Give an Itch, Scratch a Back

The Psychology of Motivation
and Persuasion
A Tutorial for Presenters and Slide Designers
By
Glenna Shaw

Recently there was a campaign on facebook
where friends were asked to change their profile
picture to a cartoon so there would be no human
faces on facebook for XX number of days.
Additionally the campaign was supposed to
promote the awareness of child abuse.
Within a short period of time the campaign went
viral and it got me thinking, “Why did all those
people participate in this? What is it that
motivates people to action?”
A lot of research later I now have my answer and
I’ve put together this tutorial to assist you with
creating your own persuasive messages.
This tutorial contains the theories on motivation
and persuasion that I believe are most relevant
for presenters and slide designers. In most
cases, I elected to quote my sources and include
the reference. I follow each section with my own
summary explaining how you, as a presenter, can
use the information in the section.
The final chapter diagrams several processes and
has five practice scenarios to test your
comprehension of the material.
I hope you enjoy learning what motivates us as
much as I did.

This tutorial is organized
into sections.
Each section contains an
introductory page and
multiple instructional pages.
Instructional pages are
organized into text and
images.
Use the navigation buttons
Click on the menu items to jump to different sections
shown below to move
through the pages.

Click this button to Click this button Click these buttons to go to
return to this page to go to the menu the next/previous pages

The idea that organisms are motivated to
pursue pleasure and avoid pain was
proposed by the Greek philosopher
Epicurus, who called this hedonism. [1]
The English philosopher, Jeremy
Bentham, developed his ideas based on
hedonism in the early years of the
Industrial Revolution, around 1800.
Bentham’s view was that all people are
self-interested and are motivated by the
desire to avoid pain and find pleasure.
Any worker will work only if the reward is
big enough, or the punishment
sufficiently unpleasant.
This view - the ‘carrot and stick’ approach
- was built into the philosophies of the
age and is still to be found, especially in
the older, more traditional sectors of
industry. [4]

Clark Hull conceived of all motivation as coming
originally from biological imbalances or needs.
The organism was thrown into movement (was
motivated) when it needed something that was
not present at its current location. A need, in
Hull's system, was a biological requirement of the
organism. Hunger was the need for more energy.
Thirst was the need for more water.
Motivation, to Hull, was aimed at making up or
erasing a deficiency or lack of something in the
organism.
Hull used the word drive to describe the state of
behavioral arousal resulting from a biological
need. In Hull's system, drive was the energy that
powered behavior. But drive was not pleasant.
Drive was an uncomfortable state resulting from
a biological need, so drive was something the
animal tried to eliminate. The animal searched
for food in order to reduce the hunger drive. Hull
believed the animal would repeat any behavior
that reduced a drive, if the same need occurred
again. Therefore Hull's theory was called a drive-
reduction theory of motivation.
The abandonment of Hull's theory occurred
about 30 years after he proposed it, but not
before it had a big impact on the field. [1]

In present day theories, the pursuit of pleasure
and avoidance of pain are conceived as
components of a control system. When a system
must be delicately controlled, this is best
accomplished with two forces that act in opposite
directions.
Pleasure and pain are powerful but opposed
parts of a hedonic (pleasure/pain) control system
that regulates motivation. Richard Solomon of
the University of Pennsylvania suggested they
should be regarded as opponent processes
similar to an accelerator and brake.
Hedonic contrast is one of the phenomena
Solomon explains with the opponent process
theory. This is the tendency of the pleasure/pain
control system to rebound in the opposite
direction after an intense experience of either
pleasure or pain. [1]
“Too much of a good thing” and the runner’s
high are examples of opponent process theory.
Too much pleasure becomes pain and too much
pain becomes pleasure.

Sometimes the urge to do something worthy or good or
pleasurable is directly opposed by the fact that it
involves pain or inconvenience or hard work. Then the
person is in conflict between two opposite motives. That
is one form of motivational conflict called an
approach/avoidance conflict. One may also feel torn
between two different pleasures. Or one may be forced
to choose between two pains. Each of these is a classic
motivational conflict.
Approach/avoidance conflicts. The person is attracted
and repulsed by the same stimulus or situation.
Approach/approach conflicts. The person is forced to
choose between two different desirable stimuli.
Avoidance/avoidance conflicts. The person is forced to
choose between two different undesirable alternatives.
Avoidance tendencies tend to grow stronger as an event
approaches. This has implications you can observe in
your own life. A distant event such as a dentist
appointment might seem desirable, and you make plans
for it. But as the day approaches, the event seems less
desirable, or you are more inclined to avoid it. This can
happen with desirable goals as well as things you would
rather avoid: it is called "getting cold feet."
Vacillation (going back and forth) is common in situations
of motivational conflict. If you are attracted to a person
(an approach tendency) but feel shy and inhibited (an
avoidance tendency) you may "go back and forth" a
lot, in your thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. First you
lean one way, then the other. [1]

You can choose to meet or deny your
audiences biological needs, i.e.
hunger, thirst, waste elimination.
While it may seem counter-
productive, having your audience in
a state of distress is more
motivational. The trick is to have the
motivation geared to your goals as
opposed to distracting from them.
For example, it’s preferable that
your slightly hungry audience pay
closer attention to you than to have
a ravenous audience wishing you’d
hurry up and finish so they can get to
lunch.
A deft presenter can weave the
anticipation of satiating that hunger
to their own ends.

