EARLY METHODS IN TEACHING PEDAGOGY

1. 1. Introduction
In the decade of the 70S we saw the boomof new approaches,new researchlookingfornew
methodological principlesand,asa result,new pointsof view amongprofessionalsinthe field
of language teaching. During this period, the tendencies in the United States and in Europe
followed separate paths.
In the United States, there were several alternative methods that had a great impact and
despite the differences between them, theyall tried to offer new and remarkably innovative
solutions to the problem of how to learn a second language.
The Comprehension-based approach is based on receptive skills (listening comprehension in
particular) anditdoesnot attempttotrain oral productionspecifically-oral fluencyisexpected
to emerge naturally and gradually.
The Humanistic approach is based on theories applied to ´learner-centred teaching´.
Communicationisseenasanelementof motivation.Humanistictechniquesengage the whole
person, including the emotions and feelings as well as linguistic knowledge and behavioural
skills.
These methods meant a qualitative change in the field of language teaching: the learner
became the centre as an active personin the process of secondlanguage acquisitionand as a
determining factor in teaching practice (individual differences, affective conditions, etc.).
2. TotalPhysical Response(TPR)Comprehension-Basedapproach
Total Physical Response emergedin the 1960s and lasted until the late 80s; it was developed
by James J. Asher, a talented young research psychologist at San Jose State University,
California, who was particularly interested in comprehension and humanistic approaches.
2.1. TheBasisoftheLanguageTheoryUnderlyingTPR
Asherhasbasedhistheoryof language learning on three rather influential hypotheses:
 The influence of the first language acquisition process,
 The influence of brain lateralization on language functions,
 The importance of stress.
2.1.1. TheInfluenceofTheFirstLanguageAcquisitionProcess
Module N°4:Most RecentMethods

2. Asher´s Total Physical Response is a “Natural Method”, inasmuch as Asher saw a
parallel between the process of adult second language learning and that of first
language acquisition. He observed that children develop listening competence
before theydevelop the abilitytospeak.Theirunderstandingisrevealedbytheir
meaningful response to a particular type of input. Initially this is an action
response, rather than a verbal response, in context-clear situations. He pointed
out that theirearlysocial interactionisthrougha physical response toinvitations
for movement, such a “Hey, come on”, “Let's run”, “Throw the ball”. Asher
speculated that during this period, the learner may be making a mental,
“blueprint”of the language,andspeechwill evolve naturallyandeffortlesslylater
on. Asher believed in “learning language through doing” and this basic idea was
appliedtosecondor foreignlanguage learningbyaskingthe learner(s) toact out
a command, or a series of commands. Orchestrating language production and
comprehensionwithbodymovementandphysicalactionswasthoughttoprovide
the conditions for success in language learning.
The mechanism of communication is short and simple:
 The directive
 The hearing and interpretation of the directive.
 The action, and then immediately
 The visible confirmation or not of comprehension.
2.1.2. TheInfluenceofBrainLateralisation onLanguage Functions
Similarly, the adult should acquire language mastery through right-hemisphere
motor activities, while the left hemisphere watches and learns.
2.1.3. TheImportanceofStress(andTheAffectiveFilter)
By comparing the way a child learns his/her first language withthe way an adult
learnsa secondlanguage,Asherwasable todefendthatadultsusuallyhave togo
through a learning process that brings them into a state of stress and anxiety.
Prizesafterdoingsome actionsfelt a high sense of achievement resulting from:
 Successfully doing what they were told to do, time and time again;
 Making very rapid progress in understanding the spoken language.
2.1.4. LearnerandTeacherRoles
TPR was a teacher-centred approach. However, learners could monitor and
evaluate their own progress and they were encouraged to speak when they felt
ready to do so.
The teacher played an active and directed role in TPR.

