The antimicrobial activity varies widely, depending on the type of spice or herb, test medium, and microorganism. Spices should not be considered as a primary preservative method. However, the addition of herbs and spices are expected to aid in preserving foods held at refrigeration temperatures, at which the multiplication of microorganisms is slow.

1. ANTIMICROBIAL
PROPERTIES OF SPICES
Komal Bhadoria
M. Sc. - Nutritional Science
Institute of Professional Studies

2. INDEX
1. Introduction
2. Antimicrobial Effectiveness of Spices and Herbs
3. List of some spices
a) Garlic
b) Ginger
c) Turmeric
d) Nutmeg and Mace
e) Clove
f) Black Pepper
g) Cumin
h) Red Chilly
i) Cardamom
4. Summary
5. References

3. INTRODUCTION
Spices
Spices are interlaced into the history of nations. The search for spices
has made many travellers and navigators to make new routes into
spice- producing nations.
Spices release aroma, has colour and it provides taste to food
and sometimes are also used to hide undesirable odours. The volatile
oils from spices give the aroma and the oleoresins impart the taste.
There is growing interest in India’s spices and thus are studied for their
theoretical and practical aspects of the inner biosynthetic mechanisms
of the active principles in spices.
A range of bioactive compounds in herbs and spices has been
studied for cancer treating properties in animals, but the challenge still
lies in using this knowledge to be observed in humans using popular
cuisines. Research on the structure activity relationships in spice
components plays a major role in the culinary, industrial and
pharmacological fields.

4. INTRODUCTION
Antimicrobial Properties
An antimicrobial is an agent that
kills microorganisms or inhibits
their growth. Antibacterial are
used against bacteria and
antifungal are used against fungi.
For example, Clove bud oil has
various biological activities, such
as antibacterial, antifungal,
antioxidant and insecticidal
properties. The high level of
eugenol present in the essential
oil imparts strong biological and
antimicrobial activity
(Raghavenra et al., 2006*).

5. ANTIMICROBIAL EFFECTIVENESS OF SPICES
Table 1: Relative Antimicrobial Effectiveness of spices
Spices and Herbs Inhibitory Effect
Cinnamon, cloves, mustard Strong
Allspice, bay leaf, caraway, coriander, cumin,
oregano, rosemary, sage, thyme
Medium
Black pepper, red pepper, ginger Weak
Studies in the past confirm that the growth of both gram-positive and gram-
negative foodborne bacteria, yeast and mold can be inhibited by garlic, onion,
cinnamon, cloves, thyme, sage, and other spices. Effects of the presence of these
spices can be seen in food products such as pickles, bread, rice, and meat
products. The fat, protein, water, and salt contents of food influence microbial
resistance. Thus, it is observed that higher levels of spices are necessary to
inhibit growth in food than in culture media (17).
 Table 1 describes the relative antimicrobial effectiveness of some spices.
 Table 2 is a list of various spices and their inhibitory effect on various
microorganisms.

6. Table 2: Inhibitory Effects of Spices and Herbs
Spices /
Herb
Inhibitory Microorganisms Reference
Garlic
Salmonella typhymurium, Escherichia coli,
Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus cereus, Bacillus
subtilis, mycotoxigenic Aspergillus, Candida
albicans
(1, 2, 3, 4)
Onion Aspergillus flavis, Aspergillus parasiticus (5)
Cinnamon Mycotoxigenic Aspergillus, Aspergillus parasiticus (1, 6, 7)
Cloves Mycotoxigenic Aspergillus (1, 8)
Mustard Mycotoxigenic Aspergillus (1)
Allspice Mycotoxigenic Aspergillus (1, 8)
Oregano
Mycotoxigenic Aspergillus, Salmonella spp., Vibrio
parahaemolyticus
(1, 9, 10,
11)
Rosemary
Bacillus cereus, Staphylococcus aureus, Vibrio
parahaemolyticus
(12)
Bay leaf Clostridium botulinum (13)
Sage
Bacillus cereus, Staphylococcus aureus, Vibrio
parahaemolyticus
(14, 12)
Thyme Vibrio parahaemolyticus (9, 11)

