1.
Case study: complex trace mineral
deficiency in a herd of goats
TRACE MINERALS
Dr. Christine King
Anima Vet
Winston-Salem, NC
animavet.com

2.
Trace Minerals
• this case study illustrates the pitfalls of relying on a generic trace
mineral supplement to fill in the gaps

3.
Trace Minerals
• this case study illustrates the pitfalls of relying on a generic trace
mineral supplement to fill in the gaps
• it also highlights the value of forage testing whenever an unusual
or unexpected problem arises

4.
Trace Minerals
• this case study illustrates the pitfalls of relying on a generic trace
mineral supplement to fill in the gaps
• it also highlights the value of forage testing whenever an unusual
or unexpected problem arises
• this case study involves goats, but the lessons also apply to horses,
cattle, sheep, and other grazing animals

5.
Trace Minerals
• the case involves a herd of breeding bucks in the Piedmont region
of North Carolina

6.
Trace Minerals
• the case involves a herd of breeding bucks in the Piedmont region
of North Carolina
• 4 Nigerian Dwarfs, 5 – 8 years of age
• 3 Miniature Nubians, 5 – 6 years of age

7.
Trace Minerals
• the case involves a herd of breeding bucks in the Piedmont region
of North Carolina
• soils here tend to be high in iron (red clay under shallow topsoil)
and marginal or low in various other minerals

8.
Trace Minerals
Element (%) Average (range) Element (ppm) Average (range)
Aluminium 6.1 % (4.2 – 8.6 %) Manganese 693 ppm (280 – 1,935 ppm)
Iron (Fe) 3.2 % (1.5 – 9.0 %) Zinc (Zn) 43 ppm (36 – 78 ppm)
Calcium (Ca) 1.5 % (0.6 – 3.2 %) Copper (Cu) 9.3 ppm (2.0 – 17.3 ppm)
Sodium 1.0 % (0.5 – 2.4 %) Arsenic 2.8 ppm (1.0 – 7.3 ppm)
Magnesium 0.5 % (0.2 – 1.1 %) Selenium 0.11 ppm (0.10 – 0.19 ppm)
Phosphorus (P) 0.03 % (0.01 – 0.04 %)
Ca : P 54.6 : 1 Fe : Cu 3,453 : 1
Ca : Mg 2.9 : 1 Zn : Cu 4.6 : 1
% = grams per 100 grams (multiply by 10,000 to get ppm); ppm = parts per million (mg/kg or μg/g)
Ratios (X : Y) in the lower cells are those of most nutritional importance (discussed later)
Average soil analysis for this county
US Geological Survey data at https://mrdata.usgs.gov/geochem/county.php?place=f37067&el=Se&rf=east-central

9.
Trace Minerals
• the case involves a herd of breeding bucks in the Piedmont region
of North Carolina
• soils here tend to be high in iron (red clay under shallow topsoil)
and marginal or low in various other minerals
• forages therefore tend to be high in iron and marginal or low
in various other minerals

10.
Trace Minerals
• the case involves a herd of breeding bucks in the Piedmont region
of North Carolina
• soils here tend to be high in iron (red clay under shallow topsoil)
and marginal or low in various other minerals
• forages therefore tend to be high in iron and marginal or low
in various other minerals
• livestock owners are encouraged to feed a mineral supplement
formulated for the target species

11.
Trace Minerals
• year-round, these bucks graze pasture and are also fed free-choice
grass hay and a mineral supplement for goats

12.
Trace Minerals
• year-round, these bucks graze pasture and are also fed free-choice
grass hay and a mineral supplement for goats
• the pasture is well established but unimproved; it is a mix of open
and wooded fields, with some seasonal browse

13.
Trace Minerals
• year-round, these bucks graze pasture and are also fed free-choice
grass hay and a mineral supplement for goats
• the pasture is well established but unimproved; it is a mix of open
and wooded fields, with some seasonal browse
• the hay is grown on a nearby farm that was once used for cattle;
it is a mix of grasses and, like the pasture, is unimproved

14.
Trace Minerals
• year-round, these bucks graze pasture and are also fed free-choice
grass hay and a mineral supplement for goats
• the pasture is well established but unimproved; it is a mix of open
and wooded fields, with some seasonal browse
• the hay is grown on a nearby farm that was once used for cattle;
it is a mix of grasses and, like the pasture, is unimproved
• the mineral supplement is formulated for the southern states;
it is a loose mineral salt containing ammonium chloride…

15.
Trace Minerals
Nutrient Amount Nutrient Amount
Crude protein 1.75 % Copper 800–820 ppm
Calcium 20–22 % Iodine 40 ppm
Salt (NaCl) 18–21 % Selenium 32 ppm
Phosphorus 6 % Cobalt 15 ppm
Magnesium 3 % Vitamin A 300,000 IU/lb
Sulfur 0.25 % Vitamin D 25,000 IU/lb
Zinc 3,000 ppm Vitamin E 200 IU/lb
Manganese 2,000 ppm (Iron) (unspecified)
Guaranteed minimums, or where a range is given, guaranteed minimum and maximum
ppm = parts per million (mg/kg or μg/g); IU = international units
Guaranteed analysis for the loose mineral salt
Feeding instructions: feed free-choice at a rate of ½–¾ oz. per head per day

16.
Trace Minerals
Ca : P (3.3 – 3.6) : 1 Zn : Cu 3.7 : 1
Ca : Mg (6.6 – 7.3) : 1 Fe : Cu ?
Nutritionally important ratios for the loose mineral salt
(More on these ratios later)

17.
Trace Minerals
• year-round, these bucks graze pasture and are also fed free-choice
grass hay and a mineral supplement for goats
• the bucks are also fed ~ ½ cup alfalfa pellets each, once a day during
the winter months, for additional calories and protein

18.
Trace Minerals
• year-round, these bucks graze pasture and are also fed free-choice
grass hay and a mineral supplement for goats
• the bucks are also fed ~ ½ cup alfalfa pellets each, once a day during
the winter months, for additional calories and protein
• this past winter they were also fed ~ ¼ cup unshelled sunflower seeds
each, once a day, for additional calories and protein

19.
Trace Minerals
• the problem first appeared as a seasonal dermatosis (skin disease)
after about a year on this base diet (pasture, hay, mineral salt)

20.
Trace Minerals
• the problem first appeared as a seasonal dermatosis (skin disease)
after about a year on this base diet (pasture, hay, mineral salt)
• the bucks became very itchy in the late winter–early spring, rubbing
themselves raw in places

21.
Trace Minerals
• the problem first appeared as a seasonal dermatosis (skin disease)
after about a year on this base diet (pasture, hay, mineral salt)
• the bucks became very itchy in the late winter–early spring, rubbing
themselves raw in places
• no external parasites such as lice could be found, so we concluded
that the problem was probably caused by mites

22.
Trace Minerals
• the problem first appeared as a seasonal dermatosis (skin disease)
after about a year on this base diet (pasture, hay, mineral salt)
• the bucks became very itchy in the late winter–early spring, rubbing
themselves raw in places
• no external parasites such as lice could be found, so we concluded
that the problem was probably caused by mites
• a single oral dose of ivermectin stopped the itching

23.
Trace Minerals
• the problem first appeared as a seasonal dermatosis (skin disease)
after about a year on this base diet (pasture, hay, mineral salt)
• the bucks became very itchy in the late winter–early spring, rubbing
themselves raw in places
• no external parasites such as lice could be found, so we concluded
that the problem was probably caused by mites
• a single oral dose of ivermectin stopped the itching
• however, the rough, thickened, grey, bare (i.e., parakeratotic) skin
along their topline persisted throughout the year, and…