3. The instructoris the directorof a stage playin whichthe studentsare the actors.
(Asher 1977:43). Because he/she is always giving commands at instruction.
2.1.5. Materials
For absolute beginners, lesson did not require the use of materials, since the
teacher's voice, actions, and gestures were a sufficient basis of classroom
activities. Later the teacher might use common classroomobjects,such a books,
pens, cups, furniture. As the course developed, the teacher needed to make or
collect supporting materials to support teaching points. These included pictures,
realia,slides,andwordcharts. AsherdevelopedTPRstudentkits that focusedon
specific situations, such as the home, the supermarket, the beach, and students
used the kits to construct scenes.
3. SilentWayLearning(SWL)
ItwasdevelopedbyCalebGattegno.Fromitsnameonemightassume thatatypicalclassbegan
withthe studentssittingsilentlywhile the teacherspeaks.Whatreallyhappenedwasthatthe
teacher stood silent or provided minimum input while eliciting or subtly reinforcing verbal
output from the learners.
Gattegno stated that the processes of learning a second language is “radically” from those
involved in learning a first language. The second language learning process is unlike the first
language learning process and the learner “cannot learn another language in the same way
because of what he now knows”.
The SilentWayisconcernedwithpromotinglanguageawarenessamongthestudentandittries
to fosterlearners´self-monitoringandself-correctionof theirownlanguage learning process.
3.1. Objectives
An immediate objective is to provide the learner with a basic practical knowledge of the
grammar of the language.
The principle underlying this method is “Subordinate teaching to learning”. The teacher
analyseswhatkindof additional inputthe learnersneedprovidesspecificlanguage input
for each learner.
3.2. MainCharacteristics Features
The manner in which classroom activities are organised, teacher in directing and the
responsibility placed upon learners.
3.2.1. TheRoleofGrammar andLanguage

4. The Silent Way adopts a basically structural syllabus, with lessons planned
around grammatical items and related vocabulary.
Language items are introducedaccording to their grammatical complexitytheir
relationshiptowhat has beentaughtpreviously,andthe ease withwhichitems
can be presented visually. Language is separated from its social context and
taught through artificial situations, usually represented by rods.
3.2.2. TypesofTeachingandLearningActivities
Arguedthatlanguage learningdependsonthe learner'screativenessandhis/her
abilitytodiscoverthe “spirit”of the language.Silence,asavoidanceof repetition,
isthus an aidto attention,concentration,andmental organization.Inwhichthe
learner is a principal actor rather than a mere listener.
Basic to the method are simple linguistic tasks in which the teacher models a
word,phrase,or sentence andthenelicitslearnerresponses.Teachermodeling
isminimal,althoughmuchof the activitymaybe teacherdirected.Learnersthen
go on to create their own sentences by putting together old and new
information.
In this method the use of the native language is avoided as much as possible.
Error correctionand accuracy, however,are notone of the mainconcerns,since
that can have a negative effect on the learning process of some students.
3.2.3. TheRoleofMaterials
Charts, rods, and other aids may be used to elicit learner responses. Colour-
coded charts are used to teach, visually illustrate, and correct pronunciation.
3.2.4. LearnerandTeacherRoles
Teaching is subordinated to learning , thus the teacher is responsible for the
creation of a classroom environment that facilitates learning.
As the teacherhardlycorrects students,the learnersare requiredtomake their
own generalisations, come to their own conclusions, and formulate whatever
rules they themselves feel they need. Learners are expected to develop
independence, autonomy, and responsibility.
Language learning, therefore, becomes a process of personal growth resulting
from growing student awareness and self-challenge.
4. CommunityLanguageLearning“Psychology”

