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4
Advanced Baking
Principles

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• Dedicated to discovering and clarifying the complex reactions
involved in food preparation.
• Helps to:
– Develop new items
– Problem solve and change formulas
– Find shortcuts
– Substitute ingredients
– Streamline production
– Cut costs
BAKING SCIENCE

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• The five basic baking
ingredients can be divided
into two categories:
• Stabilizers
• Liquefiers
BASIC BAKING INGREDIENTS
Flour
Eggs
Water
Fat
Sugar

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• Any ingredients that helps to develop the solid structure, or
“framework,” of a finished product.
• Of the five basic baking ingredients: flour and egg are stabilizers.
• Flour is the bulk of most formulas, acting as a binding and absorbing
agent.
• The gluten content of the flour will dictate the crumb structure of a
finished product.
• Eggs lend stability during baking, as well as influence the crumb,
flavor, and aroma.
• Eggs have leavening power, and as they are whipped, they trap air.
Stabilizers
BASIC BAKING INGREDIENTS
(CONT’D)

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• Help to loosen or liquefy a dough or batter.
• Of the five basic baking ingredients: water (or other liquids),
fats, and sugar act as liquefiers.
• Water acts to dilute or liquefy water-soluble ingredients such as
sugar and salt, and facilities their even distribution.
• If used, milk performs the same functions, but also adds flavor,
aids in caramelization (because of sugar), and helps develop a
firm crust.
• Fat offers a tenderizing effect.
• Sugar attracts moisture, which causes it to loosen or liquefy a
batter.
Liquefiers
BASIC BAKING INGREDIENTS
(CONT’D)

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SHORTENING AGENTS
Butter
Made from cows milk, it is approximately 80
percent fat, 10 to 15 percent water, and 5 percent
milk solids.
Lard
Rendered pork fat is most often used in
conjunction with other fats.
Oils
Oil is seldom used in baked goods, since it does
not offer the leavening power and structure of
solid fats.
Shortenings
Hydrogenated vegetable fats created for baking,
most are designed to cream well and have a higher
melting point.

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• Yeast is a living organism that needs suitable conditions to thrive.
• Needs warmth, moisture, and food (carbohydrates) to begin
fermenting.
• Fermentation is the anaerobic respiration of microorganisms—a
process that converts carbohydrates into alcohol and carbon
dioxide.
• Yeast cells are sensitive to the temperature of the environment.
The ideal temperature for fermentation is between 80° and
90°F/27° and 32°C.
• Salt helps to slow yeast growth and help control fermentation—
though too much salt can damage or kill the yeast.
Yeast
LEAVENERS

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• Baking soda and baking powder are the primary chemical leaveners.
• Baking soda, or sodium bicarbonate, is a common leavening agent for
cakes, quick breads, and cookies.
• Baking powder is a mixture of sodium bicarbonate, an acid, and
cornstarch.
• There are two types of baking powder: single-acting and double-acting.
– Single-acting baking powder contains sodium bicarbonate and
cream of tartar, and reacts when combined with liquids.
– Double-acting baking powder combines sodium bicarbonate with
dry acids that have different solubility rates, one of which needs to
be exposed to heat before it reacts.
Chemical Leaveners
LEAVENERS (CONT’D)

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• Mechanical leavening occurs when air or moisture, trapped
during the mixing process, expands as it is heated during baking.
• Foaming method, creaming method, and lamination are
examples of mechanical leavening.
Mechanical Leavening
LEAVENERS (CONT’D)

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• A monosaccharide, or single sugar, is the basic building block
of all sugars and starches.
• Fructose and dextrose, the simple sugars, are both
monosaccharides.
• Starches such as cornstarch are made up of such chains,
thousands of saccharides long, but do not taste sweet.
• Oligosaccharides lie somewhere in between table sugar and the
starches present in cornstarch and flour.
• Monosaccharides do not dissolve in water.
• Oligosaccharides DO dissolve in water.
Monosaccharides and Oligosaccharides
SWEETENERS

