Pharmacotherapy involves the safe and effective management of drug administration and requires an understanding of the drug, disease, patient, and context of treatment. Drug dosage depends on inherent potency, pharmacokinetic properties, and the degree of response needed. Dose types include standard, regulated, target level, and titrated. Fixed drug combinations have advantages like convenience but also disadvantages like inability to adjust individual doses and potential for increased side effects. Many factors can modify a drug's effects including age, genetics, disease states, and interactions with other drugs. Rational drug use requires appropriate medication for a patient's needs with proper dosing, monitoring, and information provided. The drug development process involves extensive preclinical and clinical testing over 10-15

1. Aspect of Pharmacotherapy, Clinical
Pharmacology and Drug Developement
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2. Pharmacotherapy
• It is the safe and effective management of drug administration.
• It requires the understanding of the drug, the disease, the
patient and the milieu in which it is undertakne
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3. Drug Dosage
• Dose is the appropriate amount of a drug needed to produce a certain degree of
response in a given patient.
• E.g. the analgesic dose of aspirin for headache is 0.3-0.6 g, its antiplatelet dose is 60-
150 mg/day, while its anti-inflammatory dose for rheumatoid arthritis is 3-5 g per day.
• The dose of a drug is governed by its inherent potency, i.e. the concentration at which
it should be present at the target site, and its pharmacokinetic characteristics
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4. Types of Dose:
1. Standard dose : the same dose is appropriate for most patients-individual
variations are minor or the drug has a wide safety margin so that a large
enough dose can be given to cover them, e.g. oral contraceptives, penicillin
2. Regulated dose : the dosage is accurately adjusted by repeated measurement
of the affected physiological parameter, e.g. anti- hypertensives,
hypoglycaemics, anticoagulants, diuretics, general anaesthetics. In their case.
measurement of plasma drug concentration is not needed.
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5. 3. Target level dose : the response is not easily measurable but has been demonstrated
to be obtained at a certain range of drug concentration in plasma. An empirical dose
aimed at attaining the target level is given in the beginning.
4. Titrated dose: the dose needed to produce maximal therapeutic effect cannot be
given because of intolerable adverse effects. Optimal dose is arrived at by titrating it
with an accept able level of adverse effect.
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6. Fixed Drug Combinations (FDCs) of drugs7

7. Fixed Dose Combinations (FDCs) of drugs
A large number of pharmaceutical preparations contain two or more drugs in a fixed
dose ratio.
Advantages:
• convenience and better patient compliance.
• certain drug combinations are synergistics, e.g. levodopa + carbidopa
• therapeutic effect of two components being same may add up.
• the reduction of number of pills, improve patient compliance.
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8. Disadvantages:
• the dose of any component cannot be adjusted independently.
• some fixed dose combinations show more adverse effects.
• there will be increase in price if unnecessary drugs are included.
• contraindication to one component contraindicates the whole product.
• it becomes difficult to identify one particular drug which is causing
harmful/beneficial effects
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9. Factors modifying drugs action
Responses variation to a Drug:
1. person to person; and
2. also same person on different occasions.
• Individuals differ in pharmacokinetic handling of drugs –
Varying plasma/target site conc.
• Variation in number or state of receptors, coupling proteins or other components of
response effectuation.
• Variations in hormonal/neurogenic tone or concentrations.
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10. Factors modify drug action either
▶ Quantitatively: the plasma concentration and/or the action of the drug is increased or
decreased.
▶ Qualititatively: the type of response is altered, e.g. drug allergy or idiosyncrasy.
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11. Factors are as follows:
1. Body Size
Influences the conc. of the drug attained at the site of action – obese/lean/children –
Body weight (BW) and Body Surface area (BSA)
• Individual dose = BW(kg)/70 x average adult dose
• Individual dose = BSA(m2)/1.7 x average adult dose
• BSA can be calculated by Dubois Formula
• BSA (m2) = BW (kg)0.425 x Height (cm)0.725 X 0.007184
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2. Age
• Young`s formula
Child dose = (Age/Age+12) x adult dose
• Dilling`s formula