24.
Trace Minerals
• the problem first appeared as a seasonal dermatosis (skin disease)
after about a year on this base diet (pasture, hay, mineral salt)
• the bucks became very itchy in the late winter–early spring, rubbing
themselves raw in places
• no external parasites such as lice could be found, so we concluded
that the problem was probably caused by mites
• a single oral dose of ivermectin stopped the itching
• however, the rough, thickened, grey, bare (i.e., parakeratotic) skin
along their topline persisted throughout the year, and…
• the itching returned the next spring, and every spring thereafter

25.
Trace Minerals
• over the next 3 years, the bucks slowly became unthrifty

26.
Trace Minerals
• over the next 3 years, the bucks slowly became unthrifty
• it was most apparent in the Mini Nubians and in the older Nigerians

27.
Trace Minerals
• over the next 3 years, the bucks slowly became unthrifty
• it was most apparent in the Mini Nubians and in the older Nigerians
• coat and body condition slowly deteriorated despite a good appetite,
free-choice forage, hay, and minerals, and a good deworming program

28.
Trace Minerals
• over the next 3 years, the bucks slowly became unthrifty
• it was most apparent in the Mini Nubians and in the older Nigerians
• coat and body condition slowly deteriorated despite a good appetite,
free-choice forage, hay, and minerals, and a good deworming program
• the unthriftiness was not associated with the buck’s FAMACHA score
and was not responsive to anthelmintic treatment

29.
Trace Minerals
• over the next 3 years, the bucks slowly became unthrifty
• it was most apparent in the Mini Nubians and in the older Nigerians
• coat and body condition slowly deteriorated despite a good appetite,
free-choice forage, hay, and minerals, and a good deworming program
• the unthriftiness was not associated with the buck’s FAMACHA score
and was not responsive to anthelmintic treatment
• anthelmintic use on this farm is still very light, and there has been
no apparent increase in parasite resistance or parasitism

30.
Trace Minerals
• the problem came to a head when a Mini Nubian was found down
and severely hypothermic one winter morning

31.
Trace Minerals
• the problem came to a head when a Mini Nubian was found down
and severely hypothermic one winter morning
• the temperature outside was 15° F, and the buck’s rectal temperature
was 93° F

32.
Trace Minerals
• the problem came to a head when a Mini Nubian was found down
and severely hypothermic one winter morning
• he responded well to rewarming, but he remained inexplicably weak
and unable to rise without assistance or stand for very long

33.
Trace Minerals
• the problem came to a head when a Mini Nubian was found down
and severely hypothermic one winter morning
• he responded well to rewarming, but he remained inexplicably weak
and unable to rise without assistance or stand for very long
• despite diligent nursing care and nutritional support, he wasted away
and died 2 weeks after his collapse

34.
Trace Minerals
• the problem came to a head when a Mini Nubian was found down
and severely hypothermic one winter morning
• he responded well to rewarming, but he remained inexplicably weak
and unable to rise without assistance or stand for very long
• despite diligent nursing care and nutritional support, he wasted away
and died 2 weeks after his collapse
• in his last few days he developed loose manure and then diarrhea

35.
Trace Minerals
• the problem came to a head when a Mini Nubian was found down
and severely hypothermic one winter morning
• he responded well to rewarming, but he remained inexplicably weak
and unable to rise without assistance or stand for very long
• despite diligent nursing care and nutritional support, he wasted away
and died 2 weeks after his collapse
• in his last few days he developed loose manure and then diarrhea
• post-mortem examination was strikingly unremarkable; he looked
severely malnourished but with no obvious cause

36.
Trace Minerals
• 2 ½ months later, a second Mini Nubian started showing similar
signs and was found down and unable to rise one night

37.
Trace Minerals
• 2 ½ months later, a second Mini Nubian started showing similar
signs and was found down and unable to rise one night
• the buck who died had always been a poor-doer; this second buck
was the next most unthrifty

38.
Trace Minerals
• 2 ½ months later, a second Mini Nubian started showing similar
signs and was found down and unable to rise one night
• the buck who died had always been a poor-doer; this second buck
was the next most unthrifty
• he had steadily been losing weight throughout the winter, despite
unlimited hay and supplemental alfalfa pellets and sunflower seeds

39.
Trace Minerals
• 2 ½ months later, a second Mini Nubian started showing similar
signs and was found down and unable to rise one night
• the buck who died had always been a poor-doer; this second buck
was the next most unthrifty
• he had steadily been losing weight throughout the winter, despite
unlimited hay and supplemental alfalfa pellets and sunflower seeds
• he developed loose manure and then diarrhea about 10 days before
he collapsed; his FAMACHA score was 2/5 (acceptable)

40.
Trace Minerals
• 2 ½ months later, a second Mini Nubian started showing similar
signs and was found down and unable to rise one night
• the buck who died had always been a poor-doer; this second buck
was the next most unthrifty
• he had steadily been losing weight throughout the winter, despite
unlimited hay and supplemental alfalfa pellets and sunflower seeds
• he developed loose manure and then diarrhea about 10 days before
he collapsed; his FAMACHA score was 2/5 (acceptable)
• the diarrhea improved after deworming with fenbendazole (double
dose, in case other parasites were involved) but then it returned

41.
Trace Minerals
• ‘fortunately’, the Nigerians were now showing signs consistent
with chronic zinc deficiency

42.
Trace Minerals
• ‘fortunately’, the Nigerians were now showing signs consistent
with chronic zinc deficiency
• they were not (yet) itchy, but they all had parakeratotic skin along
the topline and on the ears, face, and bottom of the scrotum

43.
Trace Minerals
a large bare patch of dry, rough, grey,
flaky skin partially hidden beneath
the topcoat on this buck’s back

44.
Trace Minerals
same buck as in the previous photo;
the grossly thickened, hairless skin
at the base of his tail persisted
throughout the year and gradually
worsened over time

45.
Trace Minerals
one of the older Nigerian bucks with
parakeratotic skin along the top of his
neck and head, with some thinning of
the hair on the top of the ears
(pronounced parra-kerra-tottic)

46.
Trace Minerals
less severe skin lesions on the head,
but more obvious thinning of the hair
at the base of the ears and a wart-like
area of rough, grey, bare, thickened
skin on the left ear (circle)
(after 4 weeks of Zn supplementation,
this wart-like patch is almost gone)

47.
Trace Minerals
this photo and the next two were
taken a couple of weeks after the
trace mineral deficiencies were
corrected; hair is regrowing on the
parakeratotic area at the bottom of
this buck’s scrotum – but it’s growing
back white (it was all black before
this problem developed)

48.
Trace Minerals
typical appearance of the
bottom of the scrotum; the skin
is still parakeratotic (although
improving) and it’s wrinkled
(not a cold morning)
it’s difficult to say for sure
whether the testicles are
decreased in size, but it appears
so, which is another sign of
chronic zinc deficiency

49.
Trace Minerals
this older buck had some of the
most severe skin lesions; the
bottom of his scrotum is now
depigmented (pink patch); before
this problem began, the skin was
black and the hair was salt-and-
pepper grey like other areas on
his body

50.
Trace Minerals
• ‘fortunately’, the Nigerians were now showing signs consistent
with chronic zinc deficiency
• they were not (yet) itchy, but they all had parakeratotic skin along
the topline and on the ears, face, and bottom of the scrotum
• the oldest bucks had the worst skin lesions, consistent with a very
chronic problem

51.
Trace Minerals
the oldest buck with the most severe
skin lesions; he is almost bare along
the top of his neck and shoulders;
also notice the hair loss at the base
and outer edge of his right ear