We have experiences, and as a result, our autonomic
nervous system creates physiological events such as
muscular tension, heart rate
increases, perspiration, dryness of the mouth, etc. This
theory proposes that emotions happen as a result of
Event these, rather than being the cause of them.
The sequence thus is as follows:
Event ==> arousal ==> interpretation ==> emotion
The bodily sensation prepares us for action, as in the
Fight-or-Flight reaction. Emotions grab our attention and
at least attenuate slower cognitive processing.
Arousal This is not a new theory and was proposed in 1884. It
combined the ideas of William James and Danish
physiologist Carl Lange, who largely independently
arrived at the same conclusion. [3]
The James-Lange theory of emotion argues that an event
causes physiological arousal first and then we interpret
Interpretation this arousal. Only after our interpretation of the arousal
can we experience emotion. If the arousal is not noticed
or is not given any thought, then we will not experience
any emotion based on this event. [2]
It was largely supplanted by the Cannon-Bard theory, but
of late, it has made something of a come-back, although
the notion of causality is not as strong and there is
Emotion ongoing uncertainty as to the chicken-and-egg question
of which comes first, physiological and emotional
feelings. [3]

When a stimulating event
happens, we feel emotions and
physiological changes (such as
muscular tension, sweating, etc.) at
the same time.
The sequence thus is as follows:
Event ==> Simultaneous arousal and
emotion [3] Event
The Cannon-Bard theory argues that
we experience physiological arousal
and emotional at the same time, but
gives no attention to the role of Arousal
thoughts or outward behavior. [2] Emotion
This was a refutation of the James-
Lange theory (which proposed that
emotions followed arousal) by
Cannon and Bard in the late 1920s. [3]

In the absence of physiological arousal, we decide
what to feel after interpreting or explaining what
has just happened. Two things are important in
this: whether we interpret the event as good or
bad for us, and what we believe is the cause of
the event.
Event The sequence thus is as follows:
Event ==> thinking ==> Simultaneous arousal and
emotion
This challenges the two-factor separation of
arousal and emotion, supporting the Cannon and
Bard theory albeit with the addition of the
Thought thinking step.
In primary appraisal, we consider how the
situation affects our personal well-being. In
secondary appraisal we consider how we might
cope with the situation.
This is also called Cognitive Appraisal Theories of
Arousal Emotion. [3]
Emotion Lazarus Theory states that a thought must come
before any emotion or physiological arousal. In
other words, you must first think about your
situation before you can experience an
emotion.[2]

Darwin commented on the inborn emotional
expressiveness of babies. Carroll Izard and
colleagues at the University of Delaware
identified 10 distinct facial expressions common
in babyhood:
interest, distress, disgust, joy, anger, surprise, sha
me, fear, contempt, and guilt.
Paul Ekman is a leading investigator of facial
expression. Ekman investigated Darwin's belief
that all humans interpret facial expressions the
same way. He showed pictures of humans
expressing the emotions of
happiness, fear, surprise, anger, disgust, and
sadness to people from cultures all over the
world. People in different cultures all interpreted
these expressions the same way.
Ekman is famous for a coding system that
identifies 80 distinct muscles in the face. This
system provides a precise way to define facial
expressions. That makes it a very useful tool for
researchers who wish to make precise definitions
of facial expressions. [1]
Ekman has a number of publications if you’d like
to learn more.

Emotions are a key component of
motivation and persuasion. Both
positive and negative emotions are
effective.
Although the theories conflict on the
order of occurrence, they all agree
that arousal is necessary to elicit an
emotional response.
As presenters, a visual
communication is our most effective
tool for arousing an audience.
For example, the image at left could
be used for a presentation on gun
control to elicit the emotion of fear.
You should be able to judge the
emotional impact of your message
by observing the facial expressions of
your audience.