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• Crystallization is a process that occurs when sugar is deposited
from a solution, and is influenced by saturation levels, agitation,
temperature, cooling, seeding, invert sugar, and acid.
• The process can be controlled through these factors to create
common bakeshop items.
• In order for sugars to crystallize out of solution, the solution
must be sufficiently saturated for precipitation to occur.
• The solution may then be heated to a specific temperature,
thereby evaporating water and serving to further increase the
density, or saturation, of the solution.
Crystallization of Sugar
SWEETENERS (CONT’D)

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• If agitation is initiated while the solution is still hot, large crystals
will form as molecules become attached at a slower rate.
• If the mixture is allowed to cool without agitation and is then
stirred, it will crystallize rapidly but will form small crystals rather
than large ones.
• The introduction of a “seed” will cause crystallization.
• Certain ingredients may be introduced into a sugar solution to
inhibit crystallization, such as glucose syrup (or another invert
sugar) or acid.
Crystallization of Sugar (cont’d)
SWEETENERS (CONT’D)

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• Sugar and Salt are both hygroscopic.
– They will readily take up water under certain conditions of
humidity.
• In baked goods, they retain moisture and extend shelf life.
• In items such as hard candies, the attraction of moistures breaks
down the structure of the candy, causing it to become soft and
sticky.
Hygroscopic Properties of Sugar and Salt
SWEETENERS (CONT’D)

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Caramelization Maillard Reaction
– Occurs between reducing
sugars and proteins.
– Can occur at low
temperatures more slowly,
and at high temperatures
over short periods of
time.
Browning Reactions
SWEETENERS (CONT’D)
• Occurs when sucrose is
present, and only at high
temperatures.

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• The term invert sugar refers to a sugar (sucrose or table sugar)
whose optical or refractory properties have been altered.
• occurs when it is boiled together with a dilute acid, such as
cream of tartar (in solution), lemon juice, vinegar, and so on.
• There are also naturally occurring invert sugars, such as honey –
but most contain impurities, which make them ill-suited for use
in sugar-cooking and candy-making.
Saturated and Supersaturated Sugar Solutions
SWEETENERS (CONT’D)

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• At a given temperature, a specific quantity of water can dissolve
only a finite quantity of sugar. The warmer the water, the more
sugar it can dissolve.
• When no more sugar can be dissolved in a certain amount of
water at a certain temperature, the solution is said to be
saturated.
• When a saturated solution is then heated to evaporate some of
the water, the solution becomes supersaturated.
• Supersaturated solutions contain a higher concentration of sugar
than could have been initially dissolved in the same amount of
water.
Invert Sugar
SWEETENERS (CONT’D)

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• Sauces, puddings, fillings, mousses, and creams can be thickened
or stabilized by many ingredients, including gelatin, eggs, and
starches such as flour, cornstarch, tapioca, and arrowroot.
• When starch granules suspended in water are heated, they begin
to absorb liquid and swell, causing an increase in the viscosity of
the mixture.
• This reaction, known as gelatinization, allows starches to be
used as thickening agents.
Gelatinization of Starches
THICKENERS

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• Polysaccharides are starches that are commonly used as thickening
agents in preparations such as sauces and fillings.
• Complex carbohydrates composed of two types of starch
molecules, both of which are made of long chains of dextrose:
– Amylose exists in long, linear chains. The higher the percentage
of amylose, the more prone the starch is to gel.
– Amylopectin exists in dendritic (branched) patterns. The more
amylopectin present, the more the starch will act to increase
viscosity or thicken without causing a gel to form.
• It is only after a starch in liquid is heated that the granules can
absorb the liquid and begin to thicken it.
Polysaccharides
THICKENERS (CONT’D)

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• Starches high in amylose that have been gelatinized and then
undergo freezing, refrigeration, or aging may begin to
retrograde, or revert to their insoluble form.
• Not all starches have the same tendency toward retrogradation.
• Cornstarch and flour are prone to retrogradation.
• Modified food starches and tapioca do not retrograde.
Retrogradation
THICKENERS (CONT’D)