52.
Trace Minerals
the same buck as in the previous
photo; notice the hair loss on the
top of his nose and face, and at
the base of his ears
(hair loss on the bridge of the
nose was present in all of the
bucks and was mistakenly
attributed to the hay feeder
rubbing the hair off when
the bucks pulled out hay)

53.
Trace Minerals
• ‘fortunately’, the Nigerians were now showing signs consistent
with chronic zinc deficiency
• they were not (yet) itchy, but they all had parakeratotic skin along
the topline and on the ears, face, and bottom of the scrotum
• the oldest bucks had the worst skin lesions, consistent with a very
chronic problem
• the oldest Nigerian was often seen standing with his back hunched
– also a sign of zinc deficiency but mistakenly attributed to arthritis

54.
Trace Minerals
• ‘fortunately’, the Nigerians were now showing signs consistent
with chronic zinc deficiency
• they were not (yet) itchy, but they all had parakeratotic skin along
the topline and on the ears, face, and bottom of the scrotum
• the oldest bucks had the worst skin lesions, consistent with a very
chronic problem
• the oldest Nigerian was often seen standing with his back hunched
– also a sign of zinc deficiency but mistakenly attributed to arthritis
• skin lesions were much less obvious in the Mini Nubians; instead,
these bucks had the greatest amount of weight loss

55.
Trace Minerals
• blood samples were taken from the weak buck and the oldest
buck (with the worst skin lesions)

56.
Trace Minerals
• blood samples were taken from the weak buck and the oldest
buck (with the worst skin lesions)
• for economy, serum zinc and copper were requested on the weak
buck and serum zinc on the other buck

57.
Trace Minerals
• blood samples were taken from the weak buck and the oldest
buck (with the worst skin lesions)
• while waiting for results, supplemental zinc (Zn) was started
at an initial rate of 30 mg Zn per buck per day, in feed

58.
Trace Minerals
• blood samples were taken from the weak buck and the oldest
buck (with the worst skin lesions)
• while waiting for results, supplemental zinc (Zn) was started
at an initial rate of 30 mg Zn per buck per day, in feed
• published dosages for zinc sulfate in goats range from 1 gram
to 14 grams per day

59.
Trace Minerals
• blood samples were taken from the weak buck and the oldest
buck (with the worst skin lesions)
• while waiting for results, supplemental zinc (Zn) was started
at an initial rate of 30 mg Zn per buck per day, in feed
• published dosages for zinc sulfate in goats range from 1 gram
to 14 grams per day
• zinc sulfate is 22.7% zinc, so 1 gram provides 227 mg Zn

60.
Trace Minerals
• blood samples were taken from the weak buck and the oldest
buck (with the worst skin lesions)
• while waiting for results, supplemental zinc (Zn) was started
at an initial rate of 30 mg Zn per buck per day, in feed
• published dosages for zinc sulfate in goats range from 1 gram
to 14 grams per day
• as the product used in these bucks was a highly bioavailable zinc
chelate, and zinc was already available in the loose mineral salt…

61.
Trace Minerals
• blood samples were taken from the weak buck and the oldest
buck (with the worst skin lesions)
• while waiting for results, supplemental zinc (Zn) was started
at an initial rate of 30 mg Zn per buck per day, in feed
• published dosages for zinc sulfate in goats range from 1 gram
to 14 grams per day
• as the product used in these bucks was a highly bioavailable zinc
chelate, and zinc was already available in the loose mineral salt…
• the recommended human dosage (30 mg/day) was used

62.
Trace Minerals
• blood samples were taken from the weak buck and the oldest
buck (with the worst skin lesions)
• while waiting for results, supplemental zinc (Zn) was started
at an initial rate of 30 mg Zn per buck per day, in feed
• published dosages for zinc sulfate in goats range from 1 gram
to 14 grams per day
• as the product used in these bucks was a highly bioavailable zinc
chelate, and zinc was already available in the loose mineral salt…
• the recommended human dosage (30 mg/day) was used, along with
vitamin A (beta-carotene, ~ 4,000 IU per buck per day)

63.
Trace Minerals
• blood samples were taken from the weak buck and the oldest
buck (with the worst skin lesions)
• while waiting for results, supplemental zinc (Zn) was started
at an initial rate of 30 mg Zn per buck per day, in feed
• (vitamin A supplementation facilitates zinc utilization)

64.
Trace Minerals
• blood samples were taken from the weak buck and the oldest
buck (with the worst skin lesions)
• while waiting for results, supplemental zinc (Zn) was started
at an initial rate of 30 mg Zn per buck per day, in feed
• the response was dramatic; within hours the weak buck could rise
unaided, after collapsing and being unable to rise 3 times that day

65.
Trace Minerals
• blood samples were taken from the weak buck and the oldest
buck (with the worst skin lesions)
• while waiting for results, supplemental zinc (Zn) was started
at an initial rate of 30 mg Zn per buck per day, in feed
• the response was dramatic; within hours the weak buck could rise
unaided, after collapsing and being unable to rise 3 times that day
• however, after switching to a less expensive zinc supplement
4 days later, the improvement waned

66.
Trace Minerals
• blood samples were taken from the weak buck and the oldest
buck (with the worst skin lesions)
• while waiting for results, supplemental zinc (Zn) was started
at an initial rate of 30 mg Zn per buck per day, in feed
• the response was dramatic; within hours the weak buck could rise
unaided, after collapsing and being unable to rise 3 times that day
• however, after switching to a less expensive zinc supplement
4 days later, the improvement waned
• suspecting that the zinc dosage was now too low, we increased
it to 150 mg Zn per buck per day – until we realized that…

67.
Trace Minerals
• zinc supplementation worsened the concurrent copper deficiency!

68.
Trace Minerals
• zinc supplementation worsened the concurrent copper deficiency!
• to avoid risking copper toxicity, we’d decided to rely on the loose
mineral to supply sufficient copper while awaiting the lab results

69.
Trace Minerals
• zinc supplementation worsened the concurrent copper deficiency!
• to avoid risking copper toxicity, we’d decided to rely on the loose
mineral to supply sufficient copper while awaiting the lab results
• however, the lab results revealed the presence of both zinc and
copper deficiency

70.
Trace Minerals
• zinc supplementation worsened the concurrent copper deficiency!
• to avoid risking copper toxicity, we’d decided to rely on the loose
mineral to supply sufficient copper while awaiting the lab results
• however, the lab results revealed the presence of both zinc and
copper deficiency
• the most obvious signs of copper deficiency were seen in the Mini
Nubians: continued weight loss…

71.
Trace Minerals
• zinc supplementation worsened the concurrent copper deficiency!
• to avoid risking copper toxicity, we’d decided to rely on the loose
mineral to supply sufficient copper while awaiting the lab results
• however, the lab results revealed the presence of both zinc and
copper deficiency
• the most obvious signs of copper deficiency were seen in the Mini
Nubians: continued weight loss…
• mild anemia (FAMACHA score of 3/5 – borderline)

72.
Trace Minerals
• zinc supplementation worsened the concurrent copper deficiency!
• to avoid risking copper toxicity, we’d decided to rely on the loose
mineral to supply sufficient copper while awaiting the lab results
• however, the lab results revealed the presence of both zinc and
copper deficiency
• the most obvious signs of copper deficiency were seen in the Mini
Nubians: continued weight loss…
• mild anemia (FAMACHA score of 3/5); loose manure or diarrhea; and…