In 1959 Robert W. White proposed a new concept:
effectance motivation. Effectance was described as a
"tendency to explore and influence the environment.“
White suggested that the "master reinforcer" for humans
is personal competence. He defined competence as "the
ability to interact effectively with the environment."
Unlike biological motives such as hunger and
thirst, competence motives are never really satisfied.
They serve to enhance the abilities of the
organism, rather than to regulate a biological process.
They are not based on a state of biological deprivation.
Rather, they help an organism improve itself.
Notice there is a subtle and possibly important
difference between
(1) seeking life activities which "play to your strengths,"
which is certainly natural if people want to feel
competent, and
(2) the enjoyment of mastering new skills as typical of
successful entrepreneurs.
These are not the same thing. If you merely seek
situations that make you feel competent, you are likely
to exercise old skills, and you are unlikely to advance.
The people who succeed as entrepreneurs were those
who sought competency in new skills. [1]

Humans seem to enjoy combinatorial play. We take patterns
we have learned, and we put them together in new and
different ways. Here are some varieties of cognitive play.
Visual patterns People enjoy complex visual
designs, images, and patterns in a variety of media, such as
paintings, sculpture, slides, movies, videos, sculptures, quilts,
arabesques, scrimshaw...
Language patterns People enjoy complex language patterns
in a variety of media. They enjoy creating and
comprehending
books, magazines, newspapers, plays, poems, jokes, oratory,
debate, lyrics, chants, prayers, questions, exhortations, raps,
stories, novels, reviews, editorials, autobiographies, travelog
ues, histories...
Motor patterns People enjoy complex motor activity in a
variety of settings. They enjoy participating in
baseball, basketball, football, tennis, volleyball, skiing, runnin
g, jogging, playing
Frisbee, dancing, marching, drilling, mime, kluge, lacrosse, cri
cket, tiddly-winks...
Auditory and musical patterns People enjoy
singing, humming, yodeling, playing about 5000 different
instruments, listening to radio, records, tapes, and CDs...
Mathematical and numerical patterns People enjoy
arithmetic, algebra, trigonometry, geometry, topography, cal
culus, set theory...
Whatever the form of information processing, somebody
enjoys making designs with it, trying experiments with it, or
just playing with it. Competence motivation definitely
influences our choice of such "play." We tend to play with
skills and abilities that make us feel competent and, through
variation and practice, further increase our competency. [1]

In mental activity of any sort, a moderate level of novelty
and challenge is pleasurable. Too much change too fast is
overwhelming and unpleasant. We seek to experience
events which lie somewhere between chaos (on the one
hand) and boredom (on the other).
Edward L. Walker developed this concept in his
hedgehog theory of behavior. The name "hedgehog
theory" is a reference to a saying by the ancient Greek
poet Archilochus, who said, "The fox knows many
things, but the hedgehog knows one big thing." Foxes
have a different trick for every situation. They are
versatile and clever. Hedgehogs have only one trick
(curling up into a spiny ball), and they use it in all
situations, whenever they are vulnerable. And it is a very
effective trick.
Walker called his theory a hedgehog theory because, like
5 the hedgehog, it has one trick. It explains all behavior
Optimal Level of Complexity using just one principle: the idea that subjective
complexity determines preference.
Preference is measured by giving a person free choice of
Preference

alternatives to determine what he/she likes to do.
Walker's theory holds that persons prefer to do things
0
0 that are neither too simple nor too complex. They seek
activities that are at an optimum level of complexity.
The relationship between preference and complexity can
be shown on an inverted-U shaped curve. The zero point
represents a neutral hedonic reaction, neither pleasure
nor pain. When complexity is too low, the line drops
-5 below zero. This means events are too simple, which
Complexity makes them boring and unpleasant. When the
complexity is moderate, enjoyment is greatest. When
complexity is too great, events become unpleasant—
chaotic and overwhelming. [1]

Mental arousal is necessary for effective 6
functioning. We need a certain level of activation
5

Performance
in order to be sufficiently motivated to achieve Upper Limit to Activation
goals, do good work and so on. 4
The Yerkes-Dodson Law points out how people 3
need a certain amount of activation to be
motivated but not have too much stimulation. 2
We have an upper limit to activation, beyond 1
which we become overly stressed.
People will seek activation through different
0
types of stimulation, including Arousal (Stress)
novelty, complexity, variation and uncertainty.
At a low level of activation, performance is
decreased due to three factors:
• A lack of alertness
• Dulling of the senses
• Limited muscular coordination
These in turn can lead to increased error or
accident, and slower completion of tasks.
Underactivation also leads to boredom and
seeking of alternative stimulation (including by
sabotage), unless the person has a low activation
preference, where they are happy to daydream or
otherwise be lazy. [3]

When our inner systems
(beliefs, attitudes, values, etc.) all support one
another and when these are also supported by
external evidence, then we have a comfortable
state of affairs.
We also have a very strong need to believe we
are being consistent with social norms. When
there is conflict between behaviors that are
consistent with inner systems and behaviors that
are consistent with social norms, the potential
threat of social exclusion often sways us towards
the latter, even though it may cause significant
inner dissonance.
Ways we achieve consistency between conflicting
items include:
• Denial or ignoring : 'I didn't see it happen.'
• Rationalization and excuses : 'It was going to fall
anyway.'
• Separation of items :'I don't use my car enough
to make a difference .'
• Transcendence : 'Nobody is perfect.'
• Changing item : 'I'll be more careful next time.'
• Persuasion : 'I'm good, really, aren't I?' [3]

