2. 2
1 Summary
This study highlights energy consumption in 10 countries in central Europe and compares this with
the context of Sweden. Some facts may be highlighted:
The total primary energy consumption in Sweden per capita is 2 to 4 times higher than for any
of the central Europe countries in the study.
It can be noted that about 26 % of the final energy use in EU-28 is related to the households.
In Sweden the share is about 40 %, which may be explained both by climate and rather big
apartment space per capita in Sweden.
Taxes on gas in Sweden are 10 - 20 times higher compared with the other countries
considered. This high tax policy on gas especially is probably one reason for the transition to
use of biofuels and also waste for heating. It is also one factor motivating for making
buildings energy efficient.
There are differences in type of energy sources for the countries, which is related to both
economic and political factors. However, all the countries, except Sweden, are deeply
dependent on fossil fuels in the residential sector, such as natural gas for their residential
sector. The origin of the electrical power is not clearly shown in the data available, but many
central European countries relies on fossil fuels for the electrical power plants, which makes
this dependence even bigger.
When it comes to energy consumption in district heating, Sweden and Estonia are the biggest
consumers.
By comparing the number of citizens served by district heating (line 8 in the table in
Appendix 2) with floor space per person it can be noted that for the same amount of energy, a
Swedish household serves an apartment twice as big as the household in Estonia.
Sweden consumes 6 koe/sqm; this is only a third of the consumption in Romania, and only
half of the consumption in most of the other countries in the study. Still Romania has the
same amount of Heating Degree Days as Denmark and Germany.
When citizens in Ukraine install additional thermal insulation outside their own part of the
facade on an apartment building, this exhibits a will to have warmer interior climate, improve
the technical statue of the building and also to reduce energy consumption.
CO2-emissions per capita in residential sector are considerable lower in Sweden, comparing
to other countries in this report, despite colder climate and larger apartments. This is due to
hydro and nuclear powered electricity, but also to heat production by alternative fuels.
The data compiled in this study shows the big dependence on fossil fuels such as coal, oil and gas in
central Europe. It also shows that Sweden has experience and knowledge about energy saving and
that Sweden can contribute to a process of more efficient use of energy and a transition towards use
of renewable resources.
In this context the universities and technical high schools may play an important role. These
institutions work in the educational/research fields, but they are also excellent meeting places if you
would get in serious contact with rest of society in each country. Therefore technical high school as
KTH should play an important role of the coming energy transition of central Europe. KTH has
already built a network to different high school in the considered countries, aiming at organization in
each country as real estate companies, communes, energy companies etc.
The energy transition of central Europe is also a big possibility for Swedish export. Sweden has
knowledge and there are customers in central Europe.
3. 3
2 Content
Summary……………………………………………………………………….
Content…………………………………………………………………………
Introduction and European Union objectives………………………………..
Methods ……………………………………….………………………………
Climate …………………………………………………………………………
Energy taxes and prices ………………………………………………………
Energy consumption…………………………………………………………….
CO2 Emissions from fuel combustion in residential sector……………………..
Example of insulation in Ukraine………………………………………………..
Conclusions ……………………………………………………………………
References ………………………………………….………………………………..…
Appendix 1 ………………………….…………….………………………………..…
Appendix 2 ………………………….…………….………………………………..…
Appendix 3 ………………………….…………….………………………………..…
Appendix 4 ………………………….…………….………………………………..…
Appendix 5………………………………………………………………………………
2
3
4
4
5
6
8
21
22
23
25
39
40
41
43
44
4. 4
3 Introduction and European Union objectives
According to the European Union objectives '20-20-20' by the 2020 the energy consumption
of primary energy have to be reduced by 20% and the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by 20%. In
the same time the energy consumption produced from renewable resources have to be increased to
20% comparing with year 2005.
There is a special need to perform energy saving matters in central Europe, both regarding the
CO2-emissions and the dependence of oil and gas. The environmental matter could be compared with
the Swedish situation during the 20th century, when most of the heating was performed in small
stoves and with fossil fuels, often oil. The housing sector in Sweden has during the last 20 years
succeeded in saving energy and the energy consumption per square meter is now heading down.
Sweden has also managed to move the heating of apartment buildings to district heating system
fueled by biomass, garbage and waste heat. Only a small fuel fraction comes now from fossil fuels
such as coal and oil. The small houses in Sweden are mostly heated by ground source heat pumps or
by modern biomass pellet stoves.
This report presents an overview and comparative analysis of energy consumption in the
residential sector for the countries of Europe such as Bulgaria (BG), Estonia EE, Croatia (HR),
Hungary (HU), Lithuania (LT), Latvia (LV), Romania (RO), Slovenia (Sl), Slovakia (SK), Sweden
(SE) and Ukraine (Ukr). Aim of this work is to make the review of the energy consumption of
residential buildings, in particular, the energy consumption for heating.
4 Methods
The comparative analyses of energy consumption in residential sectors were made on the base
of:
Balance tables that are available on the websites of International Energy Agency (IEA), France
http://www.iea.org/statistics/,
The base of statistical data that is available on the website of the U.S. Energy Information
Administration (EIA), Washingtonhttp://www.eia.gov/countries/.
Statistical information for district heating from EUROHEAT & POWER Association,
Belgiumhttp://www.euroheat.org/Comparison-164.aspx.
Information on prices for electricity and gas was getting from Eurostat – statistical office of the
European Unionhttp://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu.
International Energy Agency publishes comparable statistics of OECD and non- OECD countries.
OECD is the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development.
Data from the considered countries non-OECD countries isBulgaria, Croatia, Latvia, Lithuania,
Romania and Ukraine.
This review was prepared also accounting main principals used in IEA reports [1-6, 8, 10], reports of
European Commission [7] and other institutions [9].
4.1 Definitions
Energy balance – is a presentation of the annual energy flows in each country showing
production, trade, transformation and consumption of energy products. The unit of account adopted
by the IEA is the ton of oil equivalent (toe) which is defined as 107 kilocalories (41.868
gigajoules).