5. Charles A. Curran was a Jesuits. He took as his main concern the deep-level interpersonal
dynamicsof the teacher-learnerrelationshipandthe teaching-learningprocess;he concluded
thatthe kindof healthygrowthwhich learningcanrepresentmustinvolve thewhole integrated
person of the learner: intellect, emotions, values, and personality- all related to the same
integrated features in the teacher and in any other person integrated in the community of
learners.
Curran (1976) considered that some psychological needs had to be met in order to achieve
successful learning. On the whole, Curran's theories were not so much focused on the
psycholinguistic and cognitive processes involved in second language learning, but on the
personal commitments learners need to make before language acquisition can take place.
4.1. Objectives
CommunityLanguage Learningismost oftenusedintroductoryconversationcoursesina
foreign language with the objective of achieving oral proficiency. The major goal is to
achieve linguistic or communicative competence in social situations.
4.2. MainFeatures
4.2.1. TypesofMaterials andLearningAndTeachingActivities
A class starts with the students (or “clients” in Curran's terminology) sitting in a
circle with the teacher (or “counselor”) outside the circle. The clients-learners
themselves initiate conversation (in the native or the target language. Thus the
clients themselves decide what they want to learn and, as a result, a massive
amountof unrestricted, self-motivatedtarget-languagedataisgenerated.A post-
sessiondebriefingmayinvolveinstructiondealingwiththe formandsubstance of
the material generatedinthe session.These reflectionsessionsare oneof the vital
functions of CLL.
Other complementary tasks or activities include:
 GroupWork.Learnersmayengage invariousgrouptasks,suchassmall group
discussion of a topic, preparing a conversation, preparing a summary of a
topic for presentation to another group, preparing a story that will be
presented to the teacher and the rest of the class.
 Analysis. Students analyse and study transcriptions of target language
sentencesinordertofocusonparticularlexical usageoronthe applicationof
grammar roles.
 Listening. Students listen to a monologue by the teacher involving elements
they might have elicited or overheard in class interactions.
 Free conversation.Studentsengage infree conversationwiththe teacheror
with other learners.

6. There isnovisible textbook,preparedlesson plan,orevendefinedobjectives.The
textbook restricts language content and, therefore, impedes interaction in the
community.Mostof the materialsusedbythe teacherare notesontheblackboard
or recordings of students´ conversations. From the material just recorded the
teacher might choose sentences to write on the blackboard that highlight
elementsof grammar,spelling,orwhatever.Studentsare encouragedtoaskabout
any of the above and to copy sentences from the board with notes on meaning
and usage.Thisbecomestheir“textbook”forhome study.Errorsare correctedby
the teacher merely repeating without error.
Learning is not viewed as an individual accomplishment but as something that is
achievedcollaboratively.Consequently,the role of the learneralsoimpliesgiving
supporttofellowlearnersandactingascounselorsforthe otherlearners.The role
of the teacher changes gradually from being very supportive to intervening less
and less.
5. Suggestology orSuggestopedia
Giorgi Lozanov
5.1. Objectives
The aim of Suggestopedia is that students should reach and advanced level in oral skills
quickly. Learning is based on student mastery of long lists of vocabulary pairs. Lozanov
sated categorically:
The mainaimof teachingisnotmemorization,butthe understandingandcreativesolution
of problems (1978:251).
5.2. MainFeatures
5.2.1. TheRoleofLanguage
Vocabulary was a central issue and Suggestopedia stressed memorization of
vocabulary pairs and lexical translation rather than contextualization.
6. TheNaturalApproach
The Natural Approach acted as a bridge between psycholinguistic theories and the
communicative approach,between North-American and European tendencies, that continually
try to balance the role of the learner-individual and the learner-social-being.
The Natural Approach, published in 1983 by Tracy Terrell and Stephen Krashen. In their book
they combined Terrell´s classroom procedures and Krashen´s theory of second language
acquisition.
In the Natural Approach the emphasis is on:

