
Source: Shaxson, 2001 after FAO, 1995b
Which
science is
Hydrology?

Analysis for Hydrologic Cycle
 Mostly the unit of Analysis is a Watershed.
 Average land holding size is 1.08 ha (Ag Census
2015)
 There is a need for small scale understanding of hydrologic
phenomenon
 Such understanding will aid in Rural Water Management
 The dominant hydrologic parameters can change
from Rural scale to District scale
 Therefore it is important to understand key drivers
 Monitoring is important
6

R U R A L A R E A S
M A N A G E M E N T
Management
Week 1: Lecture 5

Recap of Week 1:
 Introduction to course content
 Importance of water management
 Units and quantification of water
 LPCD
 Hydrological cycle
2

Hydrological Cycle and representations
3

Localised Hydrology for Rural areas
4

Recap of Week 1:
 Availability of Fresh
Water
 Case for Rural India
 Access is getting difficult
5
Source: https://www.fao.org/3/u8480e/U8480E3h.jpg

6
Therefore
there is need to
focus on Rural
Water
Management

7
Source: Adapted from American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), 1976, Standard for Metric Practice
(Philadelphia: ASTM) and https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/9781118459751.app1

R U R A L A R E A S
M A N A G E M E N T
Management
Week 2: Lecture 1

ReCap of Week 1 and link to Week 2
 Week 1
 Introduction to course content
 Importance of water management
 Units and quantification of water
 LPCD
 Hydrological cycle
 Week 2
 Key Hydrological Parameters (n=3)
2

Week – 2
3

Key Parameters for Rural India and why?
 Precipitation
 Evapotranspiration
 Runoff/Discharge
 Water Storage
 Soil Moisture
 Groundwater
4

Week 1: Parameters
 Precipitation
5

Precipitation
 Why Precipitation is important?
 What are the different types/forms of precipitation?
 What are the key methods in which precipitation
occurs?
 How is precipitation measured?
6

Types of Precipitation
 What are the major different forms of precipitation?
 Rainfall
 Snow
 Hail
 Sleet
7

R U R A L A R E A S
M A N A G E M E N T
Management
Week 2: Lecture 2

Precipitation formation
What are the key methods in which precipitation
occurs?
 Frontal : Cold air moves and lifts warm air and
condensation occurs
 Orographic : Air moves over elevations and
condensation occurs
 Convection: Moist air moves over hot surface,
causing sudden raise of air and condensation occurs
 Convergence : Two air masses, with similar energy,
collide
2

Orographic and Frontal
3
Source: Hydrology: principles, analysis and design (Raghunath 2006)

Precipitation measurement
How is precipitation measured?
 Rain Gauges!
 Multiple designs
 Both manual and automatic gauges exist
 Usually measured as a rainfall level in a known
container
 Need to convert rainfall level (ONE Dimension
of L) to volume
 Multiple methods available for conversion,
simplest is multiplication with contributing area
(L * Area (L2) = Volume L3)
4
Source: IMD Pune
Lets look at
one example

Tipping Bucket Rain gauge
5

Improvements needed for Rural Rainfall data
 Need for higher spatial
coverage
 Need for higher temporal
coverage
 Better instrument maintenance
 Floods
 Debris
 Power
 Easier access to data
 All these require more funding
6
Source: IMD Chennai (http://www.imdchennai.gov.in/about.pdf)
Other
options?

Remote Sensing Products
7
Source: NASA GES DISC Dataset

International collaborations for
mapping rainfall
8
Source: NASA

R U R A L A R E A S
M A N A G E M E N T
Management
Week 2: Lecture 3

Evapotranspiration (ET)
 Some fundamentals
 Evapotranspiration (ET) is the loss of water from ground to
the atmosphere
 ET includes Evaporation (E) and Transpiration (T)
 Evaporation is from open surfaces (urban, land and water)
while Transpiration is from living beings (trees, plants,
humans, etc.)
2

Evaporation: Why important?
 Need to estimate the loss of water from open
surfaces.
 Remaining is available for other uses
3