73.
Trace Minerals
• zinc supplementation worsened the concurrent copper deficiency!
• to avoid risking copper toxicity, we’d decided to rely on the loose
mineral to supply sufficient copper while awaiting the lab results
• however, the lab results revealed the presence of both zinc and
copper deficiency
• the most obvious signs of copper deficiency were seen in the Mini
Nubians: continued weight loss…
• mild anemia (FAMACHA score of 3/5); loose manure or diarrhea; and…
• reddish discoloration of the black haircoat (very subtle in these bucks)

74.
Trace Minerals
late-afternoon sun shining through the hair along this buck’s
topline; notice the rusty tinge to the black hair in this untouched
photo (no color correction)
(normal tan marking
on this tricolor buck)

75.
Trace Minerals
• in addition to blood tests, a sample of hay was sent to a forage
testing laboratory

76.
Trace Minerals
• in addition to blood tests, a sample of hay was sent to a forage
testing laboratory
• while awaiting the hay results, we added copper and selenium
supplementation in addition to low-dose zinc and vitamin A

77.
Trace Minerals
• in addition to blood tests, a sample of hay was sent to a forage
testing laboratory
• while awaiting the hay results, we added copper and selenium
supplementation in addition to low-dose zinc and vitamin A
• copper (Cu) was supplemented as copper sulfate solution (0.5 %),
at an initial dosage of 25 mg Cu per goat per day, in feed

78.
Trace Minerals
• in addition to blood tests, a sample of hay was sent to a forage
testing laboratory
• while awaiting the hay results, we added copper and selenium
supplementation in addition to low-dose zinc and vitamin A
• copper (Cu) was supplemented as copper sulfate solution (0.5 %),
at an initial dosage of 25 mg Cu per goat per day, in feed
• 5 grams copper sulfate crystals (measured with an electronic scale)
were added to 1 liter of hot water and stirred until fully dissolved

79.
Trace Minerals
• in addition to blood tests, a sample of hay was sent to a forage
testing laboratory
• while awaiting the hay results, we added copper and selenium
supplementation in addition to low-dose zinc and vitamin A
• copper (Cu) was supplemented as copper sulfate solution (0.5 %),
at an initial dosage of 25 mg Cu per goat per day, in feed
• 5 grams copper sulfate crystals (measured with an electronic scale)
were added to 1 liter of hot water and stirred until fully dissolved
• this solution provides 12.5 mg Cu per 10 mls

80.
Trace Minerals
• in addition to blood tests, a sample of hay was sent to a forage
testing laboratory
• while awaiting the hay results, we added copper and selenium
supplementation in addition to low-dose zinc and vitamin A
• even this dilute, copper sulfate solution tastes awful, so molasses
was added to mask the taste

81.
Trace Minerals
• in addition to blood tests, a sample of hay was sent to a forage
testing laboratory
• while awaiting the hay results, we added copper and selenium
supplementation in addition to low-dose zinc and vitamin A
• even this dilute, copper sulfate solution tastes awful, so molasses
was added to mask the taste
• selenium (Se) was supplemented at a dosage of 150 micrograms (μg)
Se per goat per day, in feed

82.
Trace Minerals
• in addition to blood tests, a sample of hay was sent to a forage
testing laboratory
• while awaiting the hay results, we added copper and selenium
supplementation in addition to low-dose zinc and vitamin A
• even this dilute, copper sulfate solution tastes awful, so molasses
was added to mask the taste
• selenium (Se) was supplemented at a dosage of 150 micrograms (μg)
Se per goat per day, in feed
• chelated selenium (Se-methionine) tablets were crushed and mixed
in hot water (…it doesn’t dissolve well)

83.
Trace Minerals
• so, the interim supplement regimen consisted of the following,
per goat per day:

84.
Trace Minerals
• so, the interim supplement regimen consisted of the following,
per goat per day:
• 16.5 mg zinc
• 25 mg copper
• 150 μg selenium
• 4,000 IU vitamin A (beta-carotene)

85.
Trace Minerals
• so, the interim supplement regimen consisted of the following,
per goat per day:
• 16.5 mg zinc
• 25 mg copper
• 150 μg selenium
• 4,000 IU vitamin A (beta-carotene)
that’s a Zn : Cu of ~ 0.7 : 1

86.
Trace Minerals
• so, the interim supplement regimen consisted of the following,
per goat per day:
• 16.5 mg zinc
• 25 mg copper
• 150 μg selenium
• 4,000 IU vitamin A (beta-carotene)
• this combo was mixed with hay pellets (2 : 1 blend of timothy
grass and alfalfa) each morning

87.
Trace Minerals
• so, the interim supplement regimen consisted of the following,
per goat per day:
• 16.5 mg zinc
• 25 mg copper
• 150 μg selenium
• 4,000 IU vitamin A (beta-carotene)
• this combo was mixed with hay pellets (2 : 1 blend of timothy
grass and alfalfa) each morning
• the loose mineral salt was also available free-choice

88.
Trace Minerals
• why was selenium included?

89.
Trace Minerals
• why was selenium included?
• soils in this county are low in selenium (average of 0.11 ppm)

90.
Trace Minerals
• why was selenium included?
• soils in this county are low in selenium (average of 0.11 ppm)
• the loose mineral contains selenium (32 μg/g), but the bucks would
need to eat at least 5 grams (1 teaspoon) per day to meet their needs

91.
Trace Minerals
• why was selenium included?
• soils in this county are low in selenium (average of 0.11 ppm)
• the loose mineral contains selenium (32 μg/g), but the bucks would
need to eat at least 5 grams (1 teaspoon) per day to meet their needs
• the bucks were not consuming the loose mineral every day; in fact,
they had barely touched it all winter

92.
Trace Minerals
• why was selenium included?
• soils in this county are low in selenium (average of 0.11 ppm)
• the loose mineral contains selenium (32 μg/g), but the bucks would
need to eat at least 5 grams (1 teaspoon) per day to meet their needs
• the bucks were not consuming the loose mineral every day; in fact,
they had barely touched it all winter
• the persistent weakness and loss of body condition suggested that
selenium deficiency may be involved, in addition to zinc and copper

93.
Trace Minerals
• why was selenium included?
• selenium was not included in the blood test or hay analysis
for reasons of economy

94.
Trace Minerals
• why was selenium included?
• selenium was not included in the blood test or hay analysis
for reasons of economy
• in hindsight, it would have been best to include it in both

95.
Trace Minerals
• why was selenium included?
• selenium was not included in the blood test or hay analysis
for reasons of economy
• in hindsight, it would have been best to include it in both
• we decided against using injectable selenium (e.g., Bo-Se)
in the absence of blood or hay results and…

96.
Trace Minerals
• why was selenium included?
• selenium was not included in the blood test or hay analysis
for reasons of economy
• in hindsight, it would have been best to include it in both
• we decided against using injectable selenium (e.g., Bo-Se)
in the absence of blood or hay results and…
• because there were no clear signs of deficiency on necropsy
in the buck who died (e.g., no ‘white muscle’ or heart lesions)

97.
Trace Minerals
• why was selenium included?
• selenium was not included in the blood test or hay analysis
for reasons of economy
• in hindsight, it would have been best to include it in both
• we decided against using injectable selenium (e.g., Bo-Se)
in the absence of blood or hay results and…
• because there were no clear signs of deficiency on necropsy
in the buck who died (e.g., no ‘white muscle’ or heart lesions)
• for safety, we opted for oral supplementation at a dosage that
simply met the minimum daily requirement

98.
Trace Minerals
• what about glyphosate (Roundup®) toxicity?

99.
Trace Minerals
• what about glyphosate (Roundup®) toxicity?
• at least in plants, glyphosate interferes with the uptake of some
minerals