7.  Input, rather than practice;
 Optimising emotional preparedness for learning;
 A prolonged period of attentionto what the language learners hear before theytry to
produce language;
 A willingnessto use written and other materials as a source of comprehensible input;
 The central role of comprehension in the Natural Approach.
6.1. Objectives
In general terms, the specific objectivesof the Natural Approach depend upon learner
needs and the skill (reading, writing, listening, or speaking) and the level being taught.
These goals are listed under four areas:
 Basic personal communication skills: oral (e.g. listening to announcements in public
places).
 Basic personal communicationskills:written(e.g.readingandwritingpersonal letters).
 Academic learning skills: oral (e.g. listening to a lecture).
 Academic learning skills: written (e.g. taking notes in class).
Students at the end of it are enough if they can deal with a particular set of topics in a
given situation.
6.2. MainFeatures
6.2.1. TheRoleofLanguage andGrammar
Krashen and Terrel see communication as the primary function of language.
Natural Approach as an example of a communicative approach.
The inputhypothesisstatesthatinorderforacquirerstoprogresstothe nextstage
inthe acquisitionof the targetlanguage,theyneedtounderstandinputlanguage
that includesastructure that ispart of the nextstage.(Krashen& Terrel 1983:32)
6.2.2. Psycholinguistic Theory
Five famous hypotheses of Krashen´s Monitor Theory:
The Acquisition / Learning Hypothesis:
The distinction between acquisition and learning. Whereas acquisition refersto
the natural assimilation of language rules through using language or
communication and it is an unconscious process, learning refers to the formal
studyof language rulesanditisa consciousprocess.Formal teachinginnecessary
for “learning” to occur, and correction of error helps with the development of
learned rules. Learning, according to the theory, cannot lead to acquisition.

8. The Monitor Hypothesis:
This formal knowledge is managed by the “Monitor”, who is responsible for
´editing ´ the output, checking and repairing the learner´s production, and this is
the only link between acquired knowledge and the learned knowledge.
Conditions:
 Time
 Focus on form
 Knowledge of rules
The Natural Order Hypothesis:
The ´natural order´,has shownthatcertain grammatical structuresormorphemes
are acquired before others in first language acquisition of English, and a similar
natural order is found in second language acquisition.
The Input Hypothesis:
The learner should receive a sufficient quantity of ´comprehensible input´.
The ability to speak fluently,however,cannot be taught directly; rather, it will
“emerge” once the learner has built up linguistic competence by understanding
input.
The Affective Filter Hypothesis:
 Motivation
 Self-confidence
 Anxiety
6.2.3. TypesofLearningandTeachingActivities
Classroom activities are not based on a grammatical syllabus since they are
determined by the students according to their needs and interests.
Many of the techniques used are often borrowed from other methods and
adaptedtomeetthe requirementsof Natural Approachtheory.Forinstance,they
include command-based activities.

9. Communicative approachesinlanguage teachingappearedinthe 1970s, influencedby
“humanisticnewmethods”.
1. TheInfluenceoftheHumanisticMethods
InCLT the learnerbecomesaresponsible individual closelylinkedtothe groupwithinwhichhe
or she works:
The role learner as negotiator – between the self, the learning process, and the object of
learning – emerges from and interacts with the role of joint negotiator within the group and
withinthe classroomprocedure andactivitieswhichthe groupundertakes.The implicationfor
the learner is that he should contribute as much as he gains, and thereby learn in an
independent way. (Breen and Candlin 1980:110).
The learned is also seen to bring varying degree of motivation to the classroom through, for
example, past learning experiences, which could colour his or her emotional attitude to the
language.
The act of learningitself waswhereteachersneededtofocusattention.InCLTwe seeaconcern
for the process of language acquisition. Another implication of a process view of language is
the acceptance of error as part of the learning process, as a necessary stage on the road to
linguistic competence.
New role for the teacher: that of “facilitator” of learner autonomy.
2. WhatisCLT?
It is a set of approaches,ratherthan a method,andas such there isno single textorauthority
on CLT.
CommunicativeApproaches:ADominantParadigm inElt