12. ▶ Sex
• Females have smaller body size – required doses are lower
• Digoxin in Maintenance therapy of heart failure – mortality higher in female
• Beta blockers, methyldopa, diuretics – sexual function interference in males
• Gynaecomastia – Metoclopramide, chlorpromazine, ketoconazole etc.
• Pregnancy – particularly 3rd trimester
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13. ▶ Species and Race
• Species variation in drugs responses do exist
• Some strains of rabbits – resistant to atropine
• Rat and mice are resistant to digitalis
• Race – racial differences have been observed
• Blacks require higher doses of atropine and ephedrine, while Mongols require
lower doses
• Africans – beta blockers are less effective
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14. ▶ Genetics
 Determinants of drug responses – transporter, enzymes, ion channels, receptors and
couplers – controlled genetically – Individual variation of responses
 Pharmacogenetics: The study of genetic basis for variability in drug response is called
'Pharmacogenetics'. It deals with genetic influences on drug action as well as on drug
handling by the body.
 Pharmacogenomics: Use of genetic information to guide the choice of drug and dose on
an individual basis – to identify individuals who are either more likely or less likely
respond to a drug
• G-6PD deficiency – Primaquine, chloroquin, quinine, dapsone, aspirin
• Malignant hypothermia with halothane etc.
• Low variants of CYP2C9 – Warfarin bleeding; Isoniazid - acetylators
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15. ▶ Route of administration
• Route determines the speed and intensity of drug response – Parenteral for speedy action.
• A drug may have different actions via different routes.
• Ex - Magnesium Sulfate given orally causes purgation, applied on sprained joints it decreases
swelling.
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▶ Environmental factors
o Drug metabolism may get induced – exposure to insecticides, carcinogens, tobacco
smoke and charcoal broiled meat etc.
o Food interferes absorption of some drugs while enhances some drugs – ampicillin
gets reduced griseofulvin gets enhanced.
o Hypnotics taken at night.

