1. Framing Differences inFraming Differences in
Gender-Related Sport CoverageGender-Related Sport Coverage
by Internet Sitesby Internet Sites
and Newspapersand Newspapers
Presented by Edward (Ted) M. Kian, Ph.D.Presented by Edward (Ted) M. Kian, Ph.D.
University of Central FloridaUniversity of Central Florida
Sport Leadership and CoachingSport Leadership and Coaching
The International Symposium on OnlineThe International Symposium on Online
Journalism, April 17-18, 2009, Austin, TXJournalism, April 17-18, 2009, Austin, TX

2. New MediaNew Media
New media are changing the way newsNew media are changing the way news
is gathered, distributed, accessed, andis gathered, distributed, accessed, and
consumedconsumed (Shultz & Sheffer, 2007).(Shultz & Sheffer, 2007).
Internet readers tend to be youngerInternet readers tend to be younger
than other media consumers. Thethan other media consumers. The
Internet has now surpassedInternet has now surpassed
newspapers as a primary news sourcenewspapers as a primary news source
for Americans, and rivals television asfor Americans, and rivals television as
the predominant news source for U.S.the predominant news source for U.S.
youthyouth (Pew Research, 2008).(Pew Research, 2008).

3. Research on Sport MediaResearch on Sport Media
Content and textual analyses onContent and textual analyses on
magazine, newspaper, andmagazine, newspaper, and
television sport coverage over thetelevision sport coverage over the
past 35 years have generallypast 35 years have generally
shown men receive more overallshown men receive more overall
coverage than women at all levelscoverage than women at all levels
of sportof sport (e.g., Bishop, 2003; Eastman & Billings,(e.g., Bishop, 2003; Eastman & Billings,
2000; Kian, 2008).2000; Kian, 2008).

4. Research on Sport MediaResearch on Sport Media
Sport media often frame femaleSport media often frame female
athletes as sex objects, are moreathletes as sex objects, are more
likely to delve into the personallikely to delve into the personal
lives of women in sport, andlives of women in sport, and
minimize their accomplishmentsminimize their accomplishments
and skill by regularly comparingand skill by regularly comparing
their abilities to mentheir abilities to men
(Hardin et al., 2005; Vincent, 2004).(Hardin et al., 2005; Vincent, 2004).

5. FramingFraming
Framing is a term regularly employedFraming is a term regularly employed
to describe the means through whichto describe the means through which
journalists make sense of newsjournalists make sense of news
events by selecting facts andevents by selecting facts and
embedding them in storylines. Mediaembedding them in storylines. Media
not only determine which stories arenot only determine which stories are
newsworthy, but also the ways innewsworthy, but also the ways in
which those news events are framedwhich those news events are framed
and portrayedand portrayed
(Kuypers, 2002; Lind & Salo, 2002).(Kuypers, 2002; Lind & Salo, 2002).

6. Research on Sport MediaResearch on Sport Media
Historically, in most of the world, sportHistorically, in most of the world, sport
has served as a hegemonic institution,has served as a hegemonic institution,
helping to preserve the power of menhelping to preserve the power of men
over womenover women (Schell & Rodriguez, 2000).(Schell & Rodriguez, 2000).
Numerous scholars contended theNumerous scholars contended the
institutions of sport and mass mediainstitutions of sport and mass media
are two of the primary forcesare two of the primary forces
reinforcing hegemonic masculinity inreinforcing hegemonic masculinity in
Western societyWestern society (e.g., Connell, 1990; Duncan &(e.g., Connell, 1990; Duncan &
Messner, 1998; Kian & Hardin, 2009).Messner, 1998; Kian & Hardin, 2009).

7. PurposePurpose
A challenge to the traditional framing ofA challenge to the traditional framing of
men’s and women’s sport bymen’s and women’s sport by
mainstream media may be emergingmainstream media may be emerging
with the increasing prevalence of thewith the increasing prevalence of the
Internet.Internet.
Several authors have found theSeveral authors have found the
community nature of the Internet iscommunity nature of the Internet is
more accommodating to women thanmore accommodating to women than
traditional forms of communicationtraditional forms of communication
(e.g., Royal, 2008; Spender, 1995; Turkle, 1995).(e.g., Royal, 2008; Spender, 1995; Turkle, 1995).

8. PurposePurpose
However, research on Internet sportHowever, research on Internet sport
media is in its infancymedia is in its infancy (Real, 2006).(Real, 2006). The fewThe few
published studies on gender havepublished studies on gender have
provided mixed resultsprovided mixed results (e.g., Cunningham,(e.g., Cunningham,
2003; Kian et al., in press; Jones, 2004; Sagas et al.2003; Kian et al., in press; Jones, 2004; Sagas et al.
2000).2000).
None of those published worksNone of those published works
compared Internet content of femalecompared Internet content of female
athletes with coverage of women’s sportathletes with coverage of women’s sport
through more traditional mediums.through more traditional mediums.