Transpiration: Why Important?
 Directly tied to carbon sequestration by
plants.
 Water use: what is used for transpiration is
not available for other uses.
 If you know how much water plants are
using, you can better manage the resource.
 Examples?
 Drip irrigation
 Kharif planting (monsoon)
 Groundwater irrigation
4

Evapotranspiration estimation
Since it needs to measure both evaporation and
transpiration it is complex. Two major types:
 Physical Measurements (e.g.)
 Lysimeters
 Sap-flux meters
 Empirical Models (e.g.)
 Penman Method
 Thornthwaite
5
Source: FAO

Physical Measurements
6
Source: Changming Liu et al. (2002)

IMD Evaporation pans
7
Empirical models

FAO – ET estimation – Crop Coefficient
(http://www.fao.org/docrep/X0490E/x0490e0a.htm)
8

Kc, and ETc
9
(http://www.fao.org/docrep/X0490E/x0490e0a.htm)

Satellite Derived Products
10
(Source: NASA MODIS Land products)

R U R A L A R E A S
M A N A G E M E N T
Management
Week 2: Lecture 4

Surface Runoff/Discharge
2

Runoff
3
component
s
Ranking them by time (fast to
slow)
• SR
• Subsurface R
• Base flow
3

4
Watershed shape impact
 Time of concentration – time taken a drop of rain
to reach drainage from the most distant point.
Length of
tributaries and
total time taken
for
concentration

Surface Runoff Measurements
5
Source: USGS

6
Source: USGS
How are real-time
hydrographs generated ?

Components of Hydrograph
7

What could Base Flow sustain?
 Ecosystem services
 Aquatic life
 Regulation of temperature
 Groundwater recharge
 Perennial streams
 Wetlands
 Springs
8

R U R A L A R E A S
M A N A G E M E N T
Management
Week 2: Lecture 5

Recap of Week 2:
 Key Hydrological
Components
 Precipitation
 Evapotranspiration
 Runoff/Discharge
 Water Storage
 Soil Moisture
 Groundwater
2

Hydrological Components at field scale
3

Rainfall/Precipitation
 Is the driver for many activities
 Accurate assessments needed
 Can aid planning of rural water management
 Can aid crop selection for Kharif and Rabi season
 Costly to monitor and manage data
 Can use combination of field and remote sensing
4
Source: IMD Pune

Evapotranspiration
 One of the key losses of water from the system
 Depends on Land use and Land cover (LULC) type
 Needs to be managed based on the water availability
 Assess rainfall and then plan on crops
 Change in crop type
 Change in crop area
 Data issues exist, need better data
5
(Source: NASA MODIS Land products)

Surface Runoff/Discharge
 Three components
 Surface Runoff
 Subsurface Runoff
 Baseflow
 Depends also on LULC
 Needs to be managed to minimize loss from the
system
 Data is also limited, so models are used (e.g. SWAT)
6
(Source: SWAT TAMU)

R U R A L A R E A S
M A N A G E M E N T
Management
Week 3: Lecture 1

 Week 2
 Introduction to Hydrological Cycle
 Week 3
 Key Hydrological Parameters part II (n=3)
2

Week – 3
3

Key Parameters for Rural India and why?
 Precipitation
 Surface Water
Storage
 Soil Moisture
 Groundwater
4

Week 2: Parameters
 Surface Water Storage
 Soil Moisture
 Groundwater
5

Surface Water Storage (SWS)
 Why SWS is important?
 What are the different
types/forms of SWS?
 How is SWS measured?
 What are happening to rural
SWS?
6

SWS types - Natural
 Ponds
 Lakes
 Zero order streams
 Wells/depressions
 Different names across
India
7
Source: Sivagangai Tamizhan
River
Stream
canal
Medium stream
depressions
basins
Small streams

SWS Types
 What are the major SWS in Rural settings?
 Traditional
 Rainfall
 Soil type
 Slope
 Availability of materials
8
Source:
https://geographyandyou.com/ten-
traditional-water-conservation-methods/