5. 5
The energy balance presents an overall view of the energy supplies of the country and consists
from three parts:
1 - flows representing energy entering and leaving the national territory as well as stock
change to provide information on supply of energy on the national territory during the reference
period;
2 – Flows showing how energy is transformed, transferred, used by energy industries and lost
in distribution and transmission;
3 – Flows reflecting final energy consumption and non-energy use of energy products.
All tables of the energy balance for selected countries are also represented in Appendix 1.
Final energy consumption in residential sector: refers to the energy that is supplied to the
consumer for all final energy uses, such as heating, cooling, lighting and electrical appliances.
Primary energy consumption: is the direct use of energy at the source, or the crude energy
supplied to the user which has not been subjected to any conversion or transformation process.
GDP – Gross domestic product is an aggregate measure of production equal to the sum of the
gross values added of all resident institutional units engaged in production (plus any taxes, and minus
any subsidies, on products not included in the value of their outputs)1.
5 Climate
European countries which are considered in the report have different climates. Calculations of
country energy need for heating carry out accounting Heating Degree Days1
. Heating Degree Days
indicate the temporal temperature difference between the average daily outdoor temperature and
assumed indoor temperature. Eurostat calculates Heating Degree Days as (18 °C - Tmean)*days.
Where Tmean is the mean daily outdoor temperature, calculated as Tmean = (Tmin + Tmax )/ 2. If Tmean is
lower than 15 °C (heating threshold) and are zero if Tmean is greater than or equal 15 °C.
Hereby, Heating Degree Days for considered countries varies from 1500 in Croatia to 7000 in
northern Sweden. For comparative analysis of energy consumption for heating it is important to take
in account the climate condition (Figure 1) of each country.
1 “defined by OECD” http://stats.oecd.org/glossary/detail.asp?ID=1163
6. 6
Figure 1: Map of Europe and distribution of the Heating Degree Days. The “green” countries are
investigated in this report. Source:EEA Report No 6/2008 “Energy and environment”.
6 Energy taxes and prices
Formation of price on gas and electricity in each country is a complicated economic and
political process depended from many factors. Brief information of prices and taxes are presented
here for each country. Information comes from the report “Energy prices and costs in Europe” of
European commission, 2014. The prices for electricity and gas are presented in centEuro/kWh (see
Figure 2 and 3), and the duties in EUR/MWh (centEuro/kWh), (see Tables 1 and 2). In the table of
the Appendix 4 there are more data of energy prices from years 2011 to 2013. Note: 1 centEuro/kWh
= 10 EUR/MWh.
7. 7
Figure 2: Retail prices, energy taxes and VAT for Electricity, Domestic consumers (2500
kWh<Consumption<5000 kWh). Source: Report “Energy prices and costs in Europe” of European
commission, 2014.
Figure 3: Retail prices, energy taxes and VAT for Natural gas, Domestic consumers (20
GJ<Consumption<200 GJ) (5554 kWh <Consumption< 55,54 MWh). Source: Report “Energy prices
and costs in Europe” of European commission, 2014.
There is a difference between Sweden and the other investigated countries according to excise duties
concerning electricity, see Table 1. Sweden supports its business at the expense of the non-business
use. In the other countries the excise duties are the same, although no figures from Ukraine are
available. The excise duties situation concerning natural gas is more complex, but Sweden still has
the highest excise duties for the non-business use.
Austria
Belgium
Bulgaria
Cyprus
CzechRepublic
Germany
Denmark
Estonia
Spain
EU27.
Finland
France
Greece
Croatia
Hungary
Ireland
Italy
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Latvia
Malta
Netherlands
Poland
Portugal
Romania
Sweden
Slovenia
Slovakia
UnitedKingdom
Austria
Belgium
Bulgaria
Cyprus
CzechRepublic
Germany
Denmark
Estonia
Spain
EU27.
Finland
France
Greece
Croatia
Hungary
Ireland
Italy
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Latvia
Malta
Netherlands
Poland
Portugal
Romania
Sweden
Slovenia
Slovakia
UnitedKingdom
8. 8
Table 1: Excise duties levied on electricity, EUR/MWh (centEuro/kWh), 2013. Source: European
Commission
Country Business use Non-business use
Bulgaria 1.00 (0.1) 1.00 (0.1)
Croatia 0.51 (0.051) 1.01 (0.101)
Estonia 4.47 (0.447) 4.47 (0.447)
Latvia 1.00 (0.1) 1.00 (0.1)
Lithuania 0.52 (0.052) 1.01 (0.101)
Romania 0.5 (0.05) 1.00 (0.1)
Slovenia 3.05 (0.305) 3.05 (0.305)
Slovakia 1.32 (0.132) Exempted
Sweden 0.55 (0.055) 31.66 (3.166)
Ukraine - -
Table 2: Excise duties levied on natural gas, EUR/MWh (centEuro/kWh), 2013. Source: European
Commission
Country Industry
commercial use
Heating
business use
Heating –
non-business use
Bulgaria 1.55 (0.155) 0.18 (0.018) 0.18 (0.018)
Croatia 1.98 (0.198) 1.98 (0.198) 3.92 (0.392)
Estonia 0.00 2.52 (0.252) 2.52 (0.252)
Latvia 1.65 (0.165) 1.65 (0.165) 1.65 (0.165)
Lithuania - - -
Romania 9.35 (0.935) 0.61 (0.061) 1.15 (0.115)
Slovenia 4.42 (0.442) 4.42 (0.442) 4.42 (0.042)
Slovakia 9.35 (0.935) 1.33 (0.133) 1.33 (0.133)
Sweden 10.25 (1.025) 10.25 (1.025) 34.17 (3.417)
Ukraine - - -
7 Energy consumption
The energy consumption of a country means the energy required for the functioning of all
industrial and consumer sectors. Comparative analysis of energy consumption is carried out in terms
of Total primary energy supply (TPES) and total final consumption that are contained in the
normalized unit of energy in tons of oil equivalent (toe), which allows comparing the energy received
in a result of various resources used.
Major international agencies involved in the collection of statistical data of energy
consumption are:
International Energy Agency (IEA), the U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA), and
the European Environment Agency (EEA).