8. GARLIC
Scientific Name: Allium sativum
Family Name: Alliaceae
 Garlic features in the mythology, religion and culture of many nations.
For example Arab legend has it that garlic grew from one of the devil’s
footprint, there are many references to this noble plant in bible too.
Roman laborers and soldiers chewed on garlic, the soldiers did so before
battle, especially when they anticipated hand to hand fighting.
 Garlic is the perennial of the lily family, grows like a leek to the height
of 0.6m. Large quantities of garlic are grown in Spain, France, Egypt,
Bulgaria, Hungry, USA, Mexico and Brazil.
 Garlic is effectively used in cardiovascular diseases as regulator of
blood pressure and with dropper effects of it on glycaemia and
cholesterol, against bacterial, viral, mycosis and parasitic infections.
 Garlic is a wonderful plant having the properties of empowering
immune system, anti-tumour and antioxidant. Garlic shows this effect
thanks to >200 components it involves.

9. GARLIC
Antimicrobial Effect
 Aydin et al. (2007) demonstrated that the chopped garlic added to raw
meatball, has a slowing-down effect on microbiological growth in
ground meat depending on the garlic concentration.
 Garlic is effective both against influenza B and also herpes simplex
viruses. Garlic consists of allicin being a fungistatic substance, has
proved itself against micro-organisms such
as Candida, Aspergillus and Cryptococci as an effective anti-fungal
substance.
 Garlic is said to purify the blood and lower blood pressure, aid digestion
and prevent flatulence.
 Garlic is considered to be beneficial in the treatment of diabetes and to
lower cholesterol. Garlic juices are used in cough medicine and it helps
to elevate asthma.
 The studies made on bacteria concerning garlic are not limited only with
social originated infection factors and it is effective against micro-
organisms, which are got from infections growing in patients lying in
the hospitals. It has been judged that garlic extracts can be used in the
prevention of gastritis and stomach cancers.

10. GINGER
Scientific Name(s): Zingiber officinale Roscoe
Family Name: Zingiberaceae
• Ginger is one of the most extensively used spices because of its wide
range of application. It is used fresh and in the preserved or dried form.
• The use of ginger in the culinary, non-culinary and medicinal fields is
based on the chemistry of volatile oil & non- volatile pungent principles.
• The oil yield in ginger is about 2–3% and the oil consists of 64%
sesquiterpene hydrocarbons, 6% carbonyl compounds, 5% alcohols, 2%
monoterpene hydrocarbons and 1% esters. The main compounds in
ginger are zingiberene (29.5%) and sesquiphellandrene (18.4%).
• The pungent compounds of ginger include gingerols, shogaols, paradols
and zingerone, which produce a ‘hot’ sensation in the mouth. The
composition of these constituents varies, based on maturity, genotype
and agroclimatic conditions.

11. GINGER
Antimicrobial Effect
• Ginger has proven anti-inflammatory and has anti-ulcer principles.
• Ginger, a natural dietary component, has been known to have
antioxidant and anticarcinogenic properties.
• Manju and Nalini (2005) demonstrated the chemopreventive efficacy of
ginger in colon cancer. They had investigated the effect of ginger on the
initiation and post-initiation stages of 1,2- dimethyl hydrazine (DMH)-
induced colon carcinogenesis in male Wistar rats. The number of
tumours, as well as the incidence of cancer, was decreased significantly
on treatment with ginger.
• Shukla and Singh (2006) attributed the anticancer properties to the
presence of pungent vallinoids, e.g. [6]-gingerol and [6]-paradol,
shogaols, zingerone, etc.