16. ▶ Psychological factors
• Efficacy of a drug can be affected by patient`s beliefs, attitudes and expectations –
particularly CNS drugs – more GA in nervous and anxious patients – alcohol impairs
performance
• Nocebo: Negative psychodynamic effects of drugs.
• Placebo: An inert substance which is given in the garb of medicine. Works by
psychodynamic effects (not pharmacodynamics) – sometimes responses equivalent to
active drugs.
• Placebo reactors
• Induce psychological responses – release of endorphins in brain
• Uses – Control device in clinical trials and to treat a patient
• Lactose tablet/capsules or water injections etc .
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17. ▶ Pathological states
• Diseases can influence drug disposition – GIT diseases, Liver diseases, Kidney diseases,
Congestive heart failure and Thyroid etc.
• GIT: Achlorhydria – Reduced aspirin absorption – NSAIDs aggravate peptic ulcer
• Liver diseases: Liver disease (cirrhosis) influence drug action Increased bioavailability of
drugs with high first pass metabolism
• Serum albumin reduced – protein bound drugs like Warfarin – more freedrug
• Kidney diseases: Pharmacokinetics of many drugs are affected
• Plasma protein, albumin reduced – binding of acidic drugs affected
• Permeability of BBB increased – Opiates etc. more CNS depressionThyroid diseases:
• Hypothyroid states – sensitive to digoxin, morphine and CNS depressants;
• Hyperthyroid states – resistant to inotropic action – prone to cause arrhythmia by digoxin
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18. ▶Presence of other drugs:
Drug interactions – Pharmacokinetic and Pharmacodynamic
▶Cummulation:
If Rate of administration > Rate of elimination – cumulataion. Slowly eliminating drugs
are prone – Prolonged use of Chloroquine
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19. ▶ Tolerance
• Requirement of higher dose of a drug to produce a given response – refractoriness
– sulfonylureas in type 2 diabetes and beta-2 agonists in bronchial asthma - adaptive biological
phenomena
• Natural: Species/individual inherently less sensitive – Rabbits to atropine and Blacks to beta – blockers.
• Acquired: Repeated use of a drug in an individual who was initially responsive become non-
responsive (tolerant) – CNS depressants.
• Cross tolerance: Tolerance to pharmacologically related drugs – alcoholics to barbiturates and GA;
Morphine and Pethidine
• Tachyphylaxis (Tachy – fast’ phylaxis – protection): Rapid development of tolerance when a drug
is repeated in quick succession – reduction of responses
• Usually with indirectly acting drugs – Ephedrine, tyramine, nicotine etc. Also down regulation of
receptors
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20. Rational Use of Medicines
As per the WHO- 'rational use of medicines requires that the patients receive
medication appropriate to their clinical needs in doses that meet their own individual
requirements for an adequate period of time and at the lowest cost to them and to their
community
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22. Criteria to evaluate rational prescribing:
▶ Appropriate indication
▶ Appropriate drug
▶ Appropriate dose, route and duration
▶ Appropriate patient
▶ Correct dispensing with appropriate information
▶ Adequate monitoring
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23. Irrationalities in prescribing:
• It is helpful to know the commonly encountered irrationalities in prescribing so
that a conscious effort is made to avoid them
• Use of drug when none is needed; e.g. anti-biotics for viral fevers and nonspecific diarrhoea
• Incorrect route of administration: injection when the drug can be given orally Compulsive co-
prescription of vitamins/tonics
• Use of drug not related to diagnose
• Selection of the wrong drug
• Prescribing ineffective drug
• Unnecessary use of drug combination.
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24. Expiry date of pharmaceutical:
• It is a legal requirement that all pharmaceutical products must carry the date
of manufacture and date of expiry on their label.
• The period between the two dates is called the 'life period' or 'shelf-life' of
the medicine.
• Under specified storage conditions, the product is expected to remain stable
(retain>95% potency) during this period.
• In India, the schedule P (Rule 96) of Drugs and Cosmetics Act (1940) specifies
the life period.
• The expiry date does not mean that the medicine has actually been found to
lose potency or become toxic after it.
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25. Evidence based medicine
▶ There is gradually transform in the practice of medicine from 'experience based'
wherein clinical decisions are made based on the experience (or rather impression)
of the physician to 'evidence- based' wherein the same are guided by scientifically
credible evidence from well designed clinical studies.
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26. Grades of strength of evidence:
Grade I Systematic reviews/Meta
analysis
Most reliable, may form the
basis of clinical decisions
Grade II Well powered randomized
controlled trial/more than one
trials
Reliable, but may be supported
or refuted by similar studies
Grade III Open label trials/pilot
studies/observational (cohort
and case-control) studies
(prospective or retrospective)
Less reliable, need more
rigorous testing, may indicate
further investigation
Grade IV Case reports/anecdotal
reports/clinical experience
Least reliable; may serve as
pointers to initiate formal
studies
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27. New Drug Development
• Drug development now is a highly complex, tedious, competitive, costly and
commercially risky process
• From the synthesis/identification of the molecule to marketing, a new drug takes at
least 10 years and costs millions
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Approcahes to Drug Discovery
Exploration of natural sources
• Random or targeted chemical synthesis
• Rational approach
• Molecular modelling
• Combinatorial chemistry
• Biotechnology

28. Preclinical & Non Clinical Studies
• After synthesizing/identifying a prospective compound It is tested on animals to
expose the whole pharmacological profile.
• As the evaluation progresses unfavourable compounds get rejected at each step
• so that only a few out of thousands reach the stage when administration to man is
considered.
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29. The following types of tests are performed:
1. Screening tests: these are simple and rapidly performed tests to indicate presence or
absence of a particular pharmacodynamic activity that is sought like analgesic or
hypoglycaemic activity.
2. Tests on isolated organs, bacterial cultures, etc: These also are preliminary tests to
detect specific activity, such as antihistaminic, anti-secretory, vasodilator, anti-
bacterial.
3. Tests on animal models of human disease: Such as kindled seizures in rats,
spontaneously (genetically) hypertensive rats, alloxan induced diabetes in rat or dog
etc
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4. Confirmatory tests and analogous activities: More elaborate tests which confirm and
characterize the activity. Other related activities, e.g. antipyretic and anti-inflammatory
activity in an analgesic are tested
5. Systemic pharmacology irrespective of the primary action of the drug, its effects on major
organ systems such as nervous, cardiovascular, respiratory, renal, g.i.t are worked out.
6. Quantitative tests The dose-response relationship, maximal effect and comparative
potency/efficacy with existing drugs is ascertained.
7. Pharmacokinetics
8. Toxicity tests: Acute toxicity, Subacute toxicity, Chronic toxicity, Reproduction and
teratogenicity, Mutagenicity, Carcinogenicity