100.
Trace Minerals
• what about glyphosate (Roundup®) toxicity?
• at least in plants, glyphosate interferes with the uptake of some
minerals
• however, its effect on mineral uptake in animals is far less clear,
and such any effect remains highly speculative

101.
Trace Minerals
• what about glyphosate (Roundup®) toxicity?
• at least in plants, glyphosate interferes with the uptake of some
minerals
• however, its effect on mineral uptake in animals is far less clear,
and such any effect remains highly speculative
• lastly, glyphosate has not been used on the home farm or hay field
for many years (if at all), and…

102.
Trace Minerals
• what about glyphosate (Roundup®) toxicity?
• at least in plants, glyphosate interferes with the uptake of some
minerals
• however, its effect on mineral uptake in animals is far less clear,
and such any effect remains highly speculative
• lastly, glyphosate has not been used on the home farm or hay field
for many years (if at all), and…
• glyphosate is not used by the forage company which produces
the timothy grass and alfalfa pellets fed to these bucks

103.
Trace Minerals
• the hay results provided the final piece of the puzzle…

104.
Trace Minerals
Nutrient Amount Nutrient Amount
Dry matter 92 % Digestible energy 0.88 Mcal/lb
Crude protein 7.6 % (34 g/lb) Estimated lysine 0.26 % (1.2 g/lb)
Nonfiber carbohydrates 18 % (82 g/lb) Neutral detergent fiber 59 % (269 g/lb)
Calcium (Ca) 0.6 1% (2.75 g/lb) Phosphorus (P) 0.29 % (1.31 g/lb)
Magnesium (Mg) 0.43 % (1.93 g/lb) Potassium 1.74 % (7.88 g/lb)
Sodium <0.01 % (0.04 g/lb)
Ca : P 2.1 : 1 Ca : Mg 1.4 : 1
Hay analysis – macronutrients (as fed)
The forage testing lab mainly serves the horse industry, so some of these indices, such as
digestible energy and crude protein, are only indirectly applicable to goats.
Mcal = megacalories

105.
Trace Minerals
Nutrient Amount Nutrient Amount
Iron (Fe) 118 ppm Manganese 138 ppm
Zinc (Zn) 69 ppm Copper (Cu) 9 ppm
Molybdenum <0.001%
Zn : Cu 7.5 : 1 Fe : Cu 12.9 : 1
Hay analysis – trace minerals (as fed)

106.
Trace Minerals
• the hay results were the final piece of the puzzle…
• and now in relation to daily maintenance requirements (the
amounts recommended to avoid deficiency of that nutrient)…

107.
Trace Minerals
Nutrient Amount in hay Daily requirement Supplied by 2 lbs of hay
Crude protein 34 g/lb 53 – 59 grams 68 grams
Calcium 2.75 g/lb 1.8 grams 5.5 grams
Phosphorus 1.31 g/lb 1.4 grams 2.6 grams
Magnesium 1.93 g/lb 0.53 grams 3.9 grams
Sodium 40 mg/lb 560 mg 80 mg
Hay – macronutrient content in relation to maintenance requirements
These daily maintenance requirements are for adult dairy bucks weighing 60–70 lbs.
The last column is based on the recommended dry matter intake for adult bucks weighing 60–70 lbs, if hay
is the sole source of forage (e.g., during winter).
From Nutrient Requirements of Small Ruminants – Sheep, Goats, Cervids, and New World Camelids (NRC, 2007)

108.
Trace Minerals
Nutrient Amount in hay Daily requirement Supplied by 2 lbs of hay
Crude protein 34 g/lb 53 – 59 grams 68 grams
Calcium 2.75 g/lb 1.8 grams 5.5 grams
Phosphorus 1.31 g/lb 1.4 grams 2.6 grams
Magnesium 1.93 g/lb 0.53 grams 3.9 grams
Sodium 40 mg/lb 560 mg 80 mg
Hay – macronutrient content in relation to maintenance requirements
These daily maintenance requirements are for adult dairy bucks weighing 60–70 lbs.
The last column is based on the recommended dry matter intake for adult bucks weighing 60–70 lbs, if hay
is the sole source of forage (e.g., during winter).
From Nutrient Requirements of Small Ruminants – Sheep, Goats, Cervids, and New World Camelids (NRC, 2007)
barely enough

109.
Trace Minerals
Nutrient Amount in hay Daily requirement Supplied by 2 lbs of hay
Crude protein 34 g/lb 53 – 59 grams 68 grams
Calcium 2.75 g/lb 1.8 grams 5.5 grams
Phosphorus 1.31 g/lb 1.4 grams 2.6 grams
Magnesium 1.93 g/lb 0.53 grams 3.9 grams
Sodium 40 mg/lb 560 mg 80 mg
Hay – macronutrient content in relation to maintenance requirements
These daily maintenance requirements are for adult dairy bucks weighing 60–70 lbs.
The last column is based on the recommended dry matter intake for adult bucks weighing 60–70 lbs, if hay
is the sole source of forage (e.g., during winter).
From Nutrient Requirements of Small Ruminants – Sheep, Goats, Cervids, and New World Camelids (NRC, 2007)
barely enough
This forage analysis measured crude protein (CP), which is really just a measure of nitrogen
content. The percentage of usable protein is probably quite low in this unfertilized, mature
hay, so we should consider this hay barely adequate in quality protein, even for an adult’s
maintenance needs. A small amount of supplemental protein would be wise, as all of these
bucks have lost muscle mass, and likely fertility as well, with this chronic trace mineral
deficiency.

110.
Trace Minerals
Nutrient Amount in hay Daily requirement Supplied by 2 lbs of hay
Crude protein 34 g/lb 53 – 59 grams 68 grams
Calcium 2.75 g/lb 1.8 grams 5.5 grams
Phosphorus 1.31 g/lb 1.4 grams 2.6 grams
Magnesium 1.93 g/lb 0.53 grams 3.9 grams
Sodium 40 mg/lb 560 mg 80 mg
Hay – macronutrient content in relation to maintenance requirements
These daily maintenance requirements are for adult dairy bucks weighing 60–70 lbs.
The last column is based on the recommended dry matter intake for adult bucks weighing 60–70 lbs, if hay
is the sole source of forage (e.g., during winter).
From Nutrient Requirements of Small Ruminants – Sheep, Goats, Cervids, and New World Camelids (NRC, 2007)
excess

111.
Trace Minerals
Nutrient Amount in hay Daily requirement Supplied by 2 lbs of hay
Crude protein 34 g/lb 53 – 59 grams 68 grams
Calcium 2.75 g/lb 1.8 grams 5.5 grams
Phosphorus 1.31 g/lb 1.4 grams 2.6 grams
Magnesium 1.93 g/lb 0.53 grams 3.9 grams
Sodium 40 mg/lb 560 mg 80 mg
Hay – macronutrient content in relation to maintenance requirements
These daily maintenance requirements are for adult dairy bucks weighing 60–70 lbs.
The last column is based on the recommended dry matter intake for adult bucks weighing 60–70 lbs, if hay
is the sole source of forage (e.g., during winter).
From Nutrient Requirements of Small Ruminants – Sheep, Goats, Cervids, and New World Camelids (NRC, 2007)
excess
This hay contains about 3 times as much calcium as these bucks need. On its own, it is not
high enough to cause problems, such as calcium-based urinary stones, but it may be high
enough to interfere with phosphorous absorption and turn a marginal phosphorus intake
into a chronic deficiency…

112.
Trace Minerals
Nutrient Amount in hay Daily requirement Supplied by 2 lbs of hay
Crude protein 34 g/lb 53 – 59 grams 68 grams
Calcium 2.75 g/lb 1.8 grams 5.5 grams
Phosphorus 1.31 g/lb 1.4 grams 2.6 grams
Magnesium 1.93 g/lb 0.53 grams 3.9 grams
Sodium 40 mg/lb 560 mg 80 mg
Hay – macronutrient content in relation to maintenance requirements
These daily maintenance requirements are for adult dairy bucks weighing 60–70 lbs.
The last column is based on the recommended dry matter intake for adult bucks weighing 60–70 lbs, if hay
is the sole source of forage (e.g., during winter).
From Nutrient Requirements of Small Ruminants – Sheep, Goats, Cervids, and New World Camelids (NRC, 2007)
enough, but...