12. TURMERIC
Scientific Name(s): Curcuma longa L.
Family Name: Zingiberaceae.
• Turmeric has been attributed a number of medicinal properties in the
traditional system of medicine for treating several common ailments.
• It which belongs to a group of aromatic spices, had been used originally
as a food additive in curries to improve the storage condition,
palatability and preservation of food. Turmeric is a key component of
curries, curcumin being the principal ingredient.
• The medicinal properties of curcuminoids have been well researched.
In particular, these compounds block several enzymes required for the
growth of tumours and may therefore have a role to play in future
cancer treatments.

13. TURMERIC
Antimicrobial Effect
• Curcuminoids have also been shown to exhibit antimicrobial properties.
• The antibacterial effects of alcoholic extract of turmeric, curcumin and
oil from turmeric have been studied by Banerjee and Nigam (1978) and
Bhavanishankar and Srinivasamurthy (1979). Extracts from turmeric, as
well as the active principles, the curcuminoids, were found to inhibit the
growth of numerous Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, fungi
and the intestinal parasite.
• The ethanol extract of turmeric has been reported to have anti-amoebic
activity.
• Curcumin also inhibits in vitro production of aflatoxins – toxins
produced by the mould Aspergillus parasiticus, which may grow and
contaminate poorly preserved foods and is a potent biological agent
causing injury to the liver, often resulting in liver cancer.

14. NUTMEG & MACE
Scientific Name(s): Myristica fragrans Houtt
Family Name: Myristicaceae
• Nutmeg belonging to the Myristicaceae family, has about 18 genera and
300 species.
• Nutmeg and mace are the two major primary products of M. fragrans
and are considered commercially as spices. The constituents of nutmeg
can be classified broadly into terpenoids, fatty acids, phenolic acids,
lignans, neolignans and miscellaneous compounds.
• The oil content ranges from 3.9 to 16.5% in nutmeg, whereas in mace it
varies from 6.0 to 26.1%. The major constituents of the essential oil in
nutmeg and mace are sabinene and pinenes.
• The chief flavor-contributing components, namely myristicin and
elemicin, are present in low concentrations. Myristicin is reported to be a
potent hepatoprotective principle in nutmeg.

15. NUTMEG & MACE
Antimicrobial Effect
• Nutmeg oil showed strong antibacterial activity against 25 genera of
bacteria (Dorman and Deans, 2000; 2004).
• It exhibited potent activities against Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli
and Saccharomyces cerevisiae (De et al., 1999).
• The resorcinols, malabaricone B and malabaricone C, isolated from
mace, exhibited strong antimicrobial activities against Staphylococcus
aureus and Candida albicans.
• Methylation of reduction of these resourcinols resulted in diminished
activity Ur-Rahman et al. (1999) reported the antifungal properties of
essential oil from nutmeg.
• Phenyl propanoids and 8-O-4′ neolignans isolated from mace exhibited
antifungal properties (Zacchino et al., 1997, 1999).

16. CLOVE
Scientific Name(s): Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merril. & Perry, syn.
Eugenia aromaticum or E. caryophyllata
Family Name: Myrtaceae.
• Clove is one of the most ancient and valuable spices of the Orient.
• The spice clove and its value-added products are used extensively for
flavoring food and confectionery.
• Clove oil has many industrial and pharmacological applications.
• Oil of clove is used extensively for flavoring all kinds of food products,
such as meats, sausages, baked goods, confectionery, candies, table
sauces, pickles, etc. Clove oil is used in medicine for its antibacterial,
antiseptic and antibiotic properties.
• Most of the studies conducted so far pertain to the clove volatiles and
very little attention has been paid to the nonvolatile constituents.

17. CLOVE
Antimicrobial Effect
• Clove exhibits potent antimicrobial activity against Bacillus subtilis,
Escherichia coli and Saccharomyces cerevisiae (De et al., 1999).
• Essential oils from clove and eugenol show various degrees of inhibition
against Aspergillus niger, S. cerevisiae, Mycoderma sp., Lactobacillus
acidophilus and B. cereus, as estimated by the paper disc agar diffusion
method.
• Clove oil (1% v/w) inhibits Listeria monocytogenes in chicken
frankfurters (Mytle et al., 2006). It has excellent antimicrobial properties
and is used in food preservation (Smith Palmer et al., 1998, 2001).
• The volatile oils of clove exhibited considerable inhibitory effects and
antibacterial activity against several genera of bacteria, including animal
and plant pathogens and food poisoning and spoilage bacteria