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Starch Characteristics Uses
Modified food
starches
Flavorless; freezes well Fruit fillings
Cornstarch Must be heated to a boil to remove
flavor
Sauces, puddings and
fruit fillings
Pectin Requires a low pH and high sugar
content to form a gel
Jellies, jam, preserves,
and gelées
Gelatin Melts below body temperature;
boiling may reduce its strength
Mousses, aspics, and
gelées
Eggs If not used in conjunction with a
starch, will curdle when overcooked;
yolks create a soft velvety set, whites
create a resilient set.
Custards, custard
sauces, and puddings
Gelling and Thickening Agents
THICKENERS (CONT’D)

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• Pectin is a carbohydrate derived from the cell walls of certain
fruits, such as apples, cranberries, and the skins of citrus fruits.
• To gel, it requires the correct balance of sugar and an acid.
• Gelatin is typically used to produce light, delicate foams (such as
Bavarian creams, mousses, and stabilized whipped cream) that
set so they may be molded or sliced.
• Gelatin must first be rehydrated, or bloomed, in a cool liquid and
then melted for use.
• Gelatin, a protein derived from the bones and connective tissue
of animals, is composed of molecules that attract water.
Pectin & Gelatin
THICKENERS (CONT’D)

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• Whole eggs, egg yolks, or whites may be used, alone or in
conjunction with other thickeners, to thicken a food.
• As their proteins begin to coagulate, liquid is trapped in the
network of set proteins, resulting in a smooth, rather thick
texture.
• When natural proteins are exposed to heat, salt, or acid, they
denature—that is, their coils unwind—and bond together to
form solid clumps.
• Most commonly, proteins are denatured through the application
of an acid, agitation, or heat.
Eggs as Thickeners
THICKENERS (CONT’D)

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EMULSIONS
• An emulsion is a system of two immiscible liquids (liquids that
are unable to be mixed together to form a true solution) that
appears to be a completely homogenous mixture but is in fact
what is known as a two-phase system, having a dispersed phase
and a continuous phase.
• There are two types of emulsions, temporary and permanent.
• A permanent emulsion contains an emulsifier, which prevents
the mixture from separating.
Dispersed Phase
Continuous Phase

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TEMPERING CHOCOLATE
• Tempered chocolate has a glossy finish, snap, and creamy
texture.
• For the chocolate to maintain gloss and snap, as it is cooling it
must form stable beta crystals.
• They can be caused to form by gradually reducing the
temperature of the melted chocolate until it is at 80°F/27°C,
while applying constant agitation.

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• Today’s consumer is increasingly concerned about high-calorie,
high-fat foods.
• Substitute fruit purées (such as apples, dates, and prunes) for
pure sugar.
• Use buttermilk, skim milk, or water in place of whole milk.
• Replace some eggs with egg whites—two egg whites can
typically be used in place of one whole egg.
HEALTHY BAKING

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• Celiac disease is an autoimmune disorder of the small intestine
that affects one in 133 people in the United States.
• Caused by a reaction to a gluten protein found in wheat, rye, and
barley—the only effective treatment is a gluten-free diet.
• When making gluten-free products, it is important to make sure
to use clean tools and surfaces, have separate cooking utensils,
and, if possible, work in a room where wheat, barley, rye, or oats
have not been present.
• Since wheat flour is not used in gluten-free baking, chefs must
use different stabilizers as substitutes, such as rice flour, tapioca
starch, guar gum, and xanthan gum.
Gluten-Free Baking
HEALTHY BAKING (CONT’D)

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• A vegan is a person who consumes only products of the plant
kingdom, excluding eggs, dairy, and any other animal products
(including honey).
• Products that can be used for vegan baking include soy milk, soy
margarine, vegetable oil, soy yogurt, tofu, flaxseed paste,
arrowroot starch, whole wheat flour, oats, mashed sweet and
regular potatoes, tahini and nut butters, and agar-agar.
Baking for Vegans
HEALTHY BAKING (CONT’D)