113.
Trace Minerals
Nutrient Amount in hay Daily requirement Supplied by 2 lbs of hay
Crude protein 34 g/lb 53 – 59 grams 68 grams
Calcium 2.75 g/lb 1.8 grams 5.5 grams
Phosphorus (P) 1.31 g/lb 1.4 grams 2.6 grams
Magnesium 1.93 g/lb 0.53 grams 3.9 grams
Sodium 40 mg/lb 560 mg 80 mg
Hay – macronutrient content in relation to maintenance requirements
These daily maintenance requirements are for adult dairy bucks weighing 60–70 lbs.
The last column is based on the recommended dry matter intake for adult bucks weighing 60–70 lbs, if hay
is the sole source of forage (e.g., during winter).
From Nutrient Requirements of Small Ruminants – Sheep, Goats, Cervids, and New World Camelids (NRC, 2007)
enough, but...
On paper, this hay contains adequate phosphorus. However, its calcium content may be
high enough to inhibit P absorption and create a relative P deficiency. Signs of P deficiency
include unthriftiness, slow growth, decreased milk production, and when severe,
osteophagia (bone eating). The stems of some of the grasses in the hay had reddish-purple
‘paintbrush’ markings that are suggestive of phosphorus deficiency in plants. As soils here
are low in P (average, 0.028 %), we should consider the local forages marginal or low in P,
and supplement the diet with a small amount of phosphorus.

114.
Trace Minerals
Nutrient Amount in hay Daily requirement Supplied by 2 lbs of hay
Crude protein 34 g/lb 53 – 59 grams 68 grams
Calcium 2.75 g/lb 1.8 grams 5.5 grams
Phosphorus 1.31 g/lb 1.4 grams 2.6 grams
Magnesium 1.93 g/lb 0.53 grams 3.9 grams
Sodium 40 mg/lb 560 mg 80 mg
Hay – macronutrient content in relation to maintenance requirements
These daily maintenance requirements are for adult dairy bucks weighing 60–70 lbs.
The last column is based on the recommended dry matter intake for adult bucks weighing 60–70 lbs, if hay
is the sole source of forage (e.g., during winter).
From Nutrient Requirements of Small Ruminants – Sheep, Goats, Cervids, and New World Camelids (NRC, 2007)
excess, but…

115.
Trace Minerals
Nutrient Amount in hay Daily requirement Supplied by 2 lbs of hay
Crude protein 34 g/lb 53 – 59 grams 64 grams
Calcium 2.75 g/lb 1.8 grams 5.5 grams
Phosphorus 1.31 g/lb 1.4 grams 2.6 grams
Magnesium 1.93 g/lb 0.53 grams 3.9 grams
Sodium 40 mg/lb 560 mg 80 mg
Hay – macronutrient content in relation to maintenance requirements
These daily maintenance requirements are for adult dairy bucks weighing 60–70 lbs.
The last column is based on the recommended dry matter intake for adult bucks weighing 60–70 lbs, if hay
is the sole source of forage (e.g., during winter).
From Nutrient Requirements of Small Ruminants – Sheep, Goats, Cervids, and New World Camelids (NRC, 2007)
excess, but…
This hay contains over 7 times as much magnesium as the bucks need, but it is unlikely to
cause a problem. Magnesium is one of the components of struvite crystals, which can form
urinary stones. However, with barely enough protein (nitrogen) and phosphorus in their
diet and a plentiful supply of palatable drinking water, it is unlikely that magnesium-
ammonium-phosphate (struvite) crystals will form in their urine. That said…

116.
Trace Minerals
Nutrient Amount in hay Daily requirement Supplied by 2 lbs of hay
Crude protein 34 g/lb 53 – 59 grams 68 grams
Calcium 2.75 g/lb 1.8 grams 5.5 grams
Phosphorus 1.31 g/lb 1.4 grams 2.6 grams
Magnesium 1.93 g/lb 0.53 grams 3.9 grams
Sodium 40 mg/lb 560 mg 80 mg
Hay – macronutrient content in relation to maintenance requirements
These daily maintenance requirements are for adult dairy bucks weighing 60–70 lbs.
The last column is based on the recommended dry matter intake for adult bucks weighing 60–70 lbs, if hay
is the sole source of forage (e.g., during winter).
From Nutrient Requirements of Small Ruminants – Sheep, Goats, Cervids, and New World Camelids (NRC, 2007)
deficient, but…

117.
Trace Minerals
Nutrient Amount in hay Daily requirement Supplied by 2 lbs of hay
Crude protein 34 g/lb 53 – 59 grams 64 grams
Calcium 2.75 g/lb 1.8 grams 5.5 grams
Phosphorus 1.31 g/lb 1.4 grams 2.6 grams
Magnesium 1.93 g/lb 0.53 grams 3.9 grams
Sodium 40 mg/lb 560 mg 80 mg
Hay – macronutrient content in relation to maintenance requirements
These daily maintenance requirements are for adult dairy bucks weighing 60–70 lbs.
The last column is based on the recommended dry matter intake for adult bucks weighing 60–70 lbs, if hay
is the sole source of forage (e.g., during winter).
From Nutrient Requirements of Small Ruminants – Sheep, Goats, Cervids, and New World Camelids (NRC, 2007)
deficient, but…
This hay contains way too little sodium – but that’s a common issue with forages in much
of the country. It is easily remedied by providing a source of plain salt (sodium chloride)
for the goats to consume as needed. Providing a palatable form of salt also ensures that
the bucks drink plenty of water, which, along with the optimal balance of Ca, P, and Mg,
is the best insurance against urinary stones in bucks on all-forage diets.

118.
Trace Minerals
Nutrient Amount in hay Daily requirement Supplied by 2 lbs hay
Iron 118 ppm 4 mg 107 mg
Zinc 69 ppm 9 mg 63 mg
Copper 9 ppm 18 mg 8 mg
Manganese 138 ppm 8 mg 125 mg
Molybdenum <0.001% not known 0
Hay – trace mineral content in relation to maintenance requirements
These daily maintenance requirements are for adult dairy bucks weighing 60–70 lbs.
The last column is based on the recommended dry matter intake for adult bucks weighing 60–70 lbs, if hay
is the sole source of forage (e.g., during winter).
From Nutrient Requirements of Small Ruminants – Sheep, Goats, Cervids, and New World Camelids (NRC, 2007)

119.
Trace Minerals
Nutrient Amount in hay Daily requirement Supplied by 2 lbs hay
Iron 118 ppm 4 mg 107 mg
Zinc 69 ppm 9 mg 63 mg
Copper 9 ppm 18 mg 8 mg
Manganese 138 ppm 8 mg 125 mg
Molybdenum <0.001% not known 0
Hay – trace mineral content in relation to maintenance requirements
These daily maintenance requirements are for adult dairy bucks weighing 60–70 lbs.
The last column is based on the recommended dry matter intake for adult bucks weighing 60–70 lbs, if hay
is the sole source of forage (e.g., during winter).
From Nutrient Requirements of Small Ruminants – Sheep, Goats, Cervids, and New World Camelids (NRC, 2007)
excess!