9. PurposePurpose
This study attempts to determine if anyThis study attempts to determine if any
significant differences are present in howsignificant differences are present in how
more traditional media (newspapers) andmore traditional media (newspapers) and
newer media (Internet) use descriptors tonewer media (Internet) use descriptors to
frame coverage of the same men’s andframe coverage of the same men’s and
women’s sport.women’s sport.
Since tennis is one of the only sportsSince tennis is one of the only sports
where the women’s and men’s gameswhere the women’s and men’s games
have similar levels of popularity, the U.S.have similar levels of popularity, the U.S.
Open was selected for examination.Open was selected for examination.

10. Research QuestionsResearch Questions
Research questions were employedResearch questions were employed
rather than hypotheses for thisrather than hypotheses for this
exploratory study. Three overridingexploratory study. Three overriding
research questions guided this study:research questions guided this study:
RQ1: What significant differences – if anyRQ1: What significant differences – if any
– exist in the gender-specific descriptors– exist in the gender-specific descriptors
used to frame newspaper articles on theused to frame newspaper articles on the
U.S. Open men’s tournament, women’sU.S. Open men’s tournament, women’s
tournament, and articles on both?tournament, and articles on both?

11. Research QuestionsResearch Questions
RQ2: What significant differences – if anyRQ2: What significant differences – if any
– exist in the gender-specific descriptors– exist in the gender-specific descriptors
used to frame Internet articles on theused to frame Internet articles on the
U.S. Open men’s tournament, women’sU.S. Open men’s tournament, women’s
tournament, and articles on both?tournament, and articles on both?
RQ3: What significant differences – if anyRQ3: What significant differences – if any
– exist in the gender-specific descriptors– exist in the gender-specific descriptors
used to frame newspaper articles on theused to frame newspaper articles on the
U.S. Open men’s tournament, women’sU.S. Open men’s tournament, women’s
tournament, and articles on bothtournament, and articles on both
compared to descriptors in online sportcompared to descriptors in online sport
sites on the same tournaments?sites on the same tournaments?

12. MethodologyMethodology
Content analysis of all byline (name ofContent analysis of all byline (name of
author) U.S. Open tennis articlesauthor) U.S. Open tennis articles
published in three daily newspapers (published in three daily newspapers (TheThe
Los Angeles TimesLos Angeles Times,, The New York TimesThe New York Times,,
USA TodayUSA Today) and three mainstream online) and three mainstream online
sport media sites (ESPN Internet,sport media sites (ESPN Internet,
FoxSports.com, SI.com) over a 16-dayFoxSports.com, SI.com) over a 16-day
period in fall, 2007.period in fall, 2007.
Byline articles…Byline articles…

13. Coding Categories and ProceduresCoding Categories and Procedures
Text of articles were coded for nineText of articles were coded for nine
descriptive categories derived fromdescriptive categories derived from
pervious research: (1) physicalpervious research: (1) physical
appearances/attire; (2) athleticappearances/attire; (2) athletic
prowess/strengths; (3) athleticprowess/strengths; (3) athletic
weaknesses/limitations; (4) positive skillweaknesses/limitations; (4) positive skill
level/accomplishments;level/accomplishments;

14. Coding Categories and ProceduresCoding Categories and Procedures
(5) negative skill level/failures; (6) family(5) negative skill level/failures; (6) family
role/personal relationships; (7)role/personal relationships; (7)
psychological/emotional strengths; (8)psychological/emotional strengths; (8)
psychological/emotional weaknesses; (9)psychological/emotional weaknesses; (9)
humor.humor.
Pretest and Intercoder reliabilityPretest and Intercoder reliability
Excel; ANOVA (alpha=0.05); PairwiseExcel; ANOVA (alpha=0.05); Pairwise
comparisons; Binomial test forcomparisons; Binomial test for
proportionsproportions

15. Assumptions Based onAssumptions Based on
Previous ResearchPrevious Research
Women’s stories wouldWomen’s stories would
include more descriptorsinclude more descriptors
on physical appearances,on physical appearances,
family roles or personalfamily roles or personal
relationships, athleticrelationships, athletic
weaknesses, negativeweaknesses, negative
skill level or failures,skill level or failures,
psychological orpsychological or
emotional weakness,emotional weakness,
and humor.and humor.
Men’s articles wouldMen’s articles would
include moreinclude more
descriptors ondescriptors on
athletic prowess,athletic prowess,
positive skill level orpositive skill level or
accomplishments,accomplishments,
and psychological orand psychological or
emotional strengthsemotional strengths
(e.g., Billings et al.,(e.g., Billings et al.,
2002; Harris & Clayton,2002; Harris & Clayton,
2002; Kian et al.,2002; Kian et al.,
2008).2008).