The main components of the country’s energy consumption are industry, transport,
households and other sectors. By the average data for EU-28 countries the primary energy
consumption by the sectors distributed in the following proportions: industry – 25,3%, transport –
31,8%, households -25,2%, all other sectors – 16,3%, see Figure 4.
9. 9
Figure 4: Final energy consumption by end-use sectors in EU-28, 2012 (% of total, based on
tons of oil equivalent)
7.1 Primary energy consumption
Data of total primary energy supply (1993-2011) of the selected countries are collected in
Table 3. According to this data, Ukraine has highest consumption, and it is many times higher
compared to other reviewed countries and in 2,5 higher than Sweden (see Figure 5).
Table 3: Total primary energy supply (consumption) changes with years Source: EIA
Note: Quadrillion is 1015
Country
1993 2000 2005 2011
Quadrillion
Btu MToe
Quadrillion
Btu MToe
Quadrillion
Btu MToe
Quadrillion
Btu MToe
Bulgaria 0.80 20.3 0.87 21.9 0.92 23.2 0.78 19.6
Croatia 0.30 7.6 0.38 9.5 0.40 10.2 0.35 8.7
Estonia 0.09 2.4 0.08 2.1 0.08 2.1 0.08 1.9
Hungary 1.02 25.8 1.02 25.8 1.16 29.1 1.03 25.9
Latvia 0.16 4.1 0.15 3.9 0.19 4.7 0.16 4.1
Lithuania 0.38 9.5 0.30 7.5 0.35 8.9 0.28 7.2
Romania 1.87 47.1 1.59 40.0 1.66 41.9 1.51 38.1
Slovakia 0.78 19.6 0.79 19.8 0.82 20.6 0.74 18.5
Slovenia 0.24 6.0 0.29 7.3 0.32 8.0 0.31 7.7
Sweden 2.24 56.6 2.27 57.2 2.34 59.0 2.18 54.8
Ukraine 8.09 203.8 5.75 144.9 6.33 159.4 5.40 136.0
10. 10
Figure 5: Trends of total primary energy consumption
The largest countries by population, see Table 4, are Ukraine with around 45 million people
and Romania with around 21 million people. By the distribution of the Total Primary Energy
Consumption per Capita, see Table 5, shown in Figure 6, economic activity of the country can be
evaluated. Sweden takes up the first position among reviewed countries. We can see that overall
consumption was slightly decreasing after year 2005. For evaluation of efficiency use of energy
sources the primary energy consumption per GDP are considered and represented in Figure 7.
Table 4: Population, in millions people. Source: EIA
Country 1993 2000 2005 2011
Bulgaria 8.4 7.8 7.5 7.1
Croatia 4.5 4.4 4.5 4.5
Estonia 1.5 1.4 1.3 1.3
Hungary 10.3 10.2 10.1 10.0
Latvia 2.6 2.4 2.3 2.2
Lithuania 3.7 3.7 3.6 3.5
Romania 22.8 22.5 22.2 21.9
Slovakia 5.3 5.4 5.4 5.5
Slovenia 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0
Sweden 8.8 8.9 9.0 9.1
Ukraine 51.9 49.0 47.0 45.1
The differences in consumptions are partly due to the size of country and its population. For
most of the countries, energy consumption does not change significantly over years, as shown in
Figure 5.
It is also important to consider energy consumption per capita (per person) and per Gross
Domestic Product (GDP) when comparing energy consumption from economy point of view and for
evaluation of efficiency of energy sources. Thus, accounting the population, given in the Table 4 and
total primary energy supply, given in the Table 3, the total primary energy consumption per capita
over years can be accessed in Table 5 and Figure 6.
0,0
50,0
100,0
150,0
200,0
250,0
1993 2000 2005 2011
Bulgaria
Croatia
Estonia
Hungary
Latvia
Lithuania
Romania
Slovakia
Slovenia
Sweden
Ukraine
Ukr
SE
11. 11
Table 5: Total Primary Energy Consumption per Capita, in tons of oil equivalent (Toe)
Country 1993 2000 2005 2011
Bulgaria 2.4 2,8 3.1 2,8
Croatia 1.7 2,2 2.3 1,9
Estonia 1.6 1,5 1.6 1,5
Hungary 2.5 2,5 2.9 2,6
Latvia 1.6 1,6 2.0 1,9
Lithuania 2.6 2,1 2.5 2,0
Romania 2.1 1,8 1.9 1,7
Slovakia 3.7 3.7 3.8 3.4
Slovenia 3.0 3.6 4.0 3.9
Sweden 6.5 6.4 6.6 6.0
Ukraine 4.0 3.0 3.4 3.0
Figure 6: Trends of total primary energy consumption per capita
All countries have reduced its energy use per GDP over time. It is also a big difference between
Ukraine and the rest of the studied countries, as seen in Figure 7.
Figure 7: Primary energy consumption per GDP Source: Bluenomics
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
1993 2000 2005 2011
Bulgaria
Croatia
Estonia
Hungary
Latvia
Lithuania
Romania
Slovakia
Slovenia
Sweden
Ukraine
60,0
160,0
260,0
360,0
460,0
560,0
660,0
kgofoilequivalentper1000USD
Energy use per GDP unit
Bulgaria
Estonia
Croatia
Hungary
Latvia
Lithuania
Romania
Slovakia
Slovenia
Sweden
Ukraine
SE
Ukr
12. 12
7.2 Energy consumption in residential sector
The study of energy consumption of countries, selected for this project, was carried out using
statistical data of several international organizations, mentioned in Method section. The energy
balance is here used as an important tool for making comparison analysis between different sources
and countries. The evaluation of energy consumption in the residential sector was done using tables
of the energy balance from International Energy Agency, see Appendix 1.
7.2.1 Final energy consumption in residential sector
Total final energy consumption in the residential sector is used for: space and tap water
heating, cooking, lighting, appliances and other equipment use. The amount of total final energy
consumption in residential sector will depend on efficiency of building and of the use of all service
components.
Table 6 and 7 present the final energy consumption in residential sector by the sources in ktoe
and in koe (kilogram of oil equivalent) per capita correspondingly. In this study the analyses is made
by following seven groups of primary and secondary energy sources:
- Coal and peat
- Oil products
- Natural gas
- Geoth., sol.