120.
Trace Minerals
Nutrient Amount in hay Daily requirement Supplied by 2 lbs hay
Iron 118 ppm 4 mg 107 mg
Zinc 69 ppm 8–9 mg 62 mg
Copper 9 ppm 13–15 mg 8 mg
Manganese 138 ppm 7–8 mg 124 mg
Molybdenum <0.001% not known 0
Hay – trace mineral content in relation to maintenance requirements
These daily maintenance requirements are for adult dairy bucks weighing 60–70 lbs.
The last column is based on the recommended dry matter intake for adult bucks weighing 60–70 lbs, if hay
is the sole source of forage (e.g., during winter).
From Nutrient Requirements of Small Ruminants – Sheep, Goats, Cervids, and New World Camelids (NRC, 2007)
excess!
This hay contains over 26 times as much iron as these bucks need. Herein lies one of the
main problems with this hay: an excess of iron inhibits the absorption of several other
minerals, including copper and zinc. Clearly in this case, the loose mineral salt the bucks
had available did not contain enough copper or zinc to make up for this excess of iron.
An iron-free mineral supplement is needed.

121.
Trace Minerals
Nutrient Amount in hay Daily requirement Supplied by 2 lbs hay
Iron 118 ppm 4 mg 107 mg
Zinc 69 ppm 9 mg 63 mg
Copper 9 ppm 18 mg 8 mg
Manganese 138 ppm 8 mg 124 mg
Molybdenum <0.001% not known 0
Hay – trace mineral content in relation to maintenance requirements
These daily maintenance requirements are for adult dairy bucks weighing 60–70 lbs.
The last column is based on the recommended dry matter intake for adult bucks weighing 60–70 lbs, if hay
is the sole source of forage (e.g., during winter).
From Nutrient Requirements of Small Ruminants – Sheep, Goats, Cervids, and New World Camelids (NRC, 2007)
enough, but…

122.
Trace Minerals
Nutrient Amount in hay Daily requirement Supplied by 2 lbs hay
Iron 118 ppm 4 mg 107 mg
Zinc 69 ppm 9 mg 63 mg
Copper 9 ppm 13–15 mg 8 mg
Manganese 138 ppm 7–8 mg 124 mg
Molybdenum <0.001% not known 0
Hay – trace mineral content in relation to maintenance requirements
These daily maintenance requirements are for adult dairy bucks weighing 60–70 lbs.
The last column is based on the recommended dry matter intake for adult bucks weighing 60–70 lbs, if hay
is the sole source of forage (e.g., during winter).
From Nutrient Requirements of Small Ruminants – Sheep, Goats, Cervids, and New World Camelids (NRC, 2007)
enough, but…
Although this hay contains 7 times as much zinc as these bucks need, the classic signs of
zinc deficiency, the low serum zinc, and the immediate response to zinc supplementation
alone indicate that something is blocking zinc absorption and creating zinc deficiency.
An excess of iron can block zinc absorption, so an iron-free mineral supplement should
be enough to address this problem.

123.
Trace Minerals
Nutrient Amount in hay Daily requirement Supplied by 2 lbs hay
Iron 118 ppm 4 mg 107 mg
Zinc 69 ppm 9 mg 63 mg
Copper 9 ppm 18 mg 8 mg
Manganese 138 ppm 8 mg 125 mg
Molybdenum <0.001% not known 0
Hay – trace mineral content in relation to maintenance requirements
These daily maintenance requirements are for adult dairy bucks weighing 60–70 lbs.
The last column is based on the recommended dry matter intake for adult bucks weighing 60–70 lbs, if hay
is the sole source of forage (e.g., during winter).
From Nutrient Requirements of Small Ruminants – Sheep, Goats, Cervids, and New World Camelids (NRC, 2007)
deficient!

124.
Trace Minerals
Nutrient Amount in hay Daily requirement Supplied by 2 lbs hay
Iron 118 ppm 4 mg 107 mg
Zinc 69 ppm 9 mg 63 mg
Copper 9 ppm 18 mg 8 mg
Manganese 138 ppm 7–8 mg 124 mg
Molybdenum <0.001% not known 0
Hay – trace mineral content in relation to maintenance requirements
These daily maintenance requirements are for adult dairy bucks weighing 60–70 lbs.
The last column is based on the recommended dry matter intake for adult bucks weighing 60–70 lbs, if hay
is the sole source of forage (e.g., during winter).
From Nutrient Requirements of Small Ruminants – Sheep, Goats, Cervids, and New World Camelids (NRC, 2007)
deficient!
Here is a three-fold problem: the hay is very deficient in copper (providing less than 50 %
of the bucks’ daily requirement at this feed intake), plus copper absorption is blocked
by an excess of iron and zinc. Not only is an iron-free mineral supplement needed,
it must also contain enough copper to overcome these two inhibitors (iron and zinc).

125.
Trace Minerals
Nutrient Amount in hay Daily requirement Supplied by 2 lbs hay
Iron 118 ppm 4 mg 107 mg
Zinc 69 ppm 9 mg 63 mg
Copper 9 ppm 18 mg 8 mg
Manganese 138 ppm 8 mg 124 mg
Molybdenum <0.001% not known 0
Hay – trace mineral content in relation to maintenance requirements
These daily maintenance requirements are for adult dairy bucks weighing 60–70 lbs.
The last column is based on the recommended dry matter intake for adult bucks weighing 60–70 lbs, if hay
is the sole source of forage (e.g., during winter).
From Nutrient Requirements of Small Ruminants – Sheep, Goats, Cervids, and New World Camelids (NRC, 2007)
excess!

126.
Trace Minerals
Nutrient Amount in hay Daily requirement Supplied by 2 lbs hay
Iron 118 ppm 4 mg 107 mg
Zinc 69 ppm 9 mg 63 mg
Copper 9 ppm 18 mg 8 mg
Manganese 138 ppm 8 mg 124 mg
Molybdenum <0.001% not known 0
Hay – trace mineral content in relation to maintenance requirements
These daily maintenance requirements are for adult dairy bucks weighing 60–70 lbs.
The last column is based on the recommended dry matter intake for adult bucks weighing 60–70 lbs, if hay
is the sole source of forage (e.g., during winter).
From Nutrient Requirements of Small Ruminants – Sheep, Goats, Cervids, and New World Camelids (NRC, 2007)
excess!
Here is a further problem: this hay contains over 15 times as much manganese as needed.
Just as with an excess of iron, an excess of manganese can block zinc absorption and
create zinc deficiency where it might not otherwise occur, such as in a hay that contains
adequate zinc. Together, an excess of iron and manganese practically guarantees the
development of zinc deficiency.