16. General FindingsGeneral Findings
Internet ArticlesInternet Articles Total ArticlesTotal Articles % of all Articles% of all Articles
Men’s TennisMen’s Tennis 2727 48.2%48.2%
Women’s TennisWomen’s Tennis 1414 25%25%
BothBoth 1515 27%27%
TotalTotal 5656 100%100%
Newspaper ArticlesNewspaper Articles Total ArticlesTotal Articles % of all Articles% of all Articles
Men’s TennisMen’s Tennis 5757 41.9%41.9%
Women’s TennisWomen’s Tennis 2626 19.1%19.1%
BothBoth 5353 39%39%
TotalTotal 136136 100%100%

17. RQ1 and RQ 2RQ1 and RQ 2
For all newspaper articles examined, pairwiseFor all newspaper articles examined, pairwise
comparisons showed results mostly reinforcingcomparisons showed results mostly reinforcing
previous sport media research.previous sport media research.
Among the 10 significant differences, the onlyAmong the 10 significant differences, the only
unexpected results were humor wasunexpected results were humor was
significantly more likely to be used in articlessignificantly more likely to be used in articles
about men’s tennis than articles on women’sabout men’s tennis than articles on women’s
tennis or on both genders.tennis or on both genders.
Coding and pairwise comparisons of InternetCoding and pairwise comparisons of Internet
articles offered mixed results that overall didarticles offered mixed results that overall did
not reinforce traditional stereotypes in sportnot reinforce traditional stereotypes in sport
media coverage as assumed, since only five ofmedia coverage as assumed, since only five of
the 11 significant findings were expected.the 11 significant findings were expected.
““Both” as a category impacting results…Both” as a category impacting results…

18. RQ3RQ3
When comparing newspaper and Internet articlesWhen comparing newspaper and Internet articles
only on men’s tennis, online articles wereonly on men’s tennis, online articles were
significantly more likely to use descriptors onsignificantly more likely to use descriptors on
psychological strengths and physical weaknesses,psychological strengths and physical weaknesses,
while newspapers significantly used morewhile newspapers significantly used more
descriptors on family roles and humor.descriptors on family roles and humor.
For articles solely on women’s tennis,For articles solely on women’s tennis,
newspapers were significantly more likely tonewspapers were significantly more likely to
employ descriptors on physical appearances,employ descriptors on physical appearances,
athletic weaknesses, and family roles. Onlineathletic weaknesses, and family roles. Online
articles were more likely to use attributes onarticles were more likely to use attributes on
positive skill level, psychological strengths, andpositive skill level, psychological strengths, and
psychological weaknesses on women’s tennis.psychological weaknesses on women’s tennis.

19. RQ3RQ3
In articles focusing on both men’s andIn articles focusing on both men’s and
women’s tennis, the binomial tests forwomen’s tennis, the binomial tests for
two proportions showed newspaperstwo proportions showed newspapers
were significantly more likely to usewere significantly more likely to use
descriptors on athletic prowess, athleticdescriptors on athletic prowess, athletic
weakness, and family roles. Internetweakness, and family roles. Internet
sites used significantly more descriptorssites used significantly more descriptors
per article for positive skill level andper article for positive skill level and
negative skill level in articles on bothnegative skill level in articles on both
genders.genders.

20. DiscussionDiscussion
Results for descriptors within newspaper articlesResults for descriptors within newspaper articles
reinforced the plethora of previous gender-relatedreinforced the plethora of previous gender-related
sport media research, minimizing the athleticism ofsport media research, minimizing the athleticism of
women and trivializing their accomplishments.women and trivializing their accomplishments.
Results within Internet articles were mixed but didResults within Internet articles were mixed but did
not represent a significant challenge to traditionalnot represent a significant challenge to traditional
framing of men’s and women’s sport.framing of men’s and women’s sport.
However, comparisons between mediums showedHowever, comparisons between mediums showed
Internet articles were significantly more likely toInternet articles were significantly more likely to
alter the ways media frame female athletes thanalter the ways media frame female athletes than
were newspaper articles.were newspaper articles.
Thus, hegemonic masculinity was challenged farThus, hegemonic masculinity was challenged far
more in online articles.more in online articles.

21. Limitations/DelimitationsLimitations/Delimitations
This research only examined six major mediaThis research only examined six major media
outlets, and focused on one men’s and women’soutlets, and focused on one men’s and women’s
sport played at the highest level.sport played at the highest level.
Generalizations cannot be made fromGeneralizations cannot be made from
examining six sport news outlets based in theexamining six sport news outlets based in the
United States, where tennis is not construed asUnited States, where tennis is not construed as
an overly masculine sport.an overly masculine sport.
These six newspapers or online sites are allThese six newspapers or online sites are all
very popular, national outlets. However, novery popular, national outlets. However, no
smaller, or regional outlets were examined.smaller, or regional outlets were examined.
Therefore, the scope of this research may haveTherefore, the scope of this research may have
been too broad.been too broad.