Leon Festinger's theory of cognitive dissonance is
the best-known variation of consistency theory.
Festinger assumed that, because people value
consistency in their attitudes and behavior, they
seek to avoid tension and contradiction.
One form of dissonance or contradiction is doing
something you do not really want to do. People
want to avoid feeling that way. Therefore, if asked
to perform some behavior, people will usually
rationalize doing it, say they enjoyed it, or
describe it as worthwhile. They change their
attitudes to be consistent with their behavior.
Ben Franklin gave some peculiar advice that
makes sense in the context of cognitive
dissonance theory. Franklin said “If you want
someone to like you, get that person to do you a
favor.”
This works because, once the person has put out
time and energy to help you, the person must
develop an attitude consistent with the behavior.
So, to avoid dissonance, the person likes you. [1]

Intrinsic motivation is when I am motivated by
internal factors, as opposed to the external
drivers of extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic
motivation drives me to do things just for the fun
Extrinsic Intrinsic of it, or because I believe it is a good or right
thing to do.
Extrinsic motivation is when I am motivated by
external factors, as opposed to the internal
rewards of intrinsic motivation. Extrinsic
motivation drives me to do things for tangible
rewards or pressures, rather than for the fun of it.
There is a paradox of intrinsic and extrinsic
motivation. Intrinsic motivation is far stronger a
motivator than extrinsic motivation, yet external
motivation can easily act to displace intrinsic
motivation.
When I do something, I have to explain why I do
it. If I am being rewarded extrinsically for doing
it, then I can explain to myself that I am doing it
for the reward. In this way, rewards can decrease
internal motivation as people work to gain the
reward rather than because they like doing the
work or believe it is a good thing to do.
In effect, extrinsic motivations can change a
pleasurable into work. [3]

Psychological reactance implies that
people will react against anything that
impinges on their freedom. This includes
commands and opinions and
suggestions. So, if you want to get
somebody to do something, sometimes
it helps to ask for the opposite. This is
popularly termed reverse psychology.
Reverse psychology and the forbidden
fruit principle work in the
marketplace, when certain products are
banned as dangerous or undesirable.
Some advertising executives say "there is
no such thing as bad publicity." If a book
gets banned in one area, sales soar in
another area. If a movie is criticized as
being in bad taste, many people want to
see the movie, apparently because they
are told not to. [1]

Photo by Ralton Bentley

To take advantage of cognitive theories
you need to learn as much about your
audience as possible.
Your message should have a challenging
element but not so much that the
audience cannot achieve the goal. The
actions associated with your message
should fit within the audience’s
perception of themselves and their social
network. Rewards of their actions should
be intrinsic.
It also doesn’t hurt if you can get your
audience to do you a favor or if there’s a
bit of naughtiness required.
Apple is especially effective at using
cognitive motivation by convincing us
that their products are hip and cool, even
though they’re more expensive than
similar products and use proprietary
software.

Abraham Maslow could be considered a motivation
theorist or a personality theorist. Maslow dealt with
"higher motives" of human beings, what might be called
existential or spiritual motives. They are some of the
most powerful and uniquely human motivations.
The two dominant theoretical perspectives in psychology
when Maslow started his work in the 1940s were
behaviorism and Freudianism. Both seemed inadequate
for dealing with "ideal aspirations of the human being."
Maslow felt that neither had much to say about what
made people happy and psychologically healthy.
Maslow proposed an alternative: a Third Force in
psychology. This type of psychology would deal with
important topics neglected by the other two: topics like
human fulfillment, the search for meaning, and what it
meant to be psychologically healthy. Maslow teamed
with Rogers, Fromm, and other psychologists to form
new professional associations and launch new journals
devoted to Third Force psychology, also known as
humanistic psychology. [1]
Maslow’s need theory has received wide
recognition, particularly among practicing managers. This
can be attributed to the theory’s intuitive logic and ease
of understanding. [4]
Maslow's motivational theory is vague and general and
admits to many exceptions, so it cannot be tested
definitively. This vagueness has made Maslow's pyramid
as immortal as the great pyramids of Egypt. [1]

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Maslow believed that humans have
specific needs that must be met and that
• Helping others self-actualize Transcendence if lower level needs go unmet, we can not
possible strive for higher level needs. The
Hierarchy of Needs shows that at the
• Personal Growth, Self-fulfillment Self-Actualization lower level, we must focus on basic issues
such as food, sleep, and safety. Without
• Beauty, Balance, Form
Aesthetic food, without sleep, how could we
Needs possible focus on the higher level needs
such as respect, education, and
• Knowledge, Meaning, Awareness
Cognitive recognition?[2]
Needs
• Achievement, Status, Reputation Esteem Needs B (Being) Needs