18. BLACK PEPPER
Scientific Name(s): Piper nigrum
Family Name: Piperaceae
• Black pepper is cultivated for its fruit, which is usually dried and used as
a spice and seasoning.
• The therapeutic properties of black pepper oil include analgesic,
antiseptic, antispasmodic, antitoxic, aphrodisiac, diaphoretic, digestive,
diuretic, febrifuge, laxative, rubefacient and tonic.
• Dried, ground pepper, and its variants, one of the most common spices in
European cuisine, having been known and prized since antiquity for both
its flavour and its use as a medicine

19. BLACK PEPPER
Antimicrobial Effect
• The volatile oil of pepper has been shown to have antimicrobial activity.
• Black pepper has many medicinal properties like it is used to treat
vertigo, asthma, chronic indigestion, arthritic disorders among others.
• As per a research on antibacterial activity of black pepper with special
reference to its mode of action on bacteria, the extracts of black pepper
were evaluated for antibacterial activity by disc diffusion method. The
minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) was determined by tube
dilution method and mode of action was studied on membrane leakage of
UV260 and UV 280 absorbing material, it was found that black pepper
altered the membrane permeability resulting the leakage of the UV260
and UV280 absorbing material. The result shows that black pepper have
good antibacterial activity, but when compared to Gram negative
bacteria, Gram positive bacteria are more susceptible to the extracts.

20. CUMIN
Scientific Name(s): Cuminum cyminum
Family Name: Umbelifers
Cumin (or Jeerah) is of the family Apiaceae, has been used as a spice since
ancient times and is native to the eastern Mediterranean, extending to East
India.
• Cumin is a very good source of iron and manganese.
• Eight of the 18 amino acids identified in cumin seeds are essential
amino acids, the limiting amino acid being tryptophan.
• Cumin oil is obtained usually by steam distillation of the milled spice;
hydrodiffusion gives a higher yield.
• Solvent free microwave extraction (SFME) is the most efficient
extraction system reported to date. The essential oil of cumin consists of
hydrocarbons, aldehydes and ketones, alcohols and ethers. The essential
oil content of the cumin seed ranges from 2.3 to 5%, of which 40–65%
is cuminaldehyde.

21. CUMIN
Antimicrobial Effect
• The essential oil of cumin exhibits strong antimicrobial activity against
Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus and Listeria monocytogenes.
Complete death time on exposure to cumin oil was 20, 180 and 90 min
for E. coli, S. aureus and L. monocytogenes, respectively (Gachkar et al.,
2007).
• Lawrence (1992) reported that cumin oil showed fungitoxic, fungicidal,
antibacterial and larvicidal activity due to the cuminaldehyde content.
The undiluted oil also has a distinct phytotoxic effect on mammals, but
not due to the cuminaldehyde content.
• Among the 60 constituents of the cumin oil identified by GC, GC-MS
and olfactometry as essential volatiles, cuminaldehyde (36%), b-pinene
(19.3%), p-cymene (18.4%) and γ-terpinene (15.3%) are the principal
components showing high antimicrobial activity against the mould A.
niger, the Gram-positive bacteria, Bacillus subtilis and S. epidermidis, as
well as the yeasts, Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Candida albicans
(Jirovetz et al., 2005).

22. RED CHILLY
Scientific Name(s): Capsicum annuam
Family Name: Solanaceae
• It is estimated that world production of chillies is about 2.5 million
tonnes. India tops the list, with about one million t from 8.28 million
hectare and paprika accounts for one-third of the total world
consumption of chilly (red pepper).
• It is valued principally for the brilliant red colour it gives to pale
foods and also for its delicate aroma.
• Paprika and paprika oleoresin are used currently in a wide
assortment of foods, drugs and cosmetics, as well as for improving
the feather colour of flamingoes in zoos.
• The colour of chilly powder is due to the presence of red-pigmented
carotenoids.