- Bio/waste (biofuels and waste)
- Electricity
- Heat
The highest total final energy consumption in residential sector as well as total primary consumption
for all needs of the country are in Ukraine (23604 ktoe), followed by Romania (7848 ktoe), Sweden
(6956 ktoe) and Hungary (5448 ktoe). This is partly due to population number and economic
activities of the different countries.
Table 6: Final energy consumption in residential sector by the sources, (ktoe) 2011
Source: (http://www.iea.org/) The U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA)
Country
Coal
and
peat
Oil
products
Natural
gas
Geoth.,
sol. Bio/waste Electricity Heat Total
Bulgaria 238 27 56 8 747 938 359 2374
Croatia 6 206 544 6 387 561 147 1857
Hungary 172 115 2966 6 724 973 529 5484
Romania 19 223 2331 12 3146 996 1120 7848
Slovakia 48 7 1172 4 44 387 458 2121
Slovenia 0 252 113 27 415 276 89 1173
Sweden 4 52 69 11 1183 3133 2504 6956
Estonia 11 9 52 0 364 166 333 935
Latvia 26 54 107 0 624 152 354 1318
Lithuania 68 41 145 0 558 225 485 1522
Ukraine 708 84 14060 0 937 3308 4507 23604
It is useful to consider population and also present total final consumption per capita in residential
sector, see Table 7 below.
13. 13
Table 7: Final energy consumption in residential sector, in koe per capita, 2011
Country
Coal
and
peat
Oil
products
Natural
gas
Geoth.,
sol. Bio/waste Electricity Heat Total
Bulgaria 33.6 3.8 7.9 1.1 105.3 132.2 50.6 334.7
Croatia 1.3 45.9 121.3 1.3 86.3 125.1 32.8 414.2
Hungary 17.2 11.5 297.3 0.6 72.6 97.5 53.0 549.7
Romania 0.9 10.2 106.4 0.6 143.6 45.5 51.1 358.3
Slovakia 8.8 1.3 214 0.7 8.0 70.7 83.6 387.3
Slovenia 0.00 126.0 56.5 13.5 207.5 138 44.5 586.5
Sweden 0.4 5.7 7.6 1.2 130.2 344.7 275.5 765.3
Estonia 8.6 7.0 40.5 0.0 283.7 129.4 259.6 728.8
Latvia 11.8 24.5 48.5 0.0 283.0 68.9 160.7 597.8
Lithuania 19.2 11.6 41.0 0.0 157.8 63.6 137.2 430.5
Ukraine 15.7 1.9 311.5 0.0 20.8 73.3 99.9 523
The data shown in tables 6 and 7, is also presented as bar diagrams for all energy sources
consumed in residential sector for better data visualization, see Table 8. The bar diagrams show
which country has highest consumption of which of the resources and the energy consumptions per
capita by sources are also displayed for each country.
When considering the sources consumption by countries it was noted that the main user in
electricity, calculated consumption per Capita, is Sweden (344,7 koe), in bio and waste is Estonia and
Latvia (around 283 koe), in natural gas is Ukraine and Hungary (311,5 and 297,3 koe respectively),
in oil products is Slovenia (126 koe) and in coal/peat is Bulgaria (33,6 koe).
14. 14
Table 8: Charts of final energy consumption in residential sector by the sources
Final energy consumption in residential sector
by the sources, in toe, 2011
Final energy consumption in residential
sector by the sources, in koe per capita, 2011
0
4
6
11
19
26
48
68
172
238
708
0 200 400 600 800
Slovenia
Sweden
Croatia
Estonia
Romania
Latvia
Slovakia
Lithuania
Hungary
Bulgaria
Ukraine
Coal and peat
0,0
0,4
0,9
1,3
8,6
8,8
11,8
15,7
17,2
19,2
33,6
0,0 10,0 20,0 30,0 40,0
Slovenia
Sweden
Romania
Croatia
Estonia
Slovakia
Latvia
Ukraine
Hungary
Lithuania
Bulgaria
Coal and peat
7
9
27
41
52
54
84
115
206
223
252
0 100 200 300
Slovakia
Estonia
Bulgaria
Lithuania
Sweden
Latvia
Ukraine
Hungary
Croatia
Romania
Slovenia
Oil products
1,3
1,9
3,8
5,7
7,0
10,2
11,5
11,6
24,5
45,9
126,0
0,0 50,0 100,0 150,0
Slovakia
Ukraine
Bulgaria
Sweden
Estonia
Romania
Hungary
Lithuania
Latvia
Croatia
Slovenia
Oil products
52
56
69
107
113
145
544
1172
2331
2966
0 1000 2000 3000 4000
Estonia
Bulgaria
Sweden
Latvia
Slovenia
Lithuania
Croatia
Slovakia
Romania
Hungary
Natural gas
7,6
7,9
40,5
41,0
48,5
56,5
106,4
121,3
214,0
297,3
311,5
0,0 100,0 200,0 300,0 400,0
Sweden
Bulgaria
Estonia
Lithuania
Latvia
Slovenia
Romania
Croatia
Slovakia
Hungary
Ukraine
Natural gas
0
0
0
0
4
6
6
8
11
12
0 5 10 15
Estonia
Latvia
Lithua…
Ukraine
Slovakia
Hungary
Croatia
Bulgaria
Sweden
Romania
Geoth., sol.
0,0
0,0
0,0
0,0
0,5
0,6
0,7
1,1
1,2
1,3
13,5
0,0 5,0 10,0 15,0
Estonia
Latvia
Lithuania
Ukraine
Romania
Hungary
Slovakia
Bulgaria
Sweden
Croatia
Slovenia
Geoth., sol.