• Family, Love, Relationships Social Needs D (Deficiency) Needs

• Protection, Security, Stability Security Needs

• Air, Food, Drink, Sleep Physiological Needs

Maslow believed self-actualizers were living up to
their full potential, bringing their best selves into
being. They were not motivated by greed and
self-interest; they seemed socially
responsible, devoted to moving humanity in a
good direction, no doubt aware of the problems
in the world, yet fully engaged with life and
happy to be alive.
Maslow identified the following characteristics of
"self-actualizing people."
• They are productive and creative.
• They are spontaneous, with a sharp wit and
sense of humor.
• They appreciate higher values such as
truth, beauty, and justice, often combining
them in various endeavors.
• They are happy with life.
• They are open to new ideas, curious, and
fascinated by reality itself.
• They are "invariably involved in a cause outside
their own skin."[1]

The ultimate in uplifting moments is the
peak experience: the moment of
ecstasy, spiritual fulfillment, and bliss.
According to Maslow, “Those moments
of pure, positive happiness when all
doubts, all fears, all inhibitions, all
tensions, all weaknesses were left
behind.”
Peak experiences are often accompanied
by a peculiar and distinctive feeling of
"oneness with the universe." The feeling
of separateness, distance, or alienation
from the world disappears.
During a peak experience, people feel
loving and accepting of all creation.
Maslow told of a subject who said that
during a peak experience "I felt like a
member of a family, not like an
orphan."[1]

Maslow called his final theory “Theory Z”.
In Theory Z, Maslow described a new type of person.
This type was called the transcender.
Transcenders were people who consciously built the
characteristics of peak experiences into everyday life.
For the transcender, Maslow said, peak experiences
become the high spots and validators of life.
Transcenders "speak easily the language of being,"
finding it relatively easy to express thoughts and feelings
about the nature of existence.
They are "perpetually in awe of reality" and perceive
sacredness in everyday things. In their daily work they
are "conspicuously metamotivated," pursuing the B-
needs such as truth and justice.
Transcenders tend to beautify things, and they are more
likely to have feelings of oneness with the environment.
They are likely to be innovators, coming up with truly
new ways of doing things instead of just following
established paths.
With Theory Z, anybody who was a reasonably good
person leading a constructive life could legitimately claim
the title of self-actualizer.
A new niche (the transcender) was created for the
Abraham Lincolns and the Mahatma Gandhis—the highly
unusual types who take our awareness to new levels. [1]

Maslow’s theory focused on
achieving the highest level of being
human. From this perspective
associating a noble cause with your
message can influence your audience
to action or least make them feel
good about it.
Al Gore’s movie “An Inconvenient
Truth” is a great example of this.
People shelled out millions to see a
movie that was essentially a slide
show but that was pretty much as far
as it went.
Although it did raise awareness and
elicit some positive results, the
message wasn’t persuasive enough
to motivate the audience to action
for more significant changes
addressing global warming.

In our need to control our
world, being able to choose
is an important freedom. If
something is scarce, we
anticipate possible regret
that we did not acquire
it, and so we desire it more.
This desire is increased
further if we think that
someone else might get it
and hence gain social
position that we might have
had. [3]

This is a very common social norm
which says that if I give something to
you or help you in any way, then you
are obliged to return the favor.
This norm is so powerful, it allows
the initial giver to:
• Ask for something in return, rather
than having to wait for a voluntary
reciprocal act.
• Ask for more than was given. You
can even exchange a smile for
money.
Reciprocity also works at the level of
liking. We like people who like
us, and dislike those who dislike us.
This can create a self-fulfilling
prophecy.[3]

Social influence is the change in behavior that one
person causes in another, intentionally or
unintentionally, as a result of the way the changed
person perceives themselves in relationship to the
influencer, other people and society in general.
Three areas of social influence are
conformity, compliance and obedience.
Conformity is changing how you behave to be more
like others. This plays to belonging and esteem needs
as we seek the approval and friendship of others.
Conformity can run very deep, as we will even
change our beliefs and values to be like those of our
peers and admired superiors.
Compliance is where a person does something that
they are asked to do by another. They may choose to
comply or not to comply, although the thoughts of
social reward and punishment may lead them to
compliance when they really do not want to comply.
Obedience is different from compliance in that it is
obeying an order from someone that you accept as
an authority figure. In compliance, you have some
choice. In obedience, you believe that you do not
have a choice. Many military officers and commercial
managers are interested only in obedience.[3]

Research and experience have found that certain
words are more persuasive than others. These are
often called power words. Note that overuse of a
power word has the opposite effect.
The table below illustrates some effective power
words. [3]