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32. Clinical Trails
‘A systematic study of new drug(s) in human subject(s) to generate data for discovering
and/or verifying the clinical, pharmacological (including pharmacodynamic and
pharmacokinetic) and/or adverse effects with the objective of determining safety and/or
efficacy of the new drug‘.
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33.  Begin only when
 all the preclinical studies have been completed
 an approval has been received from the drug regulation authority (DRA)
 India - Central Drug Standard Control Organization (CDSCO)/Drug
Controller General of India (DCGI)
 Prior to the conduct of a clinical trial, an IND (Investigational New Drug)
application must be filled
 standards for the design, ethics, conduct, monitoring, auditing, recording
and analyzing data and reporting of clinical trials have been laid down in
the form of 'Good Clinical Practice' (GCP) guidelines by an International
Conference on Harmonization (ICH)
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34. Phase 0: Micro-dosing Studies
• Very low doses, generally about 1/100th of the estimated human dose, are
administered to healthy volunteers
• These sub-pharmacological doses are not expected to produce any therapeutic or
toxic effects, but yield human pharmacokinetic information.
• Costly phase 1 human trials could be avoided for candidate drugs which would
have later failed due to unsuitable human pharmacokinetics
• Micro dose pharmacokinetics may be quite different from that at pharmacological
doses.
• The phase O studies have not yet been technically fully developed or adequately
evaluated.
• They are neither established nor mandatory
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35. Phase 1: Human Pharmacology and Safety
• Designed to assess the safety, tolerability, pharmacokinetics and
pharmacodynamics
• Subjects: total 20-80 subjects
• Mostly healthy volunteers
• Sometimes patients(anticancer drugs, AIDS therapy).
• Starting with the lowest estimated dose (1/100 to 1/10) and increasing stepwise
to achieve the effective dose.
• Unpleasant side effects are noted,
• human pharmacokinetics parameteres are measured for 1st time.
• No blinding is done: studies open labelled.
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36. Phase 2: Therapeutic exploration and dose ranging
• This is conducted by physicians who are trained as clinical investigators.
• 100-500 patients selected according to specific inclusion and exclusion criteria
• The primary aim is establishment of therapeutic efficacy, dose range and ceiling
effect in a controlled setting.
• The study is mostly controlled and randomized, and may be blinded or open
label.
• The candidate drug may get dropped at this stage if the desired level of clinical
efficacy is not obtained
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37. Phase 3: Therapaeutic confirmation/comparison
• These are randomized double blind comparative trials.
• larger patient population (500-3000)
• The aim is the value of the drug in relation to existing therapy.
• Safety and tolerability are assessed on a wider scale.
• Indications are finalized and guidelines for therapeutic use are formulated.
• A new drug application' (NDA) is submitted to the licensing authority (like
FDA), who if convinced give marketing permission.
• Restricted marketing permission for use only in hospitals with specific
monitoring facilities.
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38. Phase 4: Post Marketingsurveillance/Data gathering studies
• Done after drug has been marketed
• No fixed duration/patient population
• Open label(no blinding)
• It is done to detect unexpected adverse effects and drug interactions Also, to
explore new uses for drugs
• Periodic Safety Update Reports to be submitted every six months for the first
two years after approval of the drug
• For subsequent two years need to be submitted annually and may be extended
if necessary.
• Harmful effects discovered may result in restriction or no longer sold
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39. Synthesis/isolation of the compound: 1-2 years
Preclinical studies: screening, evaluation, pharmacokinetic and
short-term toxicity testing in animals:
2-4 years
Scrutiny and grant of permission for clinical trials: 3-6 months
Pharmaceutical formulation, standardization of
chemical/biological/immuno-assay of the compound:
0.5-1 years
Clinical studies: phase I, phase II, phase III trials; long-term animal
toxicity testing:
3-10 years
Review and grant of marketing permission: 0.5-2 years
Postmarketing surveillance: Phase IV studies
Stages in new drug development

40. THANK YOU!!! 55
Finally, Inner Peace