10.  The communicative approach
Concentrates on getting learners to do things with language, to express concepts and to
carry out communicative acts of various kinds.
 The communicative approach has influenced a language pedagogy
 Characteristic it pays systematic attention to functional as well as structural aspect of
language.
Some of the theoretical underpinnings of CLT can be summarized as follows:
 Language is a system for the expression of meaning;
 The primary function of language is for interaction and communication;
 The structure of language reflects its functional and communicative uses;
 The primary units of language are not merely its grammatical and structural features, but
categories of functional and communicative meaning as exemplified in discourse.
3. Task-BasedLearningProceduralSyllabus
N.S. Prabhu.
Prabhu believes that language, including both communicative and linguistic competence,is
acquired through engagement with meaning not through focusing learners on structure.
Learners focus on the tasks, not on language. A “procedural syllabus” was followed.
The onlyformof syllabuswhichiscompatible withandcansupportcommunicationalteaching
seemstobe a purelyprocedural one –whichlistsinmore or lessdetail,the typesof taskto be
attempted in the classroom and suggests an order of complexity for tasks of the same kind.
A selection of Prabhu´s tasks types include:
 Diagrams and formation
 Maps
 Calculating
 Stories and dialogues
 Personal details
Prabhu classified tasks into three categories:
 Information-gap activities
 Reasoning activities
 Opinion-gap activities
When a reasoning gap activity proves difficult for learners, the teacher is able to guide their
efforts step by step, making the reasoning explicit or breaking it down into smaller steps,or
offering parallel instances to particular steps.

11. In Prabhu´stask-basedor “procedural”approacheach lessonconsistof two stages:a pre-task
and task.
3.1 WhereareWeNow?CurrentViewsonTask-BasedLearning
The task-based learning of the late 1990s has taken on board the belief that some kindof
focuson form isnecessaryforeffective languagelearning.Skehan(1996),for example,has
pointedoutthatwithoutsomefocusonform,learnerssimplygetbetteratperformingtasks
badly. In her recent book A Framework for Task-Based Learning, Jane Willis offers a clear
language focus stage in her procedure for a task-based lesson:
Students prepare for the task, report back after the task and then study the language that
arises naturally out of the task cycle and its accompanying materials.
Task-based learning is considered by many to be ´state of the art´ language teaching. As
Willis puts it,
Task-basedlearningcombinesthe bestinsightsfromcommunicativelanguage teachingwith
an organised focus on language form.
3.2 CommutativeLanguageTeaching(CLT)Materials andActivitiesTypes
We can identify three main trends in CLT activity types:
 Communicativeness
 Tasks
 Meaningfulness
Identify the learner in a specific role of language use (for example as tourists, students,
customer-waiter, doctor-patient and so on). Detailed scenarios are established for
situationsof language use (forexample,arrivingata hotel,enrollingona language course,
orderinga meal,visited the doctoretc.).Learnersthenembarkontaskswhichmay include
simulation or role playing, or problem solving.
Littlewood (1981) makes a distinction between “functional communication activities” and
“social interaction activities”.
CLT placesemphasisonthe needsof the learners,whichwill varyfromone learningcontext
to another. Thus, in order to decide what language functions to include in a syllabus,the
language needs of the learner must be used as a starting point.
3.3 SomeKeyFeaturesofCLT