23. RED CHILLY
Antioxidant and Antibacterial Effect
• Capsaicin rich chilly pepper is a strong natural anti-bacterial, anti-
diabetic, analgesic and anti-cancer agent.
• It is the main ingredient in many analgesic creams, ointment and gels that
seek to provide temporary relief against variety of pains.
• In addition to strong antibacterial, anti-inflammatory and analgesic
properties , chilly peppers boast an incredible nutritional value; providing
76.4mg of vitamin C/100g. Vitamin C is a powerful antibacterial and
antioxidant.
• Chilly peppers are the richest in Vitamin A of all spices.
• Research is underway to determine the potential for the application of
chili pepper extracts in the food industry in place of artificial
preservatives. As new antibiotic-resistant food borne pathogens emerge,
the discovery of natural antimicrobials in chili peppers will be invaluable
to food scientists.

24. SMALL CARDAMOM
Scientific Name(s): Elettaria cardamomum
Family Name: Zingiberaceae
• Small cardamom, known as the ‘queen of spices’, which belongs to the
family of Zingiberaceae, is a rich spice obtained from the seeds of a
perennial plant, Elettaria cardamomum Maton.
• It is one of the highly prized spices of the world and is the third most
expensive spice after saffron and vanilla.
• Cardamom is used as an aromatic, carminative and stimulant.
• The seeds have a warm, slightly pungent aromatic flavour. It is used
mainly as a flavouring agent in tea and food preparations.
• Cardamom oil is a precious ingredient in food preparations, perfumery,
health foods, medicine and beverages.
• It is also used internally for indigestion, nausea, vomiting and pulmonary
disease with copious phlegm and also as a laxative to prevent stomach
pain and griping, as well as flatulence.

25. SMALL CARDAMOM
Antimicrobial Effect
• Extract of cardamom seed displays a variable degree of antimicrobial
activity on different microorganisms.
• Assays indicate that cardamom seed has inhibitory activity on
Mycobacterium smegmatis, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Staphylococcus
aureus, Enterococcus faecalis, Micrococcus luteus and Candida
albicans (Agaoglu et al., 2005). However, no inhibitory activity was
observed against Pseudomonas aeruginosa.
• The antimicrobial effect of the oil was tested against nine bacterial
strains, one fungus and one yeast results in cardamom oil was 28.9% as
effective as phenol, with minimal inhibitory concentration of 0.7 mg/ml
(Badei et al., 1991a,b; Kubo et al., 1991).

26. SUMMARY
 Although the antimicrobial activity of some spices and herbs
is documented, the normal amounts added to foods for flavor
is not sufficient to completely inhibit microbial growth.
 The antimicrobial activity varies widely, depending on the
type of spice or herb, test medium, and microorganism. For
these reasons, spice antimicrobials should not be considered
as a primary preservative method (6).
 However, the addition of herbs and spices can be expected to
aid in preserving foods held at refrigeration temperatures, at
which the multiplication of microorganisms is slow.
continued...

27.  Microorganisms differ in their resistance to a given spice or herb.
 Bacteria are more resistant than fungi.
 The effect on spores may be different than that on vegetative cells.
 Gram-negative bacteria are more resistant than gram-positive bacteria.
 The effect of a spice or herb may be inhibitory or germicidal.
 Spices and herbs may serve as substrates for microbial growth and toxin
production.
 Amounts of spices and herbs added to foods are generally too low to
prevent spoilage by microorganisms.
 Active components of spices at low concentrations may interact
synergistically with other factors (NaCl, acids, preservatives) to increase
preservative effect.
 Nutrients present in spices may stimulate growth and/or biochemical
activities of microorganisms. Thus, food product safety and shelf life
depend in some part on the type, quantity, and character of spices and
herbs added to the products.

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30. THANK YOU
Komal Bhadoria
Semester – IV, M. Sc. - Nutritional Science