15. 15
44
364
387
415
558
624
724
747
937
1183
3146
0 1000 2000 3000 4000
Slovakia
Estonia
Croatia
Slovenia
Lithuania
Latvia
Hungary
Bulgaria
Ukraine
Sweden
Romania
Bio/waste
8,0
20,8
72,6
86,3
105,3
130,2
143,6
157,8
207,5
283,0
283,7
0,0 100,0 200,0 300,0
Slovakia
Ukraine
Hungary
Croatia
Bulgaria
Sweden
Romania
Lithuania
Slovenia
Latvia
Estonia
Bio/waste
152
166
225
276
387
561
938
973
996
3133
3308
0 1000 2000 3000 4000
Latvia
Estonia
Lithuania
Slovenia
Slovakia
Croatia
Bulgaria
Hungary
Romania
Sweden
Ukraine
Electricity
45,5
63,6
68,9
70,7
73,3
97,5
125,1
129,4
132,2
138,0
344,7
0,0 100,0 200,0 300,0 400,0
Romania
Lithuania
Latvia
Slovakia
Ukraine
Hungary
Croatia
Estonia
Bulgaria
Slovenia
Sweden
Electricity
89
147
333
354
359
458
485
529
1120
2504
4507
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Slovenia
Croatia
Estonia
Latvia
Bulgaria
Slovakia
Lithuania
Hungary
Romania
Sweden
Ukraine
Heat
32,8
44,5
50,6
51,1
53,0
83,6
99,9
137,2
160,6
259,6
275,5
0,0 50,0 100,0 150,0 200,0 250,0 300,0
Croatia
Slovenia
Bulgaria
Romania
Hungary
Slovakia
Ukraine
Lithuania
Latvia
Estonia
Sweden
Heat
935
1173
1318
1522
1857
2121
2374
5484
6956
7848
23604
0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000
Estonia
Slovenia
Latvia
Lithuania
Croatia
Slovakia
Bulgaria
Hungary
Sweden
Romania
Ukraine
Total
334,7
358,3
387,3
414,2
430,5
523,0
549,7
586,5
597,8
728,8
765,3
0,0 200,0 400,0 600,0 800,0 1000,0
Bulgaria
Romania
Slovakia
Croatia
Lithuania
Ukraine
Hungary
Slovenia
Latvia
Estonia
Sweden
Total per Capita
16. 16
The highest consumption of energy per capita for residential sector is found in Sweden (765,3 koe)
followed by Estonia (728,8 koe). The total energy consumption may also be shown as pie charts, see
Table 9 below, illustrating the proportion of each sources of energy consumption (primary and
secondary) in the residential sector of considered European countries. Charts are built on data from
Tables 6-8.
Table 9: Total energy consumption in residential sector by energy sources, 2011
Energy consumption in residential sector by energy
sources, 2011
Energy consumption in residential
sector for Heating*
by fuel types , 2011
10%
1%
2%
32%
40%
Heat
15%
Bulgaria
Coal and peat
Oil products
Natural gas
Geoth., sol.
Bio/wast
Electricity
Heat
39%
4%
37%
0% -19%
1%
Coal and peat
Oil products
Natural gas
Geoth., sol.
Bio/wast
Loss
Nuclear
1%11%
29%
21%
30%
Heat
8%
Croatia
Coal and peat
Oil products
Natural gas
Geoth., sol.
Bio/wast
Electricity
Heat
15%
59%
2% -24%
Coal and peat
Oil products
Natural gas
Geoth., sol.
Bio/wast
Loss
1%
1%5%
39%
18%
Heat
36%
Estonia
Coal and peat
Oil products
Natural gas
Geoth., sol.
Bio/wast
Electricity
Heat
20%
5%
32%
26%
-17%
Coal and peat
Oil products
Natural gas
Geoth., sol.
Bio/wast
Loss
Bio/waste
Bio/waste
Bio/waste
Bio/waste
Bio/waste
Bio/waste
Total: 935 ktoe
Total: 2374 ktoe
Total: 1857 ktoe
17. 17
3%
2%
54%
13%
18%
Heat
10%
Hungary
Coal and peat
Oil products
Natural gas
Geoth., sol.
Bio/wast
Electricity
Heat
10%
0%
64%
0%
6%
-20%
0%
Coal and peat
Oil products
Natural gas
Geoth., sol.
Bio/wast
Loss
Nuclear
2%
4%
8%
47%
12%
Heat
27%
Latvia
Coal and peat
Oil products
Natural gas
Geoth., sol.
Bio/wast
Electricity
Heat
1% 1%
65%
18%
-15%
Coal and peat
Oil products
Natural gas
Geoth., sol.
Bio/wast
Loss
4%3%
9%
37%
15%
Heat
32%
Lithuania
Coal and peat
Oil products
Natural gas
Geoth., sol.
Bio/wast
Electricity
Heat
1% 3%
61%
17%
-18%
Coal and peat
Oil products
Natural gas
Geoth., sol.
Bio/wast
Loss
3%
30%
40%
13%
Heat
14%
Romania
Coal and peat
Oil products
Natural gas
Geoth., sol.
Bio/wast
Electricity
Heat
33%
6%
34%
2%
-25%
Coal and peat
Oil products
Natural gas
Geoth., sol.
Bio/wast
Loss
Bio/waste
Bio/waste
Bio/waste
Bio/waste
Bio/waste
Bio/waste
Bio/waste
Bio/waste
Bio/waste
Bio/waste
Bio/waste
Total: 7848 ktoe
Total: 1522 ktoe
Total: 5484 ktoe
Total: 1318 ktoe
18. 18
The energy consumption seems divergent in the different countries and fossil fuels play an
important role in most of the investigated countries.
For the Croatia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania and Ukraine the main fuels used in district
heating is natural gas making up 60% of all resources, in Bulgaria, Estonia, Romania it’s around 30%
and in Slovakia, Slovenia, Sweden it is just 6%. Sweden used mainly alternative sources of energy in
the district heating such as bio/waste (68%). In Slovakia 30 % of heat for district heating was
2%
1%
55%
2%
18%
Heat
22%
Slovakia
Coal and peat
Oil products
Natural gas
Geoth., sol.
Bio/wast
Electricity
Heat
13% 3%
16%
6%
-32%
30%
Coal and peat
Oil products
Natural gas
Geoth., sol.