12. 3.3.1. TheRoleofTeacherandLearner
The teacherbecame more multi-dimensional:facilitator,manager,advisor,andco-
communicator, monitor “organiser of resource, guide researcher and learner”
needs analyst, counselor, and group process manager.
Learnerswill be more motivatedbecausetheyare “learningtodosomethinguseful
with the language they study”. Also, they are “encouraged to express their
individuality” “student security is enhanced”.
This change in roles of both teacher and learner obviously relates to the fact that
CLT proposedadifferentview of the nature of language topreviousmethodologies,
as discussed above. In terms of the “mediation” view of language (as defined by
Widdowson – see above).
3.3.2. LearnerAutonomy
Learnersshouldhave control overtheirownlearning:thisisthe conceptof “learner
autonomy”.
Audiolingual Typesofdrills
1. Repetition
The studentrepeatsanutterance aloudas soonas he has heardit. He doesthiswithout
lookingata printedtext.The utterance mustbe brief enoughtobe retainedbythe ear.
Soundisas importantas formand order.
Examples
Thisis the seventhmonth - Thisisthe seventhmonth
Aftera studenthasrepeatedanutterance,he mayrepeatitagain andadd a few words,
the repeatthat whole utterance andaddmore words.
Examples
I usedto knowhim – 1 usedto know him
I usedto knowhimyearsago – 1 usedto know himyear ago whenwe were inschool
2. Inflection
One wordin an utterance appearsinanotherformwhenrepeated
Examples
I boughtthe ticket – 1 boughtthe tickets
He boughtthe candy – She boughtthe candy

13. I calledthe youngman - 1 calledthe young men
3. Replacement
One wordin an utterance isreplacedbyanother
Examples
He boughtthishouse cheap – He boughtit cheap
Helenleftearly - She leftearly
Theygave theirbossa watch – Theygave hima watch
4. Restatement
The studentrephrasesan utterance andaddressesittosomeone else,accordingto
instructions
Examples
Tell himto waitforyou – Wait for me
Askher howoldshe is - How oldare you?
AskJohnwhenbegan - John,whendidyoubegin?
5. Completion
The studenthearsan utterance that is complete exceptforone word,andthenrepeats
the utterance incompletedform.
Examples
I´ll go my wayand yougo - 1´11 go my wayand yougo yours
We all have owntroubles – We all have our owntroubles
6. Transposition
A change inword orderis necessarywhenaword isadded
Examples
I´m hungry(so) – So am 1
I´ll neverdoit again(neither) –Neitherwill I
7. Expansion
Whena word isaddedit takes a certainplace inthe sequence
Examples
I knowhim(hardly) –1 hardlyknow him
I knowhim(well) –1 knowhimwell

14. 8. Contraction
A single wordstandsfora phrasesor clause
Examples
Put yourhand onthe table – Putyour handthere
Theybelievethatthe earthisflat – Theybelieve it
9. Transformation
A sentence istransformedbybeingmade negativeorinterrogative orthroughchangesin
tense,mood,voice,aspect,ormodality.
Examples
He knowsmyaddress
He doesn´tknowmyaddress
Doeshe knowmy address?
He usedto knowmyaddress
If he had knownmyaddress
10. Integration
Two separate utterance are integratedintoone
Examples
Theymust be honest.Thisisimportantthattheybe honest
I knowthat man.He islookingforyou – 1 know the man whoislookingforyou
11. Rejoinder
The studentmakesan appropriate rejoindertoa givenutterance.He is toldinadvance to
respondinone of the followingways:
Be polite
Answerthe question
Agree
Agree emphatically
Expresssurprise
Expressregret
Disagree
Disagree emphatically
Questionwhatissaid
Fail to understand
BE POLITE EXAMPLES
Thank you – You´re welcome
May I take one? – Certainly

15. ANSWERTHE QUESTION.EXAMPLES
What isyour name? - My name isSmith
Where didit happen? - In the middle of the street
AGREE EXAMPLES
He´s followingus – 1 thinkyou´re right.This isgoodcoffee - It´s verygood.
12. Restoration
The Studentisgivena sequence of wordsthathave beenculledfromasentence butstill
bearits basicmeaning.He usesthese wordswithaminimumof changesandadditionsto
restore the sentence toitsoriginal form.He maybe toldwhetherthe time ispresent,past,
or future.
Examples
Students/waiting/bus - The studentsare waitingforthe bus
Boys/build/house/tree - The boysbuiltahouse ina tree
ThedifferencesbetweentraditionalandCommunicativeApproaches