SWS Types - Engineering
 Large Dams
 Small dams/ Check dams
 Overhead tanks
9
Source: https://nwa.mah.nic.in/sdmc/assets/chkdam.htm

Monitoring
 Needs level recordings
 Needs incoming discharge (similar to runoff)
 Needs outlet discharge (release)
 Losses estimates
 Can be expensive
10
Source: MARVI

R U R A L A R E A S
M A N A G E M E N T
Management
Week 3: Lecture 2

Soil Moisture (SM)/Soil water
What is Soil Moisture and where is it stored?
 Soil has pore spaces (Vf/Vv = Va+Vw)
 Water can be stored in empty pore spaces (Vw)
 Movement due to gravity
2
Source: Introduction to Soil Physics (Daniel Hillel 2004)

Key movement pathways
 Water from precipitation moves downward
 Infiltration (initial phase)
 Percolation (after ponding)
 Pathways
 Roots
 Organisms
 Geological pathways (Fractures)
3
It is key to
understand
how to enhance
Soil Moisture

Different stages
4
Source: Physical Hydrology (Dingman L 2012)
Further
movement of
water
contributes to
Groundwater

Soil Moisture (SM) measurement
How is SM measured?
 Physical instruments and lab
 Lab: Sample weight before and after drying
 Instruments: Multiple designs
 Both manual and automatic gauges exist
 Usually measured at various depth levels
 E.g.: Resistance based (e.g. Decagon),
Neutron Scattering, Time Domain
Reflectometry (TDR), radar waves,
ultrasonic wave, etc.
5
Source: Introduction to Soil Physics (Daniel Hillel 2004)

Modelling estimates
 Computer simulations can model the soil moisture
and downward movement with limited data e.g.:
 Rainfall
 Soil type and properties
 Slope
 E.g. : SWAT model
6
Source: SWAT TAMU

Radar Remote Sensing Methods
7
Source: SMAP - NASA
• Works on Active Radar principles
• Open source data
• Higher spatial and temporal resoultion
• Available at multiple depths (e.g. 10, 20, 40,
100 and 200 cm)
• Needs to be groundtruthed
• For small scale land holding (e.g. India) it
might need to be supplemented with
observation data
• Near Real Time also available

R U R A L A R E A S
M A N A G E M E N T
Management
Week 3: Lecture 3

Groundwater (GW)
 Some fundamentals
 Water that is not taken up by plants, and soil moves down to
the aquifers as groundwater recharge
 Important for rural water management
 Supports majority of the Rabi Season crop (non-monsoon)
 One of the most complex hydrological parameter to estimate
and model
 It is the last step in the hydrologic cycle
2

Theory of Groundwater Storage
Soils, rocks and sediments in the subsurface consist of a matrix
of solid mineral grains and pore spaces (porous or soil media)
that can be occupied by groundwater
Domenico & Schwartz (1998)
3

Groundwater in the Hydrologic Cycle
4

Important parameters for Groundwater
assessments
 Baseflow
 Principle of GW flow –
Head, Darcy Law
 Porosity
 Specific Yield
 Hydraulic Conductivity
 Groundwater recharge
 Natural
 Augmented/artificial
 Aquifers
5

Different types of Groundwater
 Shallow GW
 Deep GW
 Locked GW
6

Determination of Groundwater recharge
8

R U R A L A R E A S
M A N A G E M E N T
Management
Week 3: Lecture 4

GW Monitoring and Measurements
2
 Physical monitoring by observation wells
 The Central Groundwater Board, Gov. of India, is the
official monitoring agency and has many wells across
India (Total 22730)
 16375 dug wells (shallow)
 6355 Piezometer (deep wells)
Source: CGWB 2020

Groundwater level data collection
4
(Source: Pennan Chinnasamy, Solinst (solinst.com), Raghunath 2006 )

Area for Aquifer Mapping during XII Plan
(2012-17)
Total OE/Critical
Blocks- 1288
Being covered
(1127)
•Priority areas in 8
states- 915
•Other areas- 212
Source: CGWB, www.indiaatcop22.org
INDIA@COP22
8