127.
Trace Minerals
• what about minerals in the drinking water?

128.
Trace Minerals
• what about minerals in the drinking water?
• the bucks’ drinking water comes from the municipal supply

129.
Trace Minerals
• what about minerals in the drinking water?
• the bucks’ drinking water comes from the municipal supply
• as of 2016, the only minerals present above 1 ppm in the city
water supply were these:

130.
Trace Minerals
• what about minerals in the drinking water?
• the bucks’ drinking water comes from the municipal supply
• as of 2016, the only minerals present above 1 ppm in the city
water supply were these:
calcium, 4.2 ppm (2.5–5.7 ppm) magnesium, 1.6 ppm (1.3–2.1 ppm)
phosphate, 1 ppm (0.7–1.4 ppm) potassium, 1.9 ppm (1.3–2.8 ppm)
silica, 10.6 ppm (6.8–15.4 ppm) sodium, 1 1.3 ppm (7.6–18 ppm)
Source: http://cityofws.org/waterqualityreport16

131.
Trace Minerals
• mineral interactions are complex…

132.
Trace Minerals

133.
Trace Minerals
• the following interactions are of most nutritional importance:

134.
Trace Minerals
• the following interactions are of most nutritional importance:
Inhibitor Inhibited
sodium potassium
calcium magnesium
manganese iron
iron copper
zinc copper

135.
Trace Minerals
• the following interactions are of most nutritional importance:
• when the first of the pair is in excess and the other is at the lower
limit of requirement, these interactions can become problematic
Inhibitor Inhibited
sodium potassium
calcium magnesium
manganese iron
iron copper
zinc copper

136.
Trace Minerals
• the following interactions are of most nutritional importance:
• when the first of the pair is in excess and the other is at the lower
limit of requirement, these interactions can become problematic
Inhibitor Inhibited
sodium potassium
calcium magnesium
manganese iron
iron copper
zinc copper
these two interactions
were present in this case

137.
Trace Minerals
Interaction pair Soil Hay Daily requirement
Ca : P 54.6 : 1 2.1 : 1 1.2 : 1
Ca : Mg 2.9 : 1 1.4 : 1 3.4 : 1
Mn : Fe 0.02 : 1 1.2 : 1 2 : 1
Zn : Cu 4.6 : 1 7.5 : 1 0.5 : 1
Fe : Cu 3,453 : 1 13 : 1 0.2 : 1
Soil values are averages for this county; values for daily requirement are simply the ratios taken
from the minimum daily intakes needed to avoid deficiency in bucks.
Nutritionally important mineral interactions in this case

138.
Trace Minerals
Interaction pair Soil Hay Daily requirement
Ca : P 54.6 : 1 2.1 : 1 1.2 : 1
Ca : Mg 2.9 : 1 1.4 : 1 3.4 : 1
Mn : Fe 0.02 : 1 1.2 : 1 2 : 1
Zn : Cu 4.6 : 1 7.5 : 1 0.5 : 1
Fe : Cu 3,453 : 1 13 : 1 0.2 : 1
Soil values are averages for this county; values for daily requirement are simply the ratios taken
from the minimum daily intake needed to avoid deficiency in bucks.
Nutritionally important mineral interactions in this case
A 2 : 1 ratio is tolerated and even recommended in some situations, but it
may be problematic in this hay.

139.
Trace Minerals
Interaction pair Soil Hay Daily requirement
Ca : P 54.6 : 1 2.1 : 1 1.2 : 1
Ca : Mg 2.9 : 1 1.4 : 1 3.4 : 1
Mn : Fe 0.02 : 1 1.2 : 1 2 : 1
Zn : Cu 4.6 : 1 7.5 : 1 0.5 : 1
Fe : Cu 3,453 : 1 13 : 1 0.2 : 1
Soil values are averages for this county; values for daily requirement are simply the ratios taken
from the minimum daily intake needed to avoid deficiency in bucks.
Nutritionally important mineral interactions in this case
These disparities are probably unimportant, but it is worth ensuring that
these bucks drink plenty of water.

140.
Trace Minerals
Interaction pair Soil Hay Daily requirement
Ca : P 54.6 : 1 2.1 : 1 1.2 : 1
Ca : Mg 2.9 : 1 1.4 : 1 3.4 : 1
Mn : Fe 0.02 : 1 1.2 : 1 2 : 1
Zn : Cu 4.6 : 1 7.5 : 1 0.5 : 1
Fe : Cu 3,453 : 1 13 : 1 0.2 : 1
Soil values are averages for this county; values for daily requirement are simply the ratios taken
from the minimum daily intake needed to avoid deficiency in bucks.
Nutritionally important mineral interactions in this case
These disparities are serious and separate problems that compounded each
other in this case.

141.
Trace Minerals
Interaction pair Soil Hay Daily requirement
Ca : P 54.6 : 1 2.1 : 1 1.2 : 1
Ca : Mg 2.9 : 1 1.4 : 1 3.4 : 1
Mn : Fe 0.02 : 1 1.2 : 1 2 : 1
Zn : Cu 4.6 : 1 7.5 : 1 0.5 : 1
Fe : Cu 3,453 : 1 13 : 1 0.2 : 1
Fe : Zn 747 : 1 1.7 : 1 0.4 : 1
Nutritionally important mineral interactions in this case
Here is another interaction that was important in this case.

142.
Trace Minerals
• mineral interactions are complex
• it pays to have your soil and forages (pasture and hay) tested
for their mineral content, and…

143.
Trace Minerals
• mineral interactions are complex
• it pays to have your soil and forages (pasture and hay) tested
for their mineral content, and…
• supplement accordingly

144.
Trace Minerals
• mineral interactions are complex
• it pays to have your soil and forages (pasture and hay) tested
for their mineral content, and…
• supplement accordingly
• the best long-term plan is to amend the soil according to the test
results

145.
Trace Minerals
• the bucks are now on a more appropriate supplement

146.
Trace Minerals
• the bucks are now on a more appropriate supplement
• it was difficult to find a mineral supplement for goats that did
not contain iron and manganese

147.
Trace Minerals
• the bucks are now on a more appropriate supplement
• it was difficult to find a mineral supplement for goats that did
not contain iron and manganese
• we found one that is iron-free and higher than most others
in phosphorus and copper

148.
Trace Minerals
• the bucks are now on a more appropriate supplement
• it was difficult to find a mineral supplement for goats that did
not contain iron and manganese
• we found one that is iron-free and higher than most others
in phosphorus and copper
• the bucks showed immediate improvement on the new mineral
supplement

149.
Trace Minerals
• the bucks are now on a more appropriate supplement
• it was difficult to find a mineral supplement for goats that did
not contain iron and manganese
• we found one that is iron-free and higher than most others
in phosphorus and copper
• the bucks showed immediate improvement on the new mineral
supplement
• we also provided some rock salt in a separate tub so that the bucks
could meet their sodium needs separately

150.
Trace Minerals
• the bucks are now on a more appropriate supplement
• it was also difficult to find a goat mineral supplement that did
not contain ammonium chloride

151.
Trace Minerals
• the bucks are now on a more appropriate supplement
• it was also difficult to find a goat mineral supplement that did
not contain ammonium chloride
• this urinary acidifier tastes terrible and it is unnecessary in these
bucks now that their dietary Ca : P is improved

152.
Trace Minerals
• the bucks are now on a more appropriate supplement
• it was also difficult to find a goat mineral supplement that did
not contain ammonium chloride
• this urinary acidifier tastes terrible and it is unnecessary in these
bucks now that their dietary Ca : P is improved
• salt and ammonium chloride each reduce palatability and thus intake

153.
Trace Minerals
• the bucks are now on a more appropriate supplement
• it was also difficult to find a goat mineral supplement that did
not contain ammonium chloride
• this urinary acidifier tastes terrible and it is unnecessary in these
bucks now that their dietary Ca : P is improved
• salt and ammonium chloride each reduce palatability and thus intake
• so, it was important to find a mineral supplement that contained
neither and that addressed the mineral deficiencies of their diet

154.
Trace Minerals
• plans for the spring–summer include soil testing and forage
analysis of the pasture once it’s mature

155.
Trace Minerals
Spring grazing – two of the bucks 3 or 4 years ago
…the adventure continues...