Needs Positive Terms Negative Terms
Safety Guarantee, Proven Dangerous
Control Powerful, Strong Uncertain, Scarce
Understanding Truth, Real Change, Complicate
Greed Money, Cash, Save Lose, Stolen
Health Healthy, Good Sick, Old
Belonging Happy, Feel Wrong, Alone
Esteem Admire, Only Ridicule, Exclude
Identity You, We They, Them
Novelty New, Discover Outdated

A Yale University multi-year, multi-project
research into persuasive communication showed
(amongst other things):
Who (source of communication):
The speaker should be credible and attractive to
the audience.
Says what (nature of communication):
Messages should not appear to be designed to
persuade.
Present two-sided arguments (refuting the ‘wrong’
argument, of course).
If two people are speaking one after the other, it is best
to go first (primacy effect).
If two people are speaking with a delay between
them, it is best to go last (recency effect).
To whom (the nature of the audience)
Distract them during the persuasion
Lower intelligence and moderate self-esteem helps.
The best age range is 18-25.
Example
Watch politicians. They do this wonderfully well.
They look great. They talk through the other
side's argument, making it first seem reasonable
then highlighting all their problems. It all seems
to be just common sense spoken by a really nice
person. [3]

The snake oil salesman of yesteryear
may have become a cliché, but they
were the masters of persuasion in
their day. And the techniques they
used are still applicable today.
First and foremost, you need to be
perceived as credible and
trustworthy.
Dress in appropriate business attire
and know your topic. If you’re not an
expert, lend yourself expertise
through sources.
Use (but don’t overuse) power words
and don’t use a message that’s
obviously persuasive.
If possible, present a two-sided
argument of your message showing
your side as the right side.

Environment Opportunity

Needs &
Tension Effort Performance Rewards
Drives

Goals Ability
Need Satisfaction

In the initiation a person starts feeling lacknesses. There is an arousal of need so urgent, that the
bearer has to venture in search to satisfy it. This leads to creation of tension, which urges the
person to forget everything else and cater to the aroused need first. This tension also creates
drives and attitudes regarding the type of satisfaction that is desired. This leads a person to
venture into the search of information. This ultimately leads to evaluation of alternatives where
the best alternative is chosen. After choosing the alternative, an action is taken. Because of the
performance of the activity satisfaction is achieved which than relieves the tension in the
individual. [4]

William McGuire proposed a model of attitude change
that helps understand the Yale approach to persuasion. Presentation
“Presentation” is McGuire’s term for the persuasive
message. He then reasoned that people cannot be The presenter delivers the persuasive message
persuaded by a message they ignore, so after the
message is presented to the audience the next step in
the persuasion process is paying “attention.” Third, the
audience must understand the message before it can Attention
influence their attitudes, so “comprehension” follows The audience pays attention
attention in his model.
“Yielding” is McGuire’s term for acceptance, the point at
which attitude change occurs. When a persuasive
message succeeds at changing a listener’s mind Comprehension
(attitudes), McGuire says that the receiver has yielded to
the message. The audience understands
The fifth step is “retention,” and it concerns how long
the attitude change lasts. McGuire recognized that
attitudes do change; if they were permanent, of Yielding
course, we couldn’t hope to change them with our
persuasive messages. But the very fact that attitudes do The audience accepts the message
change (and can be changed) means that when we
succeed at changing someone’s attitude, that change
probably won’t last forever -- some other persuasive
message (or experience) could change their attitudes Retention
again. How long the message lasts
Finally, McGuire considered “behavior” to be the
ultimate goal of persuasive discourse. If we look at the
persuasion that surrounds us -- sales messages
advertising goods and services, political messages asking Behavior
us to vote for politicians, public service messages urging The audience acts on the message
us not to drink and drive, friends trying to get us to go
see a movie or a concert -- we can see that persuasion
often has action as the ultimate goal.[6]

Positive Positive
Goals Capable Context Motivation
Feelings

There are four basic factors that build a positive motivation to change, both for individuals and groups:
• Every person and every group has a collection of goals that are either straightforward and
declared, or vague and sub-conscious. People feel motivated to act when the action will fulfill one
or more of these goals. In fact, motivation to change increases when one action will fulfill an
increasing number of personal
• goals.
• Motivation increases if you believe that you are capable of achieving this change (called “Capability
Beliefs” or “efficacy beliefs”)
• Motivation increases if you believe that those around you (your family, your boss, your church, your
neighborhood) will grant you the opportunity and the support to do this new thing (called “Context
Beliefs”)
• Having positive emotional feelings about achieving this new thing increases motivation as well.[5]

Information Attitude
Elaboration Route
Processing Change

Depends on
High Level Central Careful
argument quality
Persuasive
Message Depends on
Low Level Peripheral Not Careful presence of
persuasive cues