R U R A L A R E A S
M A N A G E M E N T
Management
Week 3: Lecture 5

GW models
2
 MODFLOW model (Source: aquaveo.com)
 Based on Physical equations

GW data Issues
 Not representative
 Less frequency – Spatial and Temporal
 Low density/Concentrated
 Costs
 Abandoned wells/disconnected wells
 Polluted wells
 Metering not possible
 Contamination
 Data quality check
3

GW management issues
 CGWB – Central Groundwater Board, governing
body for GW in India (only major body other than
State PWD)
 Spatial and Temporal resolution
 Empirical methods
 Outdated methods
 One size fits all approach
4

Remote Sensing Data Platforms
 Gravity Recovery And Climate
Experiment (GRACE)
 Global Land Data Assimilation Systems
– GLDAS Archives
 Bhuvan GIS (RS/Observed data) (Souce: NASA, BhuvaGIS)
5

Recap of Week 3:
 Key Hydrological
Components
 Surface Water
Storage
 Soil Moisture
 Groundwater
7

R U R A L A R E A S
M A N A G E M E N T
Management
Week 4: Lecture 1

 Week 3
 Introduction to Hydrological Cycle
 Surface water storage
 Soil Moisture
 Groundwater
 Week 4
 Groundwater Hydrology
2

Groundwater Hydrology
•What is Groundwater Hydrology?
•Atmospheric precipitation that infiltrates into the ground
• Surface water that becomes trapped in the pore space of sediments
during their deposition in lakes, streams, and especially the oceans
• Water degassed from cooling magmas
Tarbuck & Lutgens (2002)
3

Theory of Groundwater Flow
Soils, rocks and sediments in the subsurface consist of a matrix
of solid mineral grains and pore spaces (porous or soil media)
that can be occupied by groundwater
Starting point for characterizing fluid flow through porous media is
Darcy’s law
Domenico & Schwartz (1998)
4

Groundwater and the hydrologic cycle
5
Source: Freeze and Cherry 1979

Systems representation for Groundwater hydrology
6
Source: Freeze and Cherry 1979

Changes in groundwater with depth in the Earth’s crust
With increasing depth in the Earth’s crust:
• Porosity decreases so groundwater abundance decreases
• Groundwater becomes more saline
7 Source: Daniel Hillel 2004

Groundwater
flows along
streams -
Baseflow
8
Source: Fetter – Applied Hydrogeology 2001

Baseflow from Hydrograph
9

R U R A L A R E A S
M A N A G E M E N T
Management
Week 4: Lecture 2

Where is Groundwater stored? Aquifers
 What is an aquifer?
 How does it store water?
2

Different types of Aquifers
 Confined
 Unconfined
 Artesian wells
3

Formation of Different types of Aquifers
4
Source: Fetter –
Applied Hydrogeology
2001

Perched Aquifers
5

Potentiometric Surface/Water Table Aquifers
6

R U R A L A R E A S
M A N A G E M E N T
Management
Week 4: Lecture 3

Groundwater (GW) Recharge
2
Source: https://www.usgs.gov

Groundwater Discharge
3

Groundwater Discharge
4

Influenced Recharge and Discharge
5
Source: Wreikat and Kharabsheh 2020

Natural
Discharge
6
BASEFLOW

R U R A L A R E A S
M A N A G E M E N T
Management
Week 4: Lecture 4

Major Types of Indian Aquifers
3

Aquifers and
Groundwater in
India
4
Source: CGWB 2020

Based on Geology
5
Source: Geological Society of India

Aquifers and
Groundwater in
India
6
Source: CGWB 2020

• Alluvium and unconfined -
major aquifer systems (31%
area)
• Hard and semi-consolidated
rocks, remaining area
7
Source: CGWB 2020

R U R A L A R E A S
M A N A G E M E N T
Management
Week 4: Lecture 5

Recap of Week 4:
 Groundwater
Hydrology
 Components
 Aquifers
8

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