1. Frameworks for studies of
information behaviour and use
Dr Diane Rasmussen Pennington
Lecturer in Information Science
University of Strathclyde
12 April 2016
Information Science Scotland:
Advanced training for PhD students

2. Agenda
• Some core definitions and explanations
• Some examples of theories and models
and how they can be integrated into LIS
empirical research
• Explorations into how to create a
conceptual framework and all its parts
• Practice with developing and discussing
your conceptual framework

3. Questions for you
• What are you studying?
• Why are you studying it?
• Who cares, and why do they care?

4. What is a “framework”?
http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/framework

5. What is a “conceptual framework”?
(Ravitch & Riggan, 2017)
• It depends on who you ask!
– A graphic communicating the study’s
organisation or theoretical bases
– Conceptual frameworks and theoretical
frameworks (we’ll come back to these later)
are the same thing
– A linking up of the entire research process
(researchers’ interests, context, theory,
methods, analysis, etc.)
• Some precise definitions follow

6. What is a “conceptual framework?
(Ravitch & Riggan, 2017, p. 5)
“[A]n argument about why the topic one
wishes to study matters, and why the means
proposed to study it are appropriate and
rigorous.”

7. What is an “argument”?
(Ravitch & Riggan, 2017, p. 5)
“[A] conceptual framework is a series of
sequenced, logical positions the purpose of which
is to ground the study and convince readers of the
study’s importance and rigor. Arguments for why a
study ‘matters’ vary greatly in scale, depending on
the audience.”

8. What is “appropriate and rigorous”?
(Ravitch & Riggan, 2017, p. 5)
“A conceptual framework should argue
convincingly that:
a) the research questions are an outgrowth of the
argument for relevance;
b) the research design maps onto the study goals,
questions, and context(s);
c) the data to be collected provide the researcher
with the raw material needed to explore the
research questions; and
d) the analytic approach allows the researcher(s)
to effectively address (if not always answer)
those questions.”

9. Elements of a conceptual framework
(Ravitch & Riggan, 2017, p. 9)

10. Conceptual frameworks
(Ravitch & Riggan, 2017, p. 12)
• Integrate many things:
– literature reviews
• theoretical frameworks
• topical research
– personal interests, goals, and experiences
– social standing and position to the research
• Can and should evolve throughout the course
of your research based on what you learn
from your data and your process
• Guide every stage of the research, from
finding a problem to writing up

11. Other views on the “conceptual
framework”
“A conceptual framework explains, either
graphically or in narrative form, the main
things to be studied – the key factors,
variables, or constructs – and the presumed
relationships among them. Frameworks can
be simple or elaborate, commonsensical or
theory driven, descriptive or casual.”
(Miles, Huberman, & Saldaña, 2014, p. 20,
as cited in Ravitch & Riggan, 2017, p. 6)

12. Other views on the “conceptual
framework”
“[The] conceptual framework for your
research is something that is constructed,
not found. It incorporates pieces that are
borrowed from elsewhere, but the structure,
the overall coherence, is something that you
build, not something that exists ready-made”
(Maxwell, 2013, p. 41, as cited in Ravitch &
Riggan, 2017, p. 7)
• Combines researcher’s experience and
previously existing theory/research

13. Other views on the “conceptual
framework”
• Gives us evidence that the study can potentially
advance practice or policy by connecting to
existing ones
• The conceptual framework reflects “the important
intellectual traditions that guide the study”
• “[I]dentifies gaps in what is known – by critiquing
previous research, by extending existing theory, or
by pointing to practices and policies that are not
working”
(Marshall & Rossman, 2011, p. 58, as cited in
Ravitch & Riggan, 2017, p. 7)

14. What is a “literature review”?
• Finding out what has been written about a topic
• Learning what methods have been used to study the topic
• Thinking about how the existing literature connects to each other
and to your work
• Reading and synthesising critically
• The written version should not be a “book report”
– e.g. “Pennington said this. Hall said this. Tait said this…”
• It should not only include work that supports your own views on the
topic
• It should evolve with your research
• Guidance for your conceptual framework; should include both topical
research and theoretical frameworks (theories)
• For help with your literature review, read:
Jesson, J. K., Matheson, L., & Lacey, F. M. (2011). Doing your literature
review: Traditional and systematic techniques. Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage.

15. What is “theory”?
• Again, it depends on who you ask
• Attempts to explain a phenomenon by
examining relationships between things
• Could include formal relationships, an idea
of a researcher, beliefs about how to study
something, etc. (Ravitch & Riggan, 2017)
• “Critical” theory: the stance that social
structures (race, gender, etc.) influence
our understandings of social phenomena

16. What is a “theoretical framework”?
• “a considerably more focused, refined, and
bounded integration of formal theory and
topical research more broadly” (Ravitch &
Riggan, 2017, p. 12)
• Comprised of formal theories found or
created by the researcher that support the
conceptual framework

17. What is a “theoretical framework”?
(Anfara, 2008)
• “Any empirical or quasi-empirical theory of
social and/or psychological processes …
that can be applied to the understanding of
phenomena”
• Incorrect notions abound that qualitative
research is not guided by theory
• Qualitative research can also “discover”
theory through grounded theory studies

18. What is a “theoretical framework”?
(Anfara, 2008)
• The effects of a TF on research:
– To focus a study (sort data, write RQs, control
bias, give structure to coding)
– Reveal/conceal meaning and understanding
– Situate research in the theory’s language
– Reveal strengths and weaknesses; don’t force
the data to “fit” a certain theory
• “The question remains, ‘Is it possible to
observe and describe what happens in
natural settings without some theory to assist
in naming what is happening?’”

19. Metatheories, theories, & models
in LIS (Bates, 2005)
• Metatheory: theory concerned with theory, sometimes also
called a paradigm
• Metatheories in LIS include:
– Historical
– Constructivist
– Constructionist or discourse-analytic
– Philosophical-analytic
– Critical theory
– Ethnographic
– Socio-cognitive
– Cognitive
– Bibliometric
– Physical
– Engineering
– User-centered design
– Evolutionary

20. Metatheories, theories, & models
in LIS (Bates, 2005)
• Theory: “the idea of a developed
understanding, an explanation, for some
phenomenon” (p. 2)
– LIS doesn’t have many theories of its own
– 72 listed in Theories of Information Behavior
• Model: “a tentative proposed set of
relationships, which can then be tested for
validity” (p. 3)
– Principle of Least Effort: “people invest little in
seeking information, preferring easy-to-use,
accessible sources to sources of known high
quality that are easy to use and/or less accessible
(p. 4)

21. Example: Theory of Information Poverty
(Chatman, 1996, pp. 197-198)
1. People who are defined as information poor
perceive themselves to be devoid of any
sources that might help them.
2. Information poverty is partially associated
with class distinction. That is, the condition of
information poverty is influenced by outsiders
who withhold privileged access to information.
3. Information poverty is determined by self-
protective behaviors which are used in
response to social norms.

22. Example: Theory of Information Poverty
(Chatman, 1996, pp. 197-198)
4. Both secrecy and deception are self-
protecting mechanisms due to a sense of
mistrust regarding the interest or ability of
others to provide useful information.
5. A decision to risk exposure about our true
problems is often not taken due to a perception
that negative consequences outweigh benefits.
6. New knowledge will be selectively
introduced into the information world of poor
people. A condition that influences this process
is the relevance of that information in response
to everyday problems and concerns.

23. “This study explores the use of online
newsgroups and discussion groups by
people in situations of information poverty ...
Our work contributes to the study of both
information seeking within the context of
information poverty and the use of Internet
groups as sources of information and
support, bridging the two by exploring the
manifestation of information poverty in this
particular online setting.”
Theory of Information Poverty applied to a
study of information seeking and use (Hasler,
Ruthven, & Buchanan, 2014, p. 25)

24. • Cognitive authority: the extent to which users
think they can trust the information they find;
is it useful? Accurate? Current? (Wilson,
1983)
• Affective authority: the extent to which users
think the information is subjectively
appropriate, empathetic, emotionally
supportive, and/or aesthetically pleasing
(Neal & McKenzie, 2010)
• Original theory from LIS
Wilson’s cognitive authority, extended into
Neal and McKenzie’s affective authority

25. • Basic Level Theory (Rosch et al, 1976)
Combining multiple models and theories
to create and test a new model

26. Pyramid model (Jörgensen et al., 2001) – A “conceptual
framework” from electrical engineering and LIS
Combining multiple models and theories
to create and test a new model

27. Nine classes of image content (Burford,
Briggs, & Eakins, 2003) – from LIS
Combining multiple models and theories
to create and test a new model

28. Most popular tags of all time on Flickr (2008)
Combining multiple models and theories
to create and test a new model
http://web.archive.org/web/20080325030216/http://www.flickr.com/photos/tags/

29. Our resulting model: Hierarchy for Online
Photograph Representation (HOPR) (Lee & Neal,
2010)
I. Abstract scene
A. Emotion
B. Opinion
C. Transference
D. Talk bubbles
E. Assumption
II. Abstract object
III. Specific scene
(etc. – entire model can be viewed in the paper)
Combining multiple models and theories
to create and test a new model

30. Critical theory in LIS
(Leckie & Buschman, 2010)
• When LIS researchers use theory from other
fields, it’s not always based on a good
understanding of its origins
• Greater use of critical theory in LIS:
– Will help us understand scholarly trends
– Examine information services/seeking/use more
critically (the power of Google!)
– Is appropriate because we are a social field
• 23 critical theorists’ work applied to LIS in
Critical theory for library and information
science

