Modern art includes artistic works produced from the 1860s to the 1970s that experimented with new techniques and ways of seeing. The movement began with Post-Impressionists like Van Gogh, Cézanne, Gauguin, and Seurat who rejected realism. In the early 20th century, Cubism, led by Picasso and Braque, and other styles like Fauvism and Expressionism emerged. After World War I, Dada, Surrealism, Bauhaus, and other anti-art movements developed. By the 1950s-60s, Abstract Expressionism, Pop Art, Minimalism, and new media like video art gained prominence, especially in the US. Modern art

1. Modern art
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other uses, see Modern art (disambiguation). Not to be confused with art moderne.
Pablo Picasso, Dejeuner sur l'Herbe
Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, At the Moulin Rouge: Two Women Waltzing, 1892

2. Vincent van Gogh, Country road in Provence by Night, 1889, May 1890,Kröller-Müller Museum
Paul Cézanne, The Large Bathers, 1898–1905
Paul Gauguin, Spirit of the Dead Watching 1892, Albright-Knox Art Gallery

3. Georges Seurat, The Models, 1888,Barnes Foundation
The Scream by Edvard Munch, 1893
Pablo Picasso, Family of Saltimbanques, 1905, National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC.
Jean Metzinger, 1907, Paysage coloré aux oiseaux aquatique, oil on canvas, 74 x 99 cm, Musée d’Art Moderne de la Ville de
Paris

4. Klimt in a light Blue Smock by Egon Schiele, 1913
I and the Village by Marc Chagall, 1911

5. Black Square by Kasimir Malevich, 1915
Marcel Duchamp, Fountain, 1917. Photograph by Alfred Stieglitz
Wassily Kandinsky, On White II, 1923

6. Modern art includes artistic works produced during the period extending roughly from the 1860s to
the 1970s, and denotes the style and philosophy of the art produced during that era.[1]
The term is
usually associated with art in which the traditions of the past have been thrown aside in a spirit of
experimentation.[2]
Modern artists experimented with new ways of seeing and with fresh ideas about
the nature of materials and functions of art. A tendency away from the narrative, which was
characteristic for the traditional arts, toward abstraction is characteristic of much modern art. More
recent artistic production is often called Contemporary art or Postmodern art.
Modern art begins with the heritage of painters like Vincent van Gogh, Paul Cézanne, Paul
Gauguin, Georges Seurat andHenri de Toulouse-Lautrec all of whom were essential for the
development of modern art. At the beginning of the 20th century Henri Matisse and several other
young artists including the pre-cubists Georges Braque, André Derain, Raoul Dufy,Jean
Metzinger and Maurice de Vlaminck revolutionized the Paris art world with "wild", multi-colored,
expressive landscapes and figure paintings that the critics called Fauvism. Henri Matisse's two
versions of The Dance signified a key point in his career and in the development of modern painting.
[3]
It reflected Matisse's incipient fascination with primitive art: the intense warm color of the figures
against the cool blue-green background and the rhythmical succession of the dancing nudes convey
the feelings of emotional liberation and hedonism.
Initially influenced by Toulouse-Lautrec, Gauguin and other late 19th century innovators, Pablo
Picasso made his first cubistpaintings based on Cézanne's idea that all depiction of nature can be
reduced to three solids: cube, sphere and cone. With the painting Les Demoiselles d'Avignon (1907),
Picasso dramatically created a new and radical picture depicting a raw and primitive brothel scene
with five prostitutes, violently painted women, reminiscent of African tribal masks and his own
newCubist inventions. Analytic cubism was jointly developed by Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque,
exemplified by Violin and Candlestick, Paris, from about 1908 through 1912. Analytic cubism, the
first clear manifestation of cubism, was followed bySynthetic cubism, practiced by Braque,
Picasso, Fernand Léger, Juan Gris, Albert Gleizes, Marcel Duchamp and several other artists into
the 1920s. Synthetic cubism is characterized by the introduction of different textures,
surfaces, collageelements, papier collé and a large variety of merged subject matter.[citation needed]
The notion of modern art is closely related to Modernism.[4]
Contents
[hide]
• 1 History of modern art
o 1.1 Roots in the 19th century
o 1.2 Early 20th century
o 1.3 After World War II
• 2 Art movements and artist groups
o 2.1 19th century
o 2.2 Early 20th century (before World War I)
o 2.3 World War I to World War II
o 2.4 After World War II
• 3 Important modern art exhibitions and museums

7. o 3.1 Belgium
o 3.2 Brazil
o 3.3 Colombia
o 3.4 Croatia
o 3.5 Ecuador
o 3.6 Finland
o 3.7 France
o 3.8 Germany
o 3.9 India
o 3.10 Iran
o 3.11 Italy
o 3.12 Mexico
o 3.13 Netherlands
o 3.14 Norway
o 3.15 Qatar
o 3.16 Russia
o 3.17 Serbia
o 3.18 Spain
o 3.19 Sweden
o 3.20 UK
o 3.21 USA
• 4 See also
• 5 Notes
• 6 References
• 7 Further reading
• 8 External links
History of modern art[edit]

8. Édouard Manet, The Luncheon on the Grass (Le déjeuner sur l'herbe), 1863, Musée d'Orsay, Paris
Roots in the 19th century[edit]
Vincent van Gogh,Courtesan (afterEisen) (1887),Van Gogh Museum
Vincent van Gogh, The Blooming Plumtree (after Hiroshige)(1887), Van Gogh Museum
Vincent van Gogh,Portrait of Père Tanguy (1887),Musée Rodin
Although modern sculpture and architecture are reckoned to have emerged at the end of the 19th
century, the beginnings of modern painting can be located earlier.[5]
The date perhaps most
commonly identified as marking the birth of modern art is 1863,[6]
the year that Édouard
Manet showed his painting Le déjeuner sur l'herbe in the Salon des Refusés in Paris. Earlier dates

9. have also been proposed, among them 1855 (the year Gustave Courbet exhibited The Artist's
Studio) and 1784 (the yearJacques-Louis David completed his painting The Oath of the Horatii).[6]
In
the words of art historian H. Harvard Arnason: "Each of these dates has significance for the
development of modern art, but none categorically marks a completely new beginning .... A gradual
metamorphosis took place in the course of a hundred years."[6]
The strands of thought that eventually led to modern art can be traced back to the Enlightenment,
and even to the 17th century.[7]
The important modern art critic Clement Greenberg, for instance,
called Immanuel Kant "the first real Modernist" but also drew a distinction: "The Enlightenment
criticized from the outside ... . Modernism criticizes from the inside."[8]
TheFrench Revolution of 1789
uprooted assumptions and institutions that had for centuries been accepted with little question and
accustomed the public to vigorous political and social debate. This gave rise to what art
historian Ernst Gombrich called a "self-consciousness that made people select the style of their
building as one selects the pattern of a wallpaper."[9]
The pioneers of modern art were Romantics, Realists andImpressionists.[10]
By the late 19th century,
additional movements which were to be influential in modern art had begun to emerge: post-
Impressionism as well as Symbolism.
Influences upon these movements were varied: from exposure to Eastern decorative arts,
particularly Japanese printmaking, to the coloristic innovations of Turner and Delacroix, to a search
for more realism in the depiction of common life, as found in the work of painters such as Jean-
François Millet. The advocates of realism stood against the idealism of the tradition-boundacademic
art that enjoyed public and official favor.[11]
The most successful painters of the day worked either
through commissions or through large public exhibitions of their own work. There were official,
government-sponsored painters' unions, while governments regularly held public exhibitions of new
fine and decorative arts.
The Impressionists argued that people do not see objects but only the light which they reflect, and
therefore painters should paint in natural light (en plein air) rather than in studios and should capture
the effects of light in their work.[12]
Impressionist artists formed a group, Société Anonyme
Coopérative des Artistes Peintres, Sculpteurs, Graveurs ("Association of Painters, Sculptors, and
Engravers") which, despite internal tensions, mounted a series of independent exhibitions.[13]
The
style was adopted by artists in different nations, in preference to a "national" style. These factors
established the view that it was a"movement". These traits—establishment of a working method
integral to the art, establishment of a movement or visible active core of support, and international
adoption—would be repeated by artistic movements in the Modern period in art.
Early 20th century[edit]
Pablo Picasso Les Demoiselles d'Avignon 1907, Museum of Modern Art,New York