Bio/wast
Loss
Nuclear
21%
10%
2%
35%
24%
Heat
8%
Slovenia
Coal and peat
Oil products
Natural gas
Geoth., sol.
Bio/wast
Electricity
Heat
51%
1%
11%4%
-33%
Coal and peat
Oil products
Natural gas
Geoth., sol.
Bio/wast
Loss
1%1%
17%
45%
Heat
36%
Sweden
Coal and peat
Oil products
Natural gas
Geoth., sol.
Bio/wast
Electricity
Heat
9%
4%
6%
68%
-13%
Coal and peat
Oil products
Natural gas
Geoth., sol.
Bio/wast
Loss
3%
0%
60%
4%
14%
Heat
19%
Ukraine
Coal and peat
Oil products
Natural gas
Geoth., sol.
Bio/wast
Electricity
Heat
13%
1%
70%
2% -15%
1% Coal and peat
Oil products
Natural gas
Geoth., sol.
Bio/wast
Loss
Nuclear
Bio/waste
Bio/waste
Bio/waste
Bio/waste
Bio/waste
Bio/waste
Bio/waste Bio/waste
Total: 23604 ktoe
Total: 2121 ktoe
Total: 1173 ktoe
Total: 6959 ktoe
19. 19
produced by nuclear power plants. In Bulgaria, Romania and Slovenia heat was produced mainly by
thermal plants burning coal and peat. There is an ongoing discussion whether peat may be considered
as a sustainable energy source or not.
7.2.1.1 Heat consumption in residential sector
The heat consumption part is shown with additional information by types of energy sources.
Heat consumption by sources for heat in residential sector is based on data for heat consumption by
sources in all sectors combined with amount of heat sold to the final customers of residential sector.
Detailed description of calculation of the heat consumption by fuels used in residential sector
included in the Appendix 3 and results for each country are summarized in Table 10 below.
Here “heat” is considering as quantities of fuel burned to generate heat that is sold under the
provision of a contract to a third party. It includes heat that is generated and sold by combined heat
and power plants and by community heating networks (also known as district heating).
Table 10: Energy consumption in residential sector for district heating by energy
sources, in ktoe 2011
Country
Coal and
peat
Oil
products
Natural
gas Nuclear
Geoth.,
sol. Bio/waste Loss
Bulgaria 224 21 214 4 0 3 -106
Croatia 1 42 165 0 0 6 -67
Estonia 103 22 163 0 0 131 -87
Hungary 85 3 563 3 3 51 -180
Latvia 5 8 331 0 0 90 -79
Lithuania 3 26 467 0 0 125 -139
Romania 739 130 784 0 0 38 -571
Slovakia 166 35 208 387 2 73 -414
Slovenia 130 2 30 0 1 11 -84
Sweden 295 131 201 0 0 2241 -435
Ukraine 811 59 4341 35 0 101 -839
The percentage distributions for different fuels in each country are shown in Figure 8 below, showing
a heavy dependence of natural gas for the majority of the countries.
Figure 8: Share of energy consumption for heating by fuels in residential sector, by country in 2011
In this context it is worth to mention that in Scandinavians countries the average living space per
person might be 40-50 square meter per person and in Central Europe 20-30 square meter per person
(National Statistical Office 2014). Hence it is possible to describe heating efficiency according to
square meter as in Table 11 below.
-40%
-20%
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Bulgaria
Croatia
Estonia
Hungary
Latvia
Lithuania
Romania
Slovakia
Slovenia
Sweden
Ukraine
Loss
Bio/waste
Geoth., sol.
Nuclear
Natural gas
Oil products
Coal and peat
20. 20
Table 11: Heat consumption per square meter for eight different countries
7.3 Example of the cost calculations of energy for household needs and for heating at Sweden and
Latvia.
This example based on simple calculations shows average cost people should pay for
household and for heating their dwellings using district heating.
For determining the cost of total energy consumption on households needs the information
from the tables above are used, namely:
– the data of final energy consumption (TFC) in residential sector by the sources, in koe
per capita, 2011 taken from Table 5:
TFC per capita for Sweden 765,3 koe for Latvia 597,8 koe,
TFC per sqm just for heat, in Sweden is 5,9 koe/sqm and in Latvia is 13,5 koe/sqm;
– electricity and gas prices for Sweden and Latvia taken from Appendix 4 and represented in
Table 12 with conversion from koe into kW·h
(1 Mtoe = 11630 GW·h → 1 koe = 11,63 kW·h)
The cost was calculated by simply multiplying of consumption on price but for the first case shown
an average cost for capita and for second case shown an average cost for 60 sqm apartments. Results
represented in Table 12 shows the cost of total energy consumption on households needs for users in
Sweden and Latvia.
Table 12: Energy consumption – price – cost dependents for Sweden and Latvia
Sweden Latvia
TFC per capita
in koe (in kWh)
765 (8897) 598 (6952)
Heat in koe/sqm 5.9 (68.6) 13.5 (157)
Price
in EUR per kWh
Electricity Gas Electricity Gas
0.209 0.119 0.117 0.039
Cost
in EUR
TFC per capita 1859.5 813.4
Heat
for 60 sqm
apartment
860 490 1102 367
From the results of calculations we can see that in spite of low energy consumption the
Swedish users pay more than users of other countries and here Latvia as an example of such a
country.
3,1
5,9
9,5
10,7
10,8
13,5
13,9
20,1
0,0 5,0 10,0 15,0 20,0 25,0
Slovakia
Sweden
Bulgaria
Slovenia
Estonia
Latvia
Lithuania
Romania
Heat, in koe/sqm
21. 21
8 CO2 Emission from fuel combustion in residential sector
The energy sources needed for the residential sector result in CO2-emissions/capita that are
very different in the selected countries, showing Ukraine as the highest emitter and Sweden as the
lowest, see Table 13. In fact Ukraine emits 5 times more per capita in the residential sector compared
to Sweden. All this countries except Sweden use the coal as one of the main fuels for produce of
electricity.
Table 13: CO2 emissions with electricity and heat allocated to be consumed in residential sector,
2012, in tons of CO2 per capita and year. Baltic Sea countries; Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania are
counted together. Source: IEA (Appendix 5).