Petty and Cacioppo state that there are two “routes” to persuasion: central and peripheral. The central route to persuasion
consists of thoughtful consideration of the arguments (ideas, content) of the message. When a receiver is doing central
processing, he or she is being an active participant in the process of persuasion. Central processing has two prerequisites: It
can only occur when the receiver has both the motivation and the ability to think about the message and its topic. If the
listener doesn’t care about the topic of the persuasive message, he or she will almost certainly lack the motivation to do
central processing. On the other hand, if the listener is distracted or has trouble understanding the message, he or she will lack
the ability to do central processing.
The peripheral route to persuasion occurs when the listener decides whether to agree with the message based on other cues
besides the strength of the arguments or ideas in the message. For example, a listener may decide to agree with a message
because the source appears to be an expert, or is attractive. The peripheral route also occurs when a listener is persuaded
because he or she notices that a message has many arguments -- but lacks the ability or motivation to think about them
individually. In other words, peripheral cues, like source expertise (credibility) or many arguments in one message, are a short-
cut. I don’t want to or can’t think carefully about the ideas in this persuasive message, but it is a fair gamble to go ahead agree
with the message if the source appears to be knowledgeable or if there are many arguments in support of the message. This
route occurs when the auditor is unable or unwilling to engage in much thought on the message. Receivers engaged in
peripheral processing are more passive than those doing central processing.[6]

V
B &/or A Behavior
M

The Rational Model of Persuasion is a theory which suggests that people think and behave in ways based on
reasons and are relatively predictable. While it is true that some of the time people are not entirely logical or
consistent; nevertheless, the rational model is useful in persuasion more often than not. The elements of the
rational model can be represented by the formula above.
That is, Beliefs plus Values (and/or Motives) combine to produce Attitudes and attitudes influence our
behavior. For example, if a person BELIEVES (that it is a fact) that the death penalty will deter serious crime
and if this person VALUES (thinks it is good to have) a crime free community, then it is likely this person will
have a favorable attitude toward the death penalty. If such a person is sufficiently motivated s/he may take
action (BEHAVIOR) to encourage passage of the death penalty by the state legislature.
People who hold different beliefs or values on the death penalty will typically have different attitudes. A
person who does not believe that the death penalty deters crime will not favor capital punishment as a way to
make the neighborhood safer. For individuals who value the preservation of life in all circumstances, a belief
that capital punishment deters crime is not likely to produce a favorable attitude toward the death penalty. [7]

The processes covered in this
section provide a visual
“roadmap” for you to use when
crafting and delivering your
message.
Keep in mind that all motivation
and/or persuasion begins with a
need. It is up to you to convince
your audience that they have a
need and a desire to act on that
need.
In other words, if you want your
persuasive message to be
successful, you must give your
audience an itch that they have to
scratch.

As I’ve said before, psychology is an
imperfect science. And the theories
relating to motivation and persuasion,
like most things in psychology, are open
to interpretation.
The lessons you’ve just completed are
my own choices of motivational theories
that I believe are most useful for
presenters.
They are offered as guidance to help
refine your persuasive communications.
The following pages offer you five
opportunities to practice your own
analysis of scenarios using the theories
you’ve just learned.
Read each scenario and determine which
items you think are most applicable to
the scenario.
You then have the opportunity to see my
analysis of the scenario.

Click the boxes to select the items that apply to the scenario
Humanistic Persuasive
Biological Motivation Emotion Cognitive Motivation
Psychology Communication

Carrot & Stick James-Lange Theory Competence Hierarchy of Needs Scarcity Principle
Drive Reduction Cannon-Bard Theory Joy of Processing Reciprocity Norm
Opponent Process Lazarus Theory Hedgehog Theory Social Influence
Motivational Conflicts Facial Expressions Arousal Theory Persuasive Terms
Cognitive Consistency Yale Attitude Change
Cognitive Dissonance
Intrinsic and Extrinsic
Reverse Psychology

Scenario Click here to see my analysis
You’re an author on a speaking tour promoting Obviously this scenario is using the scarcity
your new book that’s soon to be released. principle. Persuasive terms like sold out and first
Although it’s expensive, your book has already printing reinforce this principle. Social influence
sold out in pre-orders so no more first printings and cognitive consistency come into play because
are available. You let your audience know that you of the popularity of the book. There is an element
have several copies with you and for 25% above of motivational conflict because of the
retail they can purchase a book with your expense, however this is mitigated by the
signature and a personal message. The additional humanistic action of donating the extra cost to a
25% cost will be donated to a local charity. You charity. Cognitive dissonance and reciprocity norm
also let them know they’ll be doing you a favor are used by convincing the audience they’re doing
because the books are heavy and difficult for you you a favor. The emotions of fear and envy are in
transport while you’re on tour. play which could be any of the emotional theories.