31. • Denotation: a simple description of what
the sign is picturing; easy to decode
• Anchorage: the text that accompanies the
image and may clarify the denotation for
viewers (called a relay-function)
• Connotation: more abstract levels of
meaning in the image; requires cultural
knowledge
Example of critical theory in LIS: Barthes’
semiology (Barthes, 1967)

32. • What is the denotation of the image, the relay-
function, and the connotation of the image?
Barthes’ semiology applied to image
representation (Rasmussen Pennington,
in press)

33. How to create a conceptual framework:
Questions to consider first
• “What do I want to study?
• Who cares?
• What literature do I want to include, and when have I
read enough?
• How do I know what kind of data to collect and how to
analyse them?
• How does my own position and way of seeing the
world shape the framing and execution of my
research?
• How do I deal with surprises in the data or unexpected
developments in the field?”
(Ravitch & Riggan, 2017, pp. 18-19)

34. How to create a conceptual framework
(Ravitch & Riggan, 2017)
• “Reflexive engagement”
• Starting questions: why you are studying this, what
your audience knows, influence of others, influence of
theories
• Continuously self-examine and reflect on everything in
every stage of the process
• Concept maps: visual or narrative display of a theory
or a conceptual framework
• Research memos: structured reflection
• Research journal: unstructured, but reflective and
critical
• Reflective writing video:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QoI67VeE3ds

35. How do you find a theoretical
framework?
(Anfara, 2008; Anfara & Mertz, 2015)
• Usually you must actively search for one
• Look at top journals that require explicitly
stated TF sections in their articles
• Ask your supervisors 
• Stay open to multiple perspectives
• May change during your study
• Look at other disciplines’ theories

36. In conclusion…
• “Working with conceptual frameworks and
empirical research has never been an easy
task” (Chatman, 1996, p. 205).
• “[T]he conceptual framework
– organizes and informs research;
– ensures a close alignment between topic,
questions, and methods;
– and provides a mechanism for integrating and
new data, findings, questions, and literature as a
study evolves” (Ravitch & Riggan, 2017, p. 193)

37. Your turn – time to practice!
• Think about and write down:
– What your framework is right now for your
dissertation research
– What you think you need to do next to
continue developing your framework
• Then share your thoughts in groups of 3-4
• We’ll discuss together at the end

38. Anfara, V. A. (2008). Theoretical frameworks. In L. M. Given (Ed.), The Sage
encyclopedia of qualitative research methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Publications.
Anfara, V. A., & Mertz, N.T. (2015). Setting the stage. In V. A. Anfara & N. T.
Mertz (Eds.), Theoretical frameworks in qualitative research (2nd ed.).
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Bates, M. J. (2005). An introduction to metatheories, theories, and models. In K. E.
Fisher, S. Erdelez, & L. E. F. McKechnie (Eds.), Theories of information
behavior. Medford, NJ: Information Today.
Barthes, R. (1967). Elements of semiology (A. Lavers & C. Smith, Trans.). New
York, NY: Hill and Wang.
Burford, B., Briggs, P., & Eakins, J. P. (2003). A taxonomy of the image: On the
classification of content for image retrieval. Visual Communication, 2(2),
123-161.
Chatman, E. A. (1996). The impoverished life-world of outsiders. Journal of the
American Society for Information Science, 47(3), 193-206.
Hasler, L., Ruthven, I., & Buchanan, S. (2014). Using internet groups in situations of
information poverty: Topics and information needs. Journal of the
Association for Information Science and Technology, 65(1), 25-36.
References

39. Jörgensen, C., Jaimes, A., Benitez, A. B., & Chang. (2001). A conceptual framework
and empirical research for classifying visual descriptors. Journal of the
American Society for Information Science and Technology, 52(11), 938-
947.
Leckie, G., & Buschman, J. (2010). Introduction: The necessity for theoretically
informed critique in library and information science (LIS). In G. J. Leckie,
L. M. Given, & J. E. Buschman (Eds.), Critical theory for library and
information science. Santa Barbara, CA: Libraries Unlimited.
Lee, H-J, & Neal, D. (2010). A new model for semantic photograph description.
Journal of Information Science, 36(5), 547-565.
Neal, D., & McKenzie, P. (2011). Putting the pieces together: Endometriosis blogs,
cognitive authority, and collaborative information behavior. Journal of the
Medical Library Association, 99(2), 127-134.
Rasmussen Pennington, D. (in press). Coding of non-text data. In A. Quan-Haase &
L. Sloan (Eds.), The Sage handbook of social media research methods.
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Ravitch, S. M., & Riggan, M. (2017). Reason & rigor: How conceptual frameworks
guide research (2nd ed.) Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Wilson, P. (1983). Second hand knowledge: An inquiry into cognitive authority.
Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
References

40. Dr Diane Rasmussen Pennington
diane.pennington@strath.ac.uk
@infogamerist
Thank you!