Burning of fossil fuels such as coal, oil and natural gas is the main cause of anthropogenic emission
of CO2. By using alternative fuels the emissions of CO2 will be It is undoubtedly that to move
quickly from fossil fuel sources very difficult and demand investments and knowledge.
1,58
0,81
1,44
1,26
0,95 0,96
1,24
0,33
1,65
0,00
0,20
0,40
0,60
0,80
1,00
1,20
1,40
1,60
1,80
22. 22
9 Example of insulation in Ukraine
As a result of low insulation of external walls, owners of certain flats try to find solution by
themselves to save heat received from district heating. For this purpose owners hire private
construction firms for installation of the external insulation just for their flats, see Figure 9. These
kinds of work are done without any licenses and quality assurance. Therefore the life time of such
renovations are depending of professionalism of workers and the materials quality.
Figure 9: Example of partly insulated external walls in Ukraine.
Such partly insulation of walls can’t solve the problem of energy consumption of the country
considerably, but in the same time these examples show the problem and a willingness to solv
23. 23
10 Discussion & Conclusion
This study highlights energy consumption in 10 countries in central Europe and compares this with
the context of Sweden. Some facts may be highlighted:
The total primary energy consumption in Sweden per capita is 2 to 4 times higher than for any
of the central Europe countries in the study.
It can be noted that about 26 % of the final energy use in EU-28 is related to the households.
In Sweden the share is about 40 %, which may be explained both by climate and rather big
apartment space per capita in Sweden.
Taxes on gas in Sweden are 10 - 20 times higher compared with the other countries
considered. This high tax policy on gas especially is probably one reason for the transition to
use of biofuels and also waste for heating. It is also one factor motivating for making
buildings energy efficient.
There are differences in type of energy sources for the countries, which is related to both
economic and political factors. However, all the countries, except Sweden, are deeply
dependent on fossil fuels in the residential sector, such as natural gas for their residential
sector. The origin of the electrical power is not clearly shown in the data available, but many
central European countries relies on fossil fuels for the electrical power plants, which makes
this dependence even bigger.
When it comes to energy consumption in district heating, Sweden and Estonia are the biggest
consumers.
By comparing the number of citizens served by district heating (line 8 in the table in
Appendix 2) with floor space per person it can be noted that for the same amount of energy, a
Swedish household serves an apartment twice as big as the household in Estonia.
Sweden consumes 6 koe/sqm; this is only a third of the consumption in Romania, and only
half of the consumption in most of the other countries in the study. Still Romania has the
same amount of Heating Degree Days as Denmark and Germany.
When citizens in Ukraine install additional thermal insulation outside their own part of the
facade on an apartment building, this exhibits a will to have warmer interior climate, improve
the technical statue of the building and also to reduce energy consumption.
CO2-emissions per capita in residential sector are considerable lower in Sweden, comparing
to other countries in this report, despite colder climate and larger apartments. This is due to
hydro and nuclear powered electricity, but also to heat production by alternative fuels.
The data compiled in this study shows the big dependence on fossil fuels such as coal, oil and gas in
central Europe. It also shows that Sweden has experience and knowledge about energy saving and
that Sweden can contribute to a process of more efficient use of energy and a transition towards use
of renewable resources.
In this context the universities and technical high schools may play an important role. These
institutions work in the educational/research fields, but they are also excellent meeting places if you
would get in serious contact with rest of society in each country. Therefore technical high school as
KTH should play an important role of the coming energy transition of central Europe. KTH has
already built a network to different high school in the considered countries, aiming at organization in
each country as real estate companies, communes, energy companies etc.
The energy transition of central Europe is also a big possibility for Swedish export. Sweden has
knowledge and there are customers in central Europe.
24. 24
11 References
EEA European Environment Agency
Map of Europe and distribution of the Heating Degree Days – Report No 6/2008 “Energy and
environment”.
EIA U.S. Energy Information Administration
Total primary energy supply (consumption) changes with years –http://www.eia.gov/countries/
Population, in millions people – http://www.eia.gov/countries/data.cfm
Final energy consumption in residential sector by the sources – http://www.iea.org/
European Commission
Prices for electricity and gas – Report “Energy prices and costs in Europe” of European commission,
2014.
http://ec.europa.eu/taxation_customs/resources/documents/taxation/excise_duties/energy_products/ra
tes/excise_duties-part_ii_energy_products_en.pdf
Euroheat & Power International association representing the District Heating and
Cooling (DHC) and Combined Heat and Power (CHP) sector in Europe and beyond.
Statistics overview of district heating – http://www.euroheat.org/Statistics-69.aspx
http://www.euroheat.org/Comparison-164.aspx
Eurostat statistical office of the European Union situated in Luxembourg.
Yearly electricity and gas prices –
http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/statistics_explained/index.php/Energy_price_statistics
Bluenomics
Primary energy consumption per GDP –
http://www.bluenomics.com/#!data/energy/energy_1/energy_use_per_gdp_unit|chart/line
IEA International Energy Agency
Energy balances –
http://www.iea.org/statistics/statisticssearch/report/?country=SWEDEN&product=balances&year=20
12
OECD The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
Definitions – http://stats.oecd.org/glossary/detail.asp?ID=1163
Directive 2005/32/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council on establishing a
framework for the setting of ecodesign requirements for energy-using products.
Directive 2002/91/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council on the energy
performance of buildings.
Directive 2006/32/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council on energy end-use
efficiency and energy services.
1. IEA Statistics. Energy balances of OECD countries (2014 edition) OECD/IEA, 2014
2. IEA Statistics. Energy balances of non-OECD countries (2012 edition) OECD/IEA, 2012
25. 25
3. World energy balances: beyond 2020 documentation (2014 edition) OECD/IEA, 2014
http://www.iea.org/statistics/topics/energybalances/.
4. Energy Efficiency Indicators: Fundamentals on Statistics. OECD/IEA, 2014
5. Energy statistics manual. OECD/IEA, 2005
6. Combined heat and power. OECD/IEA, 2008
7. European commission. Commission staff working document. Energy prices and costs report.
Brussels, 17.3.2014 SWD (2014) 20.
8. Greening Household Behaviour: The Role of Public Policy. “Residential Energy Use”,
OECD (2011), OECD Publishing. http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264096875-6-en
9. Kes McCormick, Lena Neij. Experience of Policy Instruments for Energy Efficiency in
Buildings in the Nordic Countries. International Institute for Industrial Environmental
Economics (IIIEE), Lund University, Lund, Sweden, October 2009, Report
26. 26
Appendix 1
The compiling of tables in Appendix 1 is based on next general principles: in columns are
various sources of energy and in rows are different origins and uses. One of the main aims of this
report is review and comparative analysis of the final energy consumption in residential sector by
energy sources, and in particular for heating.
Energy balance of energy supply and consumption for countries, 2011
Bulgaria
Energy in thousand tonnes of oil equivalent (ktoe) on a net calorific value basis
37. 37
Description to the energy balance tables
Combined heat and power plants refers to plants which are designed to produce both heat
and electricity (sometimes referred to as co-generation power stations). If possible, fuel inputs and
electricity/heat outputs are on a unit basis rather than on a plant basis. However, if data are not
available on a unit basis, the convention for defining a CHP plant noted above should be adopted.
Both main activity producer and autoproducer plants are included here. Note that for autoproducer
CHP plants, all fuel inputs to electricity production are taken into account, while only the part of fuel
inputs to heat sold is shown. Fuel inputs for the production of heat consumed within the
autoproducer's establishment are not included here but are included with figures for the final
consumption of fuels in the appropriate consuming sector.
Heat plants refer to plants (including heat pumps and electric boilers) designed to produce
heat only and who sell heat to a third party (e.g. residential, commercial or industrial consumers)
under the provisions of a contract. Both main activity producer and autoproducer plants are included
here. Heat pumps that are operated within the residential sector where the heat is not sold are not
considered a transformation process and are not included here – the electricity consumption would
appear as residential use.
Losses include losses in energy distribution, transmission and transport.
The term final consumption (equal to the sum of the consumption in the end-use sectors)
implies that energy used for transformation processes and for own use of the energy producing
industries is excluded. Final consumption reflects for the most part deliveries to consumers (see note
on stock changes).
Backflows from the petrochemical industry are not included in final consumption (see from
other sources under supply and petrochemical plants in transformation).
Residential includes consumption by households, excluding fuels used for transport.
Includes households with employed persons [ISIC Divisions 97 and 98] which are a small part of
total residential consumption.
Heat production includes all heat produced by main activity producer CHP and heat plants,
as well as heat sold by autoproducer CHP and heat plants to third parties. Fuels used to produce
quantities of heat for sale are included in the transformation processes under the rows CHP plants and
Heat plants. The use of fuels for heat which is not sold is included under the sectors in which the fuel
use occurs.
Row 11: Combined heat and power plants (CHP), refers to plants which are designed to
produce both heat and electricity, sometimes referred as cogeneration power stations. If possible, fuel
inputs and electricity/heat outputs are on a unit basis rather than on a plant basis. However, if data are
not available on a unit basis, the convention for defining a CHP plant noted above is adopted. Both
main activity producer and autoproducer plants are included here. Note that for autoproducer CHP
plants, all fuel inputs to electricity production are taken into account, while only the part of fuel
inputs to heat sold is shown. Fuel inputs for the production of heat consumed within the
autoproducer's establishment are not included here but are included with figures for the final
consumption of fuels in the appropriate consuming sector. Columns 1 through 8 show the use of
primary and secondary fuels for the production of electricity and heat as negative entries. Total gross
electricity produced appears as a positive quantity in the electricity column and heat produced
appears as a positive number in the heat column. Transformation losses appear in the total column as
a negative number.
Row 12: Heat plants refer to plants (including heat pumps and electric boilers) designed to
produce heat only, which is sold to a third party under the provisions of a contract. Both main activity
producer and autoproducer plants are included here. Heat pumps that are operated within the
residential sector where the heat is not sold are not considered a transformation process and are not
included here – the electricity consumption appears as residential use.
38. 38
Columns 1 through 8 show the use of primary and secondary fuels in a heating system that transmits
and distributes heat from one or more energy sources to, among others, residential, industrial, and
commercial consumers, for space heating, cooking, hot water and industrial processes.
41. 41
Appendix 3
At this Appendix are considered an example of calculation the amount of sources used for
production of the heat for residential sector.
The calculations done for Sweden on the base of Balance tables of International Energy Agency by
data for 2011 year
http://www.iea.org/statistics/statisticssearch/report/?country=SWEDEN=&product=balances&year=S
elect (see Appendix 1).
The amount of sources using for production of the heat for residential sector were estimated and
defined below.
Note: Column “Heat” shows the disposition of heat produced for sale. The large majority of the heat
included in this column results from the combustion of fuels also some small amounts are produced
from electrically powered heat pumps and boilers. Any heat extracted from ambient air by heat
pumps is shown as production.
Determination of the resources amount used for production the heat for residential sector
calculated as follows:
1) According to data for CHP stations, the amount of resources used for producing the heat is
determined proportionally as total energy consumption subtracting the energy for electricity
production:
Resourse CHP without elctr = Resourse CHP – ( (Electr CHP · Resourse sum CHP)/(Electr CHP + Heat CHP) )
Result:
-418 0 -119 -307 0 0 0 -2359 0 2794 -408
2) Summarizing the obtained part of the resources used for producing the heat from the cogeneration
plants with thermal plants get the amount of resources used for heat in all spheres of final
consumption,
Resourse sum Heat = Resourse CHP without elctr + Resourse Heat
Heat sold for all sectors
Heat sold for residential sector
Resources
42. 42
Result:
CHP and Heat
plants
-472 0 -210 -322 0 0 0 -3580 -115 4001 -696
3) The amount of resources used in the residential sector for heating is determined proportionally.
Having values of energy consumption residential sector, the proportional relation determines
Sourses Heat res = Sourse sum Heat · Heat resid / Heat sum
Result:
-295 0 -131 -201 0 0 0 -2241 -72 2504 -435