Reverse Psychology

You’re giving a training presentation. You Competence and the joy of processing, as
include a quiz or similar activity well as hedgehog and arousal theories are
periodically throughout the presentation. active in this scenario because of the
You let the audience know that whoever challenges of the activities. The tangible
wins each activity will receive a prize with rewards use extrinsic motives and the
a grand prize going to the person with the carrot and stick approach. You use facial
most wins. You observe that the audience expressions to observe the excitement of
becomes more excited as you get closer the audience. There could also be a bit of
to each of the activity slides. hierarchal needs met through the
competition and fun of the activity.


Reverse Psychology

You’re presenting in favor of gun control and This scenario uses the Yale attitude change
nearly every slide in your deck has an image of a approach by presenting both sides of an argument
gun pointing at the audience. You present the pros and showcasing your credibility. Motivational
and cons of gun control ensuring your side has the conflicts and cognitive dissonance are strongly in
most favorable results. You cite experts and play here. You’re forcing your audience to look at
present expert data. You show images of children uncomfortable images and then playing on their
who’ve been killed by accidental shootings. You social values. This scenario arouses fear in the
also tell your audience that their support for gun audience which is a very powerful motivator.
control may elicit some disfavor in their Reciprocity norm and cognitive dissonance almost
community. You give your audience your personal certainly ensures your audience will sign your
phone number and then ask them to sign a petition. You also use a little reverse psychology by
petition in favor of gun control. speaking about potential social repercussions.


Reverse Psychology

You’re giving a 2 hour presentation on pollution This scenario uses all the elements of biological
and it’s scheduled for right after lunch. You use motivation. Your audience is very likely to feel the need to
many unpleasant images of the effects of pollution eliminate waste during this time frame and you are
heightening their discomfort. While this may seem
especially the contamination of waterways. You counter-productive, since this is also a time when many
include the sound of running water with these audiences experience sleepiness, a little discomfort will
images. You make sure that pitchers of water and help ensure their attention. Additionally you’re arousing
glasses are available at the back of the room. You the emotion of disgust by following lunch with
let the audience know that during the final 15 deliberately provocative images. Reciprocity norm is used
minutes of your presentation, your assistant will by giving them the opportunity to leave early and
compelling them to return the favor by pledging to your
be available for the audience to collect pledges for cause. The motivator is extrinsic with the reward being
your cause and they can leave during that time if able to “get away.” This is a tricky scenario to pull off
they want. without having your audience resent you afterwards.


Reverse Psychology

You’re giving a presentation about the benefits of yoga. This scenario uses the Yale attitude change approach by
You wear a set of hospital scrubs. Your presentation showcasing your credibility using both appearance and
contains images of simple yoga poses. You also include abilities. Competence and the joy of processing, as well as
statistical information about the benefits of yoga. At hedgehog and arousal theories are active in this scenario
regular intervals you ask the audience to stand and because of the activities. This scenario also relies on
perform simple yoga positions. After each of these cognitive consistency and social influence. By involving
stretching sessions you ask members of the audience to the audience so physically, members will experience a
raise their hands if they think they will sign up for your significant amount of peer pressure to become a member
yoga class. At the end of the presentation you give each of your classes. You’re using reciprocity norm and
member of the audience a knotted bracelet and give them cognitive dissonance by gifting them with a bracelet. This
an opportunity to register for one of your classes. You also scenario can be made even more effective by using the
give them the opportunity to purchase herbal scarcity principle (I only have room for XX students in my
supplements that you’ve brought with you. class) and using persuasive terms such as
healing, good, happy, discover, etc.

1. Russell A. Dewey, PhD (2008) 5. Rev. Peter Coutts
Psychology: An Introduction. (2006), Leadership. A
Chapter 9: Motivation and Framework for
Emotion Understanding Motivation
2. Dr. Christopher L. Heffner 6. William L. Benoit, Ph.D
(2001), AllPsych (2010), Communication
Online, Psychology 101. Institute for Online
Chapter 7 Motivation and Scholarship on Persuasion.
Emotion The Yale Approach
3. David 7. Lee A. McGaan, Ph. D.
Straker, M.Sc., P.G.C.E., Dip.M (2010), Monmouth College
., FRSA (2010) Communication Studies.
ChangingMinds.org, Theories Introduction to Persuasion
.
Motivation, Persuasion, Emo
tion
4. Ken Shah, Prof. Param J. Shah
(2009) LayNetworks.com.
Motivation

As I’ve previously stated, the
purpose of this tutorial is to provide
presenters and slide designers with
the informational tools to increase
the effectiveness of their persuasive
communications.
All findings and conclusions expressed within this tutorial are my own
opinions. For more authoritative findings, please refer to my sources and
draw your own conclusions.

Glenna Shaw
Visualology.net
January 2011

Give an Itch, Scratch a Back

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