10. Henri Matisse, The Dance I, 1909,Museum of Modern Art, New York
Among the movements which flowered in the first decade of the 20th century
wereFauvism, Cubism, Expressionism, and Futurism.
During the years between 1910 and the end of World War I and after the heyday ofcubism, several
movements emerged in Paris. Giorgio de Chirico moved to Paris in July 1911, where he joined his
brother Andrea (the poet and painter known asAlberto Savinio). Through his brother he met Pierre
Laprade, a member of the jury at the Salon d'Automne where he exhibited three of his dreamlike
works: Enigma of the Oracle, Enigma of an Afternoon and Self-Portrait. During 1913 he exhibited his
work at the Salon des Indépendants and Salon d’Automne, and his work was noticed byPablo
Picasso, Guillaume Apollinaire, and several others. His compelling and mysterious paintings are
considered instrumental to the early beginnings ofSurrealism. Song of Love (1914) is one of the
most famous works by de Chirico and is an early example of the surrealist style, though it was
painted ten years before the movement was "founded" by André Breton in 1924.
World War I brought an end to this phase but indicated the beginning of a number ofanti-
art movements, such as Dada, including the work of Marcel Duchamp, and ofSurrealism. Artist
groups like de Stijl and Bauhaus developed new ideas about the interrelation of the arts,
architecture, design, and art education.
Modern art was introduced to the United States with the Armory Show in 1913 and through
European artists who moved to the U.S. during World War I.
After World War II[edit]
It was only after World War II, however, that the U.S. became the focal point of new artistic
movements.[14]
The 1950s and 1960s saw the emergence of Abstract Expressionism, Color field
painting, Pop art, Op art, Hard-edge painting, Minimal art, Lyrical
Abstraction, Fluxus, Happening,Video art, Postminimalism, Photorealism and various other
movements. In the late 1960s and the 1970s, Land art,Performance art, Conceptual art, and other
new art forms had attracted the attention of curators and critics, at the expense of more traditional
media.[15]
Larger installations and performances became widespread.
By the end of the 1970s, when cultural critics began speaking of "the end of painting" (the title of a
provocative essay written in 1981 by Douglas Crimp), new media art had become a category in
itself, with a growing number of artists experimenting with technological means such as video art.
[16]
Painting assumed renewed importance in the 1980s and 1990s, as evidenced by the rise of neo-
expressionism and the revival of figurative painting.[17]
Towards the end of the 20th century, a number of artists and architects started questioning the idea
of "the modern" and created typically Postmodern works.[18]
Art movements and artist groups[edit]
(Roughly chronological with representative artists listed.)

11. 19th century[edit]
• Romanticism and the Romantic movement – Francisco de Goya, J.
M. W. Turner, Eugène Delacroix
• Realism – Gustave Courbet, Camille Corot, Jean-François Millet
• Impressionism – Frédéric Bazille, Gustave Caillebotte, Mary
Cassatt, Edgar Degas, Armand Guillaumin, Édouard Manet,Claude
Monet, Berthe Morisot, Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Camille
Pissarro, Alfred Sisley
• Post-impressionism – Georges Seurat, Paul Cézanne, Paul
Gauguin, Vincent van Gogh, Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec,Henri
Rousseau, Henri-Jean Guillaume Martin, Albert Lebourg, Robert
Antoine Pinchon
• Symbolism – Gustave Moreau, Odilon Redon, Edvard
Munch, James Whistler, James Ensor
• Les Nabis – Pierre Bonnard, Édouard Vuillard, Félix
Vallotton, Maurice Denis, Paul Serusier
• Art Nouveau and variants – Jugendstil, Modern
Style, Modernisme – Aubrey Beardsley, Alphonse Mucha, Gustav
Klimt,
• Art Nouveau architecture and design – Antoni Gaudí, Otto
Wagner, Wiener Werkstätte, Josef Hoffmann, Adolf Loos,Koloman
Moser
• Divisionism – Jean Metzinger, Robert Delaunay, Paul
Signac, Henri-Edmond Cross
• Early Modernist sculptors – Aristide Maillol, Auguste Rodin
Early 20th century (before World War I)[edit]
• Abstract art – Francis Picabia, Wassily Kandinsky, František
Kupka, Robert Delaunay, Léopold Survage, Piet Mondrian
• Fauvism – André Derain, Henri Matisse, Maurice de
Vlaminck, Georges Braque
• Expressionism and related – Die Brücke, Der Blaue Reiter - Ernst
Ludwig Kirchner, Wassily Kandinsky, Franz Marc, Egon
Schiele, Oskar Kokoschka, Emil Nolde, Axel Törneman, Karl
Schmidt-Rottluff, Max Pechstein
• Futurism – Giacomo Balla, Umberto Boccioni, Carlo Carrà, Gino
Severini, Natalia Goncharova, Mikhail Larionov
• Cubism – Pablo Picasso, Georges Braque, Jean Metzinger, Albert
Gleizes, Fernand Léger, Robert Delaunay, Henri Le

12. Fauconnier, Marcel Duchamp, Jacques Villon, Francis
Picabia, Juan Gris
• Sculpture – Pablo Picasso, Henri Matisse, Constantin
Brâncu iș , Joseph Csaky, Alexander Archipenko, Raymond
Duchamp-Villon, Jacques Lipchitz, Ossip Zadkine
• Orphism – Robert Delaunay, Sonia Delaunay, František Kupka
• Photography – Pictorialism, Straight photography
• Suprematism – Kasimir Malevich, Alexander Rodchenko, El
Lissitzky
• Synchromism – Stanton MacDonald-Wright, Morgan Russell
• Vorticism – Wyndham Lewis
• Dada – Jean Arp, Marcel Duchamp, Max Ernst, Francis
Picabia, Kurt Schwitters
World War I to World War II[edit]
• Pittura Metafisica – Giorgio de Chirico, Carlo Carrà, Giorgio
Morandi
• De Stijl – Theo van Doesburg, Piet Mondrian
• Expressionism – Egon Schiele, Amedeo Modigliani, Chaim Soutine
• New Objectivity – Max Beckmann, Otto Dix, George Grosz
• Figurative painting – Henri Matisse, Pierre Bonnard
• American Modernism – Stuart Davis, Arthur G. Dove, Marsden
Hartley, Georgia O'Keeffe
• Constructivism – Naum Gabo, Gustav Klutsis, László Moholy-
Nagy, El Lissitzky, Kasimir Malevich, Vadim Meller, Alexander
Rodchenko, Vladimir Tatlin
• Surrealism – Marc Chagall, René Magritte, Jean Arp, Salvador
Dalí, Max Ernst, Giorgio de Chirico, André Masson, Joan Miró, Marc
Chagall
• Bauhaus – Wassily Kandinsky, Paul Klee, Josef Albers
• Sculpture – Alexander Calder, Alberto Giacometti, Gaston
Lachaise, Henry Moore, Pablo Picasso, Julio Gonzalez
• Scottish Colourists – Francis Cadell, Samuel Peploe, Leslie
Hunter, John Duncan Fergusson

13. • Suprematism – Kazimir Malevich, Aleksandra Ekster, Olga
Rozanova, Nadezhda Udaltsova, Ivan Kliun, Lyubov Popova,Nikolai
Suetin, Nina Genke-Meller, Ivan Puni, Ksenia Boguslavskaya
• Precisionism – Charles Sheeler, Charles Demuth
After World War II[edit]
• Figuratifs – Bernard Buffet, Jean Carzou, Maurice Boitel, Daniel du
Janerand, Claude-Max Lochu
• Sculpture – Henry Moore, David Smith, Tony Smith, Alexander
Calder, Isamu Noguchi,[19]
Alberto Giacometti, Sir Anthony
Caro, Jean Dubuffet, Isaac Witkin, René Iché, Marino Marini, Louise
Nevelson, Albert Vrana
• Abstract expressionism – Willem de Kooning, Jackson
Pollock, Hans Hofmann, Franz Kline, Robert Motherwell, Clyfford
Still, Lee Krasner, Joan Mitchell
• American Abstract Artists – Ilya Bolotowsky, Ibram Lassaw, Ad
Reinhardt, Josef Albers, Burgoyne Diller
• Art Brut – Adolf Wölfli, August Natterer, Ferdinand Cheval, Madge
Gill, Paul Salvator Goldengreen
• Arte Povera – Jannis Kounellis, Luciano Fabro, Mario Merz, Piero
Manzoni, Alighiero Boetti
• Color field painting – Barnett Newman, Mark Rothko, Adolph
Gottlieb, Sam Francis, Morris Louis, Kenneth Noland, Jules
Olitski, Helen Frankenthaler
• Tachisme – Jean Dubuffet, Pierre Soulages, Hans Hartung, Ludwig
Merwart
• COBRA – Pierre Alechinsky, Karel Appel, Asger Jorn
• De-collage – Wolf Vostell, Mimmo Rotella
• Neo-Dada – Robert Rauschenberg, Jasper Johns, John
Chamberlain, Joseph Beuys, Lee Bontecou, Edward Kienholz
• Figurative Expressionism - Larry Rivers, Grace Hartigan, Elaine de
Kooning, Robert De Niro, Sr., Lester Johnson, George
McNeil, Earle M. Pilgrim, Jan Müller,Robert Beauchamp, Bob
Thompson
• Fluxus – George Maciunas, Joseph Beuys, Wolf Vostell, Nam June
Paik, Daniel Spoerri, Dieter Roth, Carolee Schneeman, Alison
Knowles, Charlotte Moorman,Dick Higgins

14. • Happening – Allan Kaprow, Joseph Beuys, Wolf Vostell, Claes
Oldenburg, Jim Dine, Red Grooms, Nam June Paik, Charlotte
Moorman, Robert Whitman, Yoko Ono
• Dau-al-Set – founded in Barcelona by poet/artist Joan Brossa,
– Antoni Tàpies
• Grupo El Paso – founded in Madrid by artists Antonio Saura, Pablo
Serrano
• Geometric abstraction – Wassily Kandinsky, Kazimir
Malevich, Nadir Afonso, Manlio Rho, Mario Radice, Mino Argento
• Hard-edge painting – John McLaughlin, Ellsworth Kelly, Frank
Stella, Al Held, Ronald Davis
• Kinetic art – George Rickey, Getulio Alviani
• Land art – Christo, Richard Long, Robert Smithson, Michael Heizer
• Les Automatistes – Claude Gauvreau, Jean-Paul Riopelle, Pierre
Gauvreau, Fernand Leduc, Jean-Paul Mousseau, Marcelle Ferron
• Minimal art – Sol LeWitt, Donald Judd, Dan Flavin, Richard
Serra, Agnes Martin
• Postminimalism – Eva Hesse, Bruce Nauman, Lynda Benglis
• Lyrical abstraction – Ronnie Landfield, Sam Gilliam, Larry Zox, Dan
Christensen, Natvar Bhavsar, Larry Poons
• Neo-figurative art – Fernando Botero, Antonio Berni
• Neo-expressionism – Georg Baselitz, Anselm Kiefer, Jörg
Immendorff, Jean-Michel Basquiat
• Transavanguardia – Francesco Clemente, Mimmo
Paladino, Sandro Chia, Enzo Cucchi
• Figuration libre – Hervé Di Rosa, François Boisrond, Robert
Combas
• New realism – Yves Klein, Pierre Restany, Arman
• Op art – Victor Vasarely, Bridget Riley, Richard
Anuszkiewicz, Jeffrey Steele
• Outsider art – Howard Finster, Grandma Moses, Bob Justin
• Photorealism – Audrey Flack, Chuck Close, Duane
Hanson, Richard Estes, Malcolm Morley
• Pop art – Richard Hamilton, Robert Indiana, Jasper Johns, Roy
Lichtenstein, Robert Rauschenberg, Andy Warhol, Ed
Ruscha, David Hockney

15. • Postwar European figurative painting – Lucian Freud, Francis
Bacon, Frank Auerbach, Gerhard Richter
• New European Painting – Luc Tuymans, Marlene Dumas, Neo
Rauch, Bracha Ettinger, Michaël Borremans, Chris Ofili
• Shaped canvas – Frank Stella, Kenneth Noland, Ron Davis, Robert
Mangold.
• Soviet art – Aleksandr Deyneka, Aleksandr Gerasimov, Ilya
Kabakov, Komar & Melamid, Alexandr Zhdanov, Leonid Sokov
• Spatialism – Lucio Fontana
• Video art – Nam June Paik, Wolf Vostell, Joseph Beuys, Bill Viola
• Visionary art – Ernst Fuchs, Paul Laffoley, Michael Bowen
Important modern art exhibitions and museums[edit]
For a comprehensive list, see Museums of modern art.
Belgium[edit]
• SMAK, Ghent
Brazil[edit]
• MASP, São Paulo, SP
• MAM/SP, São Paulo, SP
• MAM/RJ, Rio de Janeiro, RJ
• MAM/BA, Salvador, Bahia
Colombia[edit]
• MAMBO, Bogotá
Croatia[edit]
• Ivan Meštrović Gallery, Split
• Modern Gallery, Zagreb
• Museum of Contemporary Art, Zagreb
Ecuador[edit]
• Museo Antropologico y de Arte Contemporaneo, Guayaquil
• La Capilla del Hombre, Quito

16. Finland[edit]
• EMMA, Espoo
France[edit]
• Lille Métropole Museum of Modern, Contemporary and Outsider
Art,Villeneuve d'Ascq
• Musée d'Orsay, Paris
• Musée d'Art Moderne de la Ville de Paris, Paris
• Musée National d'Art Moderne, Paris
• Musée Picasso, Paris
• Museum of Modern and Contemporary Art, Strasbourg
Germany[edit]
• documenta, Kassel (Germany), a five-yearly exhibition of modern
and contemporary art
• Museum Ludwig, Cologne
• Pinakothek der Moderne, Munich
India[edit]
• National Gallery of Modern Art - New Delhi,
• National Gallery of Modern Art - Mumbai,
• National Gallery of Modern Art - Bangalore,
Iran[edit]
• Museum of Contemporary Art, Tehran
Italy[edit]
• Palazzo delle Esposizioni
• Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Moderna
• Venice Biennial, Venice
Mexico[edit]
• Museo de Arte Moderno, México D.F.
Netherlands[edit]

17. • Van Gogh Museum, Amsterdam
• Stedelijk Museum, Amsterdam
Norway[edit]
• Astrup Fearnley Museum of Modern Art, Oslo
• Henie-Onstad Art Centre, Oslo
Qatar[edit]
• Mathaf: Arab Museum of Modern Art, Doha
Russia[edit]
• Hermitage Museum, Saint Petersburg
• Pushkin Museum, Moscow
• Tretyakov Gallery, Moscow
Serbia[edit]
• Музеј савремене уметности, Belgrade
Spain[edit]
• Museu d'Art Contemporani de Barcelona, Barcelona
• Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofía, Madrid
• Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum, Madrid
• Institut Valencià d'Art Modern, Valencia
• Centro Atlántico de Arte Moderno, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria
Sweden[edit]
• Moderna Museet, Stockholm
UK[edit]
• Tate Modern, London
USA[edit]
• Albright-Knox Art Gallery, Buffalo, New York
• Art Institute of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois

18. • Guggenheim Museum, New York City, New York, and Venice, Italy ;
more recently in Berlin, Germany, Bilbao, Spain, and Las Vegas,
Nevada
• High Museum, Atlanta, Georgia
• Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Los Angeles, California
• McNay Art Museum, San Antonio, Texas
• Menil Collection, Houston, Texas
• Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Massachusetts
• Museum of Modern Art, New York City, New York
• San Francisco Museum of Modern Art, San Francisco, California
• The Baker Museum, Naples, Florida
• Walker Art Center, Minneapolis, Minnesota
• Whitney Museum of American Art, New York City, New York
See also[edit]
• Modernism
• List of modern artists
• List of 20th-century women artists
• 20th century art
• 20th-century Western painting
• Art manifesto
• Art movements
• Art periods
• Contemporary art
• History of painting
• Modern architecture
• Postmodern art
• Western painting
Notes[edit]

19. 1. Jump up^ Atkins 1990, p. 102.
2. Jump up^ Gombrich 1958, p. 419.
3. Jump up^ Russell T. Clement. Four French Symbolists.
Greenwood Press, 1996. Page 114.
4. Jump up^ "One way of understanding the relation of the terms
'modern,' 'modernity,' and 'modernism' is that aesthetic modernism
is a form of art characteristic of high or actualized late modernity,
that is, of that period in which social, economic, and cultural life in
the widest sense [was] revolutionized by modernity ... [this means]
that modernist art is scarcely thinkable outside the context of the
modernized society of the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries.
Social modernity is the home of modernist art, even where that art
rebels against it." Cahoone 1996, p. 13.
5. Jump up^ Arnason 1998, p. 10.
6. ^ Jump up to:a b c
Arnason 1998, p. 17.
7. Jump up^ "In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries
momentum began to gather behind a new view of the world, which
would eventually create a new world, the modern world". Cahoone
1996, p. 27.
8. Jump up^ Frascina and Harrison 1982, p. 5.
9. Jump up^ Gombrich 1958, pp. 358-359.
10. Jump up^ Arnason 1998, p. 22.
11. Jump up^ Corinth, Schuster, Brauner, Vitali, and Butts 1996, p.25.
12. Jump up^ Cogniat 1975, p. 61.
13. Jump up^ Cogniat 1975, pp. 43–49.
14. Jump up^ CIA and AbEx Retrieved November 7, 2010
15. Jump up^ Mullins 2006, p. 14.
16. Jump up^ Mullins 2006, p. 9.
17. Jump up^ Mullins 2006, pp. 14–15.
18. Jump up^ Post-Modernism: The New Classicism in Art and
Architecture Charles Jencks
19. Jump up^ David Lander "Fifties Furniture: The Side Table as
Sculpture," American Heritage, Nov./Dec. 2006.
References[edit]
• Arnason, H. Harvard. 1998. History of Modern Art: Painting, Sculpture,
Architecture, Photography. Fourth Edition, rev. by Marla F. Prather,
after the third edition, revised by Daniel Wheeler. New York: Harry N.
Abrams, Inc. ISBN 0-8109-3439-6; Upper Saddle River, New Jersey:

20. Prentice-Hall. ISBN 0-13-183313-8; London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN
0-500-23757-3 [Fifth edition, revised by Peter Kalb, Upper Saddle
River, N.J.: Prentice Hall; London: Pearson/Prentice Hall, 2004. ISBN
0-13-184069-X]
• Atkins, Robert. 1990. Artspeak: A Guide to Contemporary Ideas,
Movements, and Buzzwords. New York: Abbeville Press. ISBN 1-
55859-127-3
• Cahoone, Lawrence E. 1996. From Modernism to Postmodernism: An
Anthology. Cambridge, Mass: Blackwell. ISBN 1-55786-603-1
• Cogniat, Raymond. 1975. Pissarro. New York: Crown. ISBN 0-517-
52477-5.
• Corinth, Lovis, Peter-Klaus Schuster, Lothar Brauner, Christoph Vitali,
and Barbara Butts. 1996. Lovis Corinth. Munich and New York:
Prestel. ISBN 3-7913-1682-6
• Frascina, Francis, and Charles Harrison (eds.) 1982. Modern Art and
Modernism: A Critical Anthology. Published in association with The
Open University. London: Harper and Row, Ltd. Reprinted, London:
Paul Chapman Publishing, Ltd.
• Frazier, Nancy. 2001. The Penguin Concise Dictionary of Art History.
New York: Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-051420-1
• Gombrich, E. H. 1958. The Story of Art. London:
Phaidon. OCLC 220078463
• Mullins, Charlotte. 2006. Painting People: Figure Painting Today. New
York: D.A.P.ISBN 978-1-933045-38-2
Further reading[edit]
• Adams, Hugh. 1979. Modern Painting. [Oxford]: Phaidon Press. ISBN
0-7148-1984-0(cloth) ISBN 0-7148-1920-4 (pbk)
• Childs, Peter. 2000. Modernism. London and New York:
Routledge. ISBN 0-415-19647-7 (cloth) ISBN 0-415-19648-5 (pbk)
• Crouch, Christopher. 2000. Modernism in Art Design and Architecture.
New York: St. Martins Press. ISBN 0-312-21830-3 (cloth) ISBN 0-312-
21832-X (pbk)
• Dempsey, Amy. 2002. Art in the Modern Era: A Guide to Schools and
Movements. New York: Harry A. Abrams. ISBN 0-8109-4172-4
• Hunter, Sam, John Jacobus, and Daniel Wheeler. 2004. Modern Art.
Revised and Updated 3rd Edition. New York: The Vendome Press
[Pearson/Prentice Hall]. ISBN 0-13-189565-6 (cloth) 0-13-150519-X
(pbk)
• Kolocotroni, Vassiliki, Jane Goldman, and Olga Taxidou (eds.).
1998. Modernism: An Anthology of Sources and Documents. Chicago:

21. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-45073-2 (cloth) ISBN 0-226-
45074-0 (pbk)
• Ozenfant, Amédée. 1952. Foundations of Modern Art. New York: Dover
Publications.OCLC 536109
• Read, Herbert and Benedict. 1975. A Concise History of Modern
Painting. Thames and Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-20141-1
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24. Expressionism
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Not to be confused with Expressivism.
The Scream by Edvard Munch(1893), which inspired 20th-century Expressionists
Expressionism was a modernist movement, initially in poetry and painting, originating in Germany
at the beginning of the 20th century. Its typical trait is to present the world solely from a subjective
perspective, distorting it radically for emotional effect in order to evoke moods or ideas.[1]
[2]
Expressionist artists sought to express meaning[3]
or emotional experience rather than physical
reality.[3][4]
Expressionism was developed as an avant-garde style before the First World War. It remained
popular during the Weimar Republic,[1]
particularly in Berlin. The style extended to a wide range of
the arts, including expressionist architecture, painting, literature, theatre, dance, film and music.
The term is sometimes suggestive of angst. In a general sense, painters such as Matthias
Grünewald and El Greco are sometimes termed expressionist, though in practice the term is applied
mainly to 20th-century works. The Expressionist emphasis on individual perspective has been
characterized as a reaction to positivism and other artistic styles such
asNaturalism and Impressionism.[5]
Contents
[hide]
• 1 Origin of the term
• 2 Expressionist-Visual artists
• 3 Expressionist groups of painters
• 4 Selected Expressionist paintings
• 5 In other arts

25. o 5.1 Dance
o 5.2 Sculpture
o 5.3 Cinema
o 5.4 Literature
 5.4.1 Journals
 5.4.2 Drama
 5.4.3 Poetry
 5.4.4 Prose
o 5.5 Music
o 5.6 Architecture
• 6 References
• 7 Further reading
• 8 External links
Origin of the term[edit]
While the word expressionist was used in the modern sense as early as 1850, its origin is
sometimes traced to paintings exhibited in 1901 in Paris by an obscure artist Julien–Auguste Hervé,
which he called Expressionismes.[6]
Though an alternate view is that the term was coined by the
Czech art historian Antonin Matějček in 1910, as the opposite of impressionism: "An Expressionist
wishes, above all, to express himself... (an Expressionist rejects) immediate perception and builds
on more complex psychic structures... Impressions and mental images that pass through mental
peoples soul as through a filter which rids them of all substantial accretions to produce their clear
essence [...and] are assimilated and condense into more general forms, into types, which he
transcribes through simple short-hand formulae and symbols."[7]
Important precursors of Expressionism were: the German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–
1900), especially his philosophical novel Thus Spoke Zarathustra(1883–92); the later plays of the
Swedish dramatist August Strindberg (1849–1912), including the trilogy To Damascus 1898–
1901, A Dream Play (1902), The Ghost Sonata (1907); Frank Wedekind (1864–1918), especially the
"Lulu" plays Erdgeist (Earth Spirit) (1895) and Die Büchse der Pandora (Pandora's Box) (1904); the
American poet Walt Whitman (1819–92): Leaves of Grass (1855–91); the Russian novelist Fyodor
Dostoevsky (1821–81); Norwegian painter Edvard Munch (1863–1944); Dutch painter Vincent van
Gogh (1853–90); Belgian painter James Ensor (1860–1949);[8]
Sigmund Freud (1856–1939).
In 1905, a group of four German artists, led by Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, formed Die Brücke (the
Bridge) in the city of Dresden. This was arguably the founding organization for the German
Expressionist movement, though they did not use the word itself. A few years later, in 1911, a like-
minded group of young artists formedDer Blaue Reiter (The Blue Rider) in Munich. The name came
from Wassily Kandinsky's Der Blaue Reiter painting of 1903. Among their members were
Kandinsky,Franz Marc, Paul Klee, and Auguste Macke. However, the term Expressionism did not
firmly establish itself until 1913.[9]
Though initially mainly a German artistic movement,[10]
most
predominant in painting, poetry and the theatre between 1910–30, most precursors of the movement

26. were not German. Furthermore there have been expressionist writers of prose fiction, as well as
non-German speaking expressionist writers, and, while the movement had declined in Germany with
the rise ofAdolf Hitler in the 1930s, there were subsequent expressionist works.
Portrait of Eduard Kosmack by Egon Schiele
Expressionism is notoriously difficult to define, in part because it "overlapped with other major 'isms'
of the modernist period: with Futurism, Vorticism, Cubism, Surrealism and Dada."[11]
Richard Murphy
also comments: "the search for an all-inclusive definition is problematic to the extent that the most
challenging expressionists such as Kafka, Gottfried Benn and Döblin were simultaneously the most
vociferous "anti-expressionists."[12]
What, however, can be said, is that it was a movement that developed in the early twentieth-century
mainly in Germany in reaction to the dehumanizing effect of industrialization and the growth of cities,
and that "one of the central means by which expressionism identifies itself as an avant-
garde movement, and by which it marks its distance to traditions and the cultural institution as a
whole is through its relationship to realism and the dominant conventions of representation."[13]
More
explicitly: that the expressionists rejected the ideology of realism.[14]
"View of Toledo" by El Greco, 1595/1610 has been indicated to have a particularly striking resemblance to 20th-
century expressionism. Historically however it is an example ofMannerism.[citation needed]
The term refers to an "artistic style in which the artist seeks to depict not objective reality but rather
the subjective emotions and responses that objects and events arouse within a person."[15]
It is
arguable that all artists are expressive but there are many examples of art production in Europe from

27. the 15th century onward which emphasize extreme emotion. Such art often occurs during times of
social upheaval, such as the Protestant Reformation,German Peasants' War, Eight Years' War, and
Spanish Occupation of the Netherlands, when the rape, pillage and disaster associated with periods
of chaos and oppression are presented in the documents of the printmaker. Often the work is
unimpressive aesthetically,[citation needed]
yet has the capacity to cause the viewer to experience extreme
emotions with the drama and often horror of the scenes depicted.
Expressionism has been likened to Baroque by critics such as art historian Michel Ragon[16]
and
German philosopher Walter Benjamin.[17]
According to Alberto Arbasino, a difference between the
two is that "Expressionism doesn't shun the violently unpleasant effect, while Baroque does.
Expressionism throws some terrific 'fuck yous', Baroque doesn't. Baroque is well-mannered."[18]
Expressionist-Visual artists[edit]
Wassily Kandinsky, On White II,1923
Alvar Cawén, Sokea soittoniekka(Blind Musician), 1922

28. "Elbe Bridge I" by Rolf Nesch
Franz Marc, Die großen blauen Pferde (The Large Blue Horses), (1911)
Some of the style's main visual artists of the early 20th century were:
• Armenia: Martiros Saryan
• Australia: Sidney Nolan, Charles Blackman, John Perceval, Albert
Tucker and Joy Hester
• Austria: Egon Schiele, Oskar Kokoschka, Josef Gassler and Alfred
Kubin
• Belgium: Constant Permeke, Gustave De Smet, Frits Van den
Berghe, James Ensor, Albert Servaes, Floris Jespers and Albert
Droesbeke.
• Brazil: Anita Malfatti, Cândido Portinari, Di Cavalcanti, Iberê
Camargo and Lasar Segall.
• Estonia: Konrad Mägi, Eduard Wiiralt
• Finland: Tyko Sallinen,[19]
Alvar Cawén, Juho Mäkelä and Wäinö
Aaltonen.
• France: Georges Rouault, Georges Gimel, Gen Paul, Bernard
Buffet and Chaim Soutine
• Germany: Ernst Barlach, Max Beckmann, Fritz Bleyl, Heinrich
Campendonk, Otto Dix, Conrad Felixmüller, George Grosz,Erich
Heckel, Carl Hofer, Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, Käthe Kollwitz, Wilhelm
Lehmbruck, Elfriede Lohse-Wächtler, August Macke, Franz
Marc, Ludwig Meidner, Paula Modersohn-Becker, Otto
Mueller, Gabriele Münter, Rolf Nesch, Emil Nolde,Max Pechstein,
and Karl Schmidt-Rottluff
• Greece: George Bouzianis
• Hungary: Tivadar Kosztka Csontváry
• Iceland: Einar Hákonarson
• Ireland: Jack B. Yeats
• Indonesia: Affandi

29. • Italy: Emilio Giuseppe Dossena
• Mexico: Mathias Goeritz (German émigré to Mexico), Rufino
Tamayo
• Netherlands: Charles Eyck, Willem Hofhuizen, Herman
Kruyder, Jaap Min, Jan Sluyters, Vincent van Gogh, Jan
Wiegersand Hendrik Werkman
• Norway: Edvard Munch, Kai Fjell
• Poland: Henryk Gotlib
• Portugal: Mário Eloy, Amadeo de Souza Cardoso
• Russia: Wassily Kandinsky, Marc Chagall, Alexej von
Jawlensky, Natalia Goncharova, Mstislav Dobuzhinsky,
andMarianne von Werefkin (Russian-born, later active in
Switzerland).
• Romania:Horia Bernea
• South Africa: Maggie Laubser, Irma Stern
• Sweden: Axel Törneman
• Switzerland: Carl Eugen Keel, Cuno Amiet, Paul Klee
• Ukraine: Alexis Gritchenko (Ukraine-born, most active in France)
• United Kingdom: Francis Bacon, Frank Auerbach, Leon
Kossoff, Lucian Freud, Patrick Heron, John Hoyland, Howard
Hodgkin, John Walker, Billy Childish
• USA: Ivan Albright, Milton Avery, George Biddle, Hyman
Bloom, Peter Blume, Charles Burchfield, David Burliuk, Stuart
Davis, Lyonel Feininger, Wilhelmina Weber Furlong, Elaine de
Kooning, Willem de Kooning, Beauford Delaney, Arthur G.
Dove, Norris Embry, Philip Evergood, Kahlil Gibran, William
Gropper, Philip Guston, Marsden Hartley, Albert Kotin, Yasuo
Kuniyoshi, Rico Lebrun, Jack Levine, Alfred Henry Maurer, Robert
Motherwell, Alice Neel, Abraham Rattner, Ben Shahn,Harry
Shoulberg, Joseph Stella, Harry Sternberg, Henry Ossawa
Tanner, Dorothea Tanning, Wilhelmina Weber, Max Weber, Hale
Woodruff, Karl Zerbe
Expressionist groups of painters[edit]
The style originated principally in Germany and Austria. There were a number of groups of
Expressionist painters, includingDer Blaue Reiter and Die Brücke. Der Blaue Reiter (The Blue Rider,
named for a magazine) was based in Munich and Die Brücke was based originally
in Dresden (although some members later relocated to Berlin). Die Brücke was active for a longer
period than Der Blaue Reiter, which was only together for a year (1912). The Expressionists had
many influences, among them Edvard Munch, Vincent van Gogh, and African art.[20]
They were also

30. aware of the work being done by the Fauves in Paris, who influenced Expressionism's tendency
toward arbitrary colours and jarring compositions. In reaction and opposition to French
Impressionism, which emphasized the rendering of the visual appearance of objects, Expressionist
artists sought to portray emotions and subjective interpretations. It was not important to reproduce
an aesthetically pleasing impression of the artistic subject matter, they felt, but rather to represent
vivid emotional reactions by powerful colours and dynamic compositions. Kandinsky, the main artist
of Der Blaue Reiter group, believed that with simple colours and shapes the spectator could perceive
the moods and feelings in the paintings, a theory that encouraged him towards increased
abstraction.
The ideas of German expressionism influenced the work of American artist Marsden Hartley, who
met Kandinsky in Germany in 1913.[21]
In late 1939, at the beginning of World War II, New
York received a great number of major European artists. After the war, Expressionism influenced
many young American artists. Norris Embry (1921–1981) studied with Oskar Kokoschka in 1947 and
during the next 43 years produced a large body of work in the Expressionist tradition. Norris Embry
has been termed "the first American German Expressionist". Other American artists of the late 20th
and early 21st century have developed distinct styles that may be considered part of Expressionism.
Another prominent artist who came from the German Expressionist "school" was Bremen-
born Wolfgang Degenhardt. After working as a commercial artist in Bremen, he migrated to Australia
in 1954 and became quite well known in the Hunter Valley region.
American Expressionism[22]
and American Figurative Expressionism, particularly the Boston figurative
expressionism,[23]
were an integral part of American modernismaround the Second World War.
Rehe im Walde (Deer in Woods), 1914, by Franz Marc
Major figurative Boston Expressionists included: Karl Zerbe, Hyman Bloom, Jack Levine, David
Aronson. The Boston figurative Expressionists post World War II were increasingly marginalized by
the development of abstract expressionismcentered in New York City.
After World War II, figurative expressionism influenced worldwide a large number of artists and
styles. Thomas B. Hess wrote that "the ‘New figurative painting’ which some have been expecting as
a reaction against Abstract Expressionism was implicit in it at the start, and is one of its most lineal
continuities."[24]
• New York Figurative Expressionism[25][26]
of the 1950s represented
New York figurative artists such as Robert Beauchamp, Elaine de
Kooning, Robert Goodnough, Grace Hartigan, Lester Johnson, Alex
Katz, George McNeil (artist),Jan Muller, Fairfield Porter, Gregorio
Prestopino, Larry Rivers and Bob Thompson.

31. • Lyrical Abstraction, Tachisme[27]
of the 1940s and 1950s in Europe
represented by artists such as Georges Mathieu,Hans
Hartung, Nicolas de Staël and others.
• Bay Area Figurative Movement[28][29]
represented by early figurative
expressionists from the San Francisco area Elmer Bischoff, Richard
Diebenkorn, and David Park. The movement from 1950 to 1965
was joined by Theophilus Brown, Paul Wonner, James
Weeks, Hassel Smith, Nathan Oliveira, Bruce McGaw, Jay
DeFeo, Joan Brown, Manuel Neri, Frank Lobdell, Joan
Savo and Roland Peterson.
• Abstract expressionism of the 1950s represented American artists
such as Louise Bourgeois, Hans Burkhardt, Mary Callery, Nicolas
Carone, Willem de Kooning,Jackson Pollock, Philip Guston, and
others[30][31]
that participated with figurative expressionism.
• In the United States and Canada, Lyrical Abstraction beginning
during the late 1960s and the 1970s. Characterized by the work
of Dan Christensen, Peter Young, Ronnie Landfield, Ronald
Davis, Larry Poons, Walter Darby Bannard, Charles Arnoldi, Pat
Lipsky and many others.[32][33][34]
• Neo-expressionism was an international revival style that began in
the late 1970s and included artists from many nations:
• Germany: Anselm Kiefer and Georg Baselitz and others;
• USA: Jean-Michel Basquiat, Eric Fischl, David Salle and Julian
Schnabel;
• Cuba: Pablo Carreno;
• France: Rémi Blanchard, Hervé Di Rosa, Bernard Buffet and
others;
• Italy: Francesco Clemente, Paolo Salvati, Sandro
Chia and Enzo Cucchi;
• England: David Hockney, Frank Auerbach and Leon Kossoff
• Belarus: Natalia Chernogolova
Selected Expressionist paintings[edit]

32. •
August Macke, Lady in a Green Jacket, 1913
•
Franz Marc, Fighting Forms, 1914.
•
Ernst Ludwig Kirchner,Nollendorfplatz, 1912
•
Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, Self-Portrait as a Soldier, 1915
In other arts[edit]

33. This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this section by adding
citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2009)
The Expressionist movement included other types of culture, including dance, sculpture, cinema and
theatre.
Mary Wigman, pioneer ofExpressionist dance (left)
Dance[edit]
Main article: Expressionist dance
Exponents of expressionist dance included Mary Wigman, Rudolf von Laban, and Pina Bausch.
Sculpture[edit]
Some sculptors used the Expressionist style, as for example Ernst Barlach. Other expressionist
artists known mainly as painters, such as Erich Heckel, also worked with sculpture.
Cinema[edit]
Main article: German Expressionism
There was an Expressionist style in the cinema, important examples of which are Robert
Wiene's The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari(1920), The Golem: How He Came into the World (1920), Fritz
Lang's Metropolis (1927) and F. W. Murnau's Nosferatu, a Symphony of Horror (1922) and The Last
Laugh (1924). The term "expressionist" is also sometimes used to refer to stylistic devices thought to
resemble those of German Expressionism, such as Film Noir cinematography or the style of several
of the films of Ingmar Bergman. More generally, the term expressionism can be used to describe
cinematic styles of great artifice, such as the technicolor melodramas of Douglas Sirk or the sound
and visual design of David Lynch's films.
Literature[edit]
Journals[edit]
Two leading Expressionist journals published in Berlin were Der Sturm, published by Herwarth
Walden starting in 1910,[35]
and Die Aktion, which first appeared in 1911 and was edited by Franz
Pfemfert. Der Sturm published poetry and prose from contributors such as Peter Altenberg, Max

34. Brod, Richard Dehmel, Alfred Döblin,Anatole France, Knut Hamsun, Arno Holz, Karl Kraus, Selma
Lagerlöf, Adolf Loos, Heinrich Mann, Paul Scheerbart, and René Schickele, and writings, drawings,
and prints by such artists as Kokoschka, Kandinsky, and members of Der blaue Reiter.
Drama[edit]
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding
citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2013)
Main article: Expressionism (theatre)
Oskar Kokoschka's 1909 playlet, Murderer, The Hope of Women is often termed the first
expressionist drama. In it, an unnamed man and woman struggle for dominance. The man brands
the woman; she stabs and imprisons him. He frees himself and she falls dead at his touch. As the
play ends, he slaughters all around him (in the words of the text) "like mosquitoes." The extreme
simplification of characters to mythic types, choral effects, declamatory dialogue and heightened
intensity all would become characteristic of later expressionist plays. The German composer Paul
Hindemith created an operatic version of this play, which premiered in 1921.
Expressionism was a dominant influence on early 20th-century German theatre, of which Georg
Kaiser and Ernst Toller were the most famous playwrights. Other notable Expressionist dramatists
included Reinhard Sorge, Walter Hasenclever, Hans Henny Jahnn, and Arnolt Bronnen. Important
precursors were the Swedish playwright August Strindberg and German actor and dramatist Frank
Wedekind. During the 1920s, Expressionism enjoyed a brief period of popularity in American theatre,
including plays by Eugene O'Neill (The Hairy Ape, The Emperor Jones and The Great God
Brown), Sophie Treadwell (Machinal) and Elmer Rice (The Adding Machine).
Expressionist plays often dramatise the spiritual awakening and sufferings of their protagonists.
Some utilise an episodic dramatic structure and are known asStationendramen (station plays),
modeled on the presentation of the suffering and death of Jesus in the Stations of the Cross. August
Strindberg had pioneered this form with his autobiographical trilogy To Damascus. Theses plays
also often dramatise the struggle against bourgeois values and established authority, frequently
personified by the Father. In Sorge's The Beggar, (Der Bettler), for example, the young hero's
mentally ill father raves about the prospect of mining the riches of Mars and is finally poisoned by his
son. In Bronnen's Parricide (Vatermord), the son stabs his tyrannical father to death, only to have to
fend off the frenzied sexual overtures of his mother.
In Expressionist drama, the speech is either expansive and rhapsodic, or clipped and telegraphic.
Director Leopold Jessner became famous for his expressionistic productions, often set on stark,
steeply raked flights of stairs (having borrowed the idea from the Symbolist director and
designer, Edward Gordon Craig).
German expressionist playwrights:
• Georg Kaiser (1878)
• Ernst Toller (1893–1939)
• Hans Henny Jahnn (1894–1959)
• Reinhard Sorge (1892–1916)
• Bertolt Brecht (1898–1956)
Playwrights influenced by Expressionism:
• Seán O'Casey (1880–1964)[36]

35. • Eugene O'Neill (1885–1953)
• Elmer Rice (1892–1967)
• Tennessee Williams (1911–83)[37]
• Arthur Miller (1915–2005)
• Samuel Beckett (1906–89)[38]
Poetry[edit]
Among the poets associated with German Expressionism were:
• Jakob van Hoddis
• Georg Trakl
• Gottfried Benn
• Georg Heym
• Else Lasker-Schüler
• Ernst Stadler
• August Stramm
• Rainer Maria Rilke (1875–1926): The Notebooks of Malte Laurids
Brigge (1910)[39]
• Geo Milev
Other poets influenced by expressionism:
• T. S. Eliot[40]
Prose[edit]
In prose, the early stories and novels of Alfred Döblin were influenced by Expressionism,
[41]
and Franz Kafka is sometimes labelled an Expressionist.[42]
Some further writers and works that
have been called Expressionist include:
• Franz Kafka (1883–1924): "The Metamorphosis" (1915), The
Trial (1925), The Castle (1926)[43]
• Alfred Döblin (1857–1957): Berlin Alexanderplatz (1929)[44]
• Wyndham Lewis (1882–1957)[45]
• Djuna Barnes (1892–1982): Nightwood (1936)[46]
• Malcolm Lowry (1909–57): Under the Volcano (1947)
• Ernest Hemingway[47]

36. • James Joyce (1882–1941): "The Nighttown" section
of Ulysses (1922)[48]
• Patrick White (1912–90)[49]
• D. H. Lawrence[50]
• Sheila Watson: Double Hook[51]
• Elias Canetti: Auto de Fe[52]
• Thomas Pynchon[53]
• William Faulkner[54]
• James Hanley (1897–1985)[55]
Music[edit]
Main article: Expressionist music
The term expressionism "was probably first applied to music in 1918, especially to Schoenberg",
because like the painter Kandinsky he avoided "traditional forms of beauty" to convey powerful
feelings in his music.[56]
Arnold Schoenberg, Anton Webern and Alban Berg, the members of
the Second Viennese School, are importantExpressionists (Schoenberg was also an Expressionist
painter).[57]
Other composers that have been associated with expressionism are Krenek (the Second
Symphony), Paul Hindemith (The Young Maiden), Igor Stravinsky (Japanese Songs), Alexander
Scriabin (late piano sonatas) (Adorno 2009, 275). Another significant expressionist was Béla
Bartók in early works, written in the second decade of the 20th-century, such as Bluebeard's
Castle (1911),[58]
The Wooden Prince (1917),[59]
and The Miraculous Mandarin (1919).[60]
Important
precursors of expressionism are Richard Wagner (1813–83), Gustav Mahler (1860–1911),
and Richard Strauss(1864–1949).[61]
Theodor Adorno describes expressionism as concerned with the unconscious, and states that "the
depiction of fear lies at the centre" of expressionist music, with dissonance predominating, so that
the "harmonious, affirmative element of art is banished" (Adorno 2009, 275–76). Erwartung and Die
Glückliche Hand, by Schoenberg, and Wozzeck, an opera by Alban Berg (based on the
play Woyzeck by Georg Büchner), are examples of Expressionist works.[62]
If one were to draw an
analogy from paintings, one may describe the expressionist painting technique as the distortion of
reality (mostly colors and shapes) to create a nightmarish effect for the particular painting as a
whole. Expressionist music roughly does the same thing, where the dramatically increased
dissonance creates, aurally, a nightmarish atmosphere.[63]
Architecture[edit]
Main article: Expressionist architecture

37. Einsteinturm in Potsdam
Torres de Satélite seen from theAnillo Periférico
In architecture, two specific buildings are identified as Expressionist: Bruno Taut's Glass Pavilion of
the Cologne Werkbund Exhibition (1914), and Erich Mendelsohn's Einstein Tower in Potsdam,
Germany completed in 1921. The interior of Hans Poelzig's Berlin theatre (the Grosse
Schauspielhaus), designed for the director Max Reinhardt, is also cited sometimes. The influential
architectural critic and historian Sigfried Giedion, in his book Space, Time and Architecture (1941),
dismissed Expressionist architecture as a part of the development of functionalism. In Mexico, in
1953, German émigré Mathias Goeritz, published the Arquitectura Emocional ("Emotional
Architecture") manifesto with which he declared that "architecture's principal function is emotion".
[64]
Modern Mexican architect Luis Barragán adopted the term that influenced his work. The two of
them collaborated in the project Torres de Satélite (1957–58) guided by Goeritz's principles
of Arquitectura Emocional. It was only during the 1970s that Expressionism in architecture came to
be re-evaluated more positively.

38. References[edit]
1. ^ Jump up to:a b
Bruce Thompson, University of California, Santa
Cruz, lecture on WEIMAR CULTURE/KAFKA'S PRAGUE
2. Jump up^ Chris Baldick Concise Oxford Dictionary of Literary
Terms, entry for Expressionism
3. ^ Jump up to:a b
Victorino Tejera, 1966, pages 85,140, Art and
Human Intelligence, Vision Press Limited, London
4. Jump up^ The Oxford Illustrated Dictionary, 1976 edition, page
294
5. Jump up^ Garzanti, Aldo (1974) [1972]. Enciclopedia Garzanti
della letteratura (in Italian). Milan: Guido Villa. p. 963. page 241
6. Jump up^ John Willett, Expressionism. New York: World
University Library, 1970, p.25; Richard Sheppard, "German
Expressionism", inModernism:1890–1930, ed. Bradbury &
McFarlane, Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1976, p.274.
7. Jump up^ Cited in Donald E. Gordon, Expressionism: Art and
Ideas. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1987, p. 175.
8. Jump up^ R. S. Furness, Expressionism. London: Methuen, pp.2–
14; Willett, pp. 20–24.
9. Jump up^ Richard Sheppard, p.274.
10. Jump up^ Note the parallel French movement Fauvism and the
English Vorticism: "The Fauvist movement has been compared to
German Expressionism, both projecting brilliant colors and
spontaneous brushwork, and indebted to the same late nineteenth-
century sources, especially Van Gogh." Sabine Rewald, "Fauvism".
In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan
Museum of Art,
2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/fauv/hd_fauv.htm (Oct
ober 2004); and "Vorticism can be thought of as English
Expressionism." Sherrill E. Grace, Regression and Apocalypse:
Studies in North American Literary Expressionism. Toronto:
University of Toronto Press, 1989, p.26.
11. Jump up^ Sherrill E. Grace, Regression and Apacaypse: Studies
in North American Literary Expressionism. Toronto: University of
Toronto Press, 1989, p.26).
12. Jump up^ Richard Murphy, Theorizing the Avant-Garde:
Modernism, Expressionism, and the Problem of Postmodernity.
Cambridge, Cambridge University Press,1999, p.43.
13. Jump up^ Richard Murphy, p.43.
14. Jump up^ Murphy, especially pp. 43–48; and Walter H.
Sokel, The Writer in Extremis. Stanford, California: Stanford
University Press, 1959, especially Chapter One.

39. 15. Jump up^ Brittanica online Encyclopaedia(February, 2012).
16. Jump up^ Ragon, Michel (1968). Expressionism. There is no
doubt that Expressionism is Baroque in essence
17. Jump up^ Benjamin, Walter (1998). Origin of German Tragic
Drama. London: Verso. ISBN 978-1-85984-899-9.
18. Jump up^ Pedullà, Gabriele; Arbasino, Alberto (2003). "Sull'albero
di ciliegie – Conversando di letteratura e di cinema con Alberto
Arbasino" [On the cherry tree – Conversations on literature and
cinema with Alberto Arbasino]. CONTEMPORANEA Rivista di
studi sulla letteratura e sulla comunicazione. L’espressionismo non
rifugge dall’effetto violentemente sgradevole, mentre invece il
barocco lo fa. L’espressionismo tira dei tremendi «vaffanculo», il
barocco no. Il barocco è beneducato (Expressionism doesn't shun
the violently unpleasant effect, while Baroque does. Expressionism
throws some terrific "Fuck yous", Baroque doesn't. Baroque is well-
mannered.)
19. Jump up^ Ian Chilvers, The Oxford dictionary of art, Volume 2004,
Oxford University Press, p. 506. ISBN 0-19-860476-9
20. Jump up^ Ian Buruma, "Desire in Berlin", New York Review of
Books, December 8, 2008, p. 19.
21. Jump up^ "Hartley, Marsden", Oxford Art Online
22. Jump up^ Bram Dijkstra, American expressionism : art and social
change, 1920–1950,(New York : H.N. Abrams, in association with
the Columbus Museum of Art, 2003.) ISBN 0-8109-4231-3, ISBN
978-0-8109-4231-8
23. Jump up^ Judith Bookbinder, Boston modern: figurative
expressionism as alternative modernism (Durham, N.H. :
University of New Hampshire Press ; Hanover : University Press of
New England, ©2005.) ISBN 1-58465-488-0, ISBN 978-1-58465-
488-9
24. Jump up^ Thomas B. Hess, “The Many Deaths of American
Art,” Art News 59 (October 1960), p.25
25. Jump up^ Paul Schimmel and Judith E Stein, The Figurative
fifties : New York figurative expressionism (Newport Beach,
California : Newport Harbor Art Museum : New York : Rizzoli,
1988.) ISBN 0-8478-0942-0, ISBN 978-0-8478-0942-
4 0917493125 9780917493126
26. Jump up^ “Editorial,” Reality, A Journal of Artists’
Opinions (Spring 1954), p. 2.
27. Jump up^ Flight lyric, Paris 1945–1956, texts Patrick-Gilles
Persin, Michel and Pierre Descargues Ragon, Musée du
Luxembourg, Paris and Skira, Milan, 2006, 280 p. ISBN 88-7624-
679-7.
28. Jump up^ Caroline A. Jones, Bay Area figurative art, 1950–
1965, (San Francisco, California : San Francisco Museum of

40. Modern Art ; Berkeley : University of California Press,
©1990.) ISBN 978-0-520-06842-1
29. Jump up^ American Abstract and Figurative Expressionism: Style
Is Timely Art Is Timeless (New York School Press, 2009.) ISBN
978-0-9677994-2-1 pp. 44–47; 56–59; 80–83; 112–115; 192–195;
212–215; 240–243; 248–251
30. Jump up^ Marika Herskovic, American Abstract Expressionism of
the 1950s An Illustrated Survey, (New York School Press,
2000. ISBN 0-9677994-1-4. pp. 46–49; pp. 62–65; pp. 70–73; pp.
74–77; pp. 94–97; 262–264
31. Jump up^ American Abstract and Figurative Expressionism: Style
Is Timely Art Is Timeless: An Illustrated Survey With Artists'
Statements, Artwork and Biographies(New York School Press,
2009. ISBN 978-0-9677994-2-1. pp.24–27; pp.28–31; pp.32–35;
pp. 60–63; pp.64–67; pp.72–75; pp.76–79; pp. 112–115; 128–131;
136–139; 140–143; 144–147; 148–151; 156–159; 160–163;
32. Jump up^ Ryan, David (2002). Talking painting: dialogues with
twelve contemporary abstract painters, p.211, Routledge. ISBN 0-
415-27629-2, ISBN 978-0-415-27629-0. Available onGoogle
Books.
33. Jump up^ "Exhibition archive: Expanding Boundaries: Lyrical
Abstraction", Boca Raton Museum of Art, 2009. Retrieved 25
September 2009.
34. Jump up^ "John Seery", National Gallery of Australia. Retrieved
25 September 2009.
35. Jump up^ "Der Sturm.". Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. 2012. Retrieved 21 January 2012.
36. Jump up^ Furness, pp.89–90.
37. Jump up^ Stokel, p.1.
38. Jump up^ Stokel, p.1; Lois Oppenheimer, The Painted Word:
Samuel Beckett's Dialogue with Art. Ann Arbor: University of
Michigan Press, 2000, pp.74, 126–7, 128; Jessica Prinz,
"Resonant Images: Beckett and German Expressionism",
in Samuel Beckett and the Arts: Music, Visual Arts, and Non-Print
Media, ed. Lois Oppenheim. New York: Garland Publishing, 1999.
39. Jump up^ Ulf Zimmermann, "Expressionism and Döblin's Berlin
Alexanderplatz, in Passion and Rebellion
40. Jump up^ R. S. Furness, Expressionism. London: Methuen, 1973,
p.81.
41. Jump up^ Cowan, Michael (2007). "Die Tücke Des Körpers:
Taming The Nervous Body In Alfred Döblin's 'Die Ermordung Einer
Butterblume' And 'Die Tänzerin Und Der Leib'.".Seminar: A Journal
of Germanic Studies 43 (4): 482–
498. doi:10.3138/seminar.43.4.482.

41. 42. Jump up^ Walter H. Sokel, The Writer in Extremis. Stanford,
California: Stanford University Press, 1959, pp 3, 29, 84 especially;
Richard Murphy, Theorizing the Avant-Garde. Cambridge,
Cambridge University Press,1999, especially pp 41,142.
43. Jump up^ Silvio Vietta, Franz Kafka, Expressionism, and
Reification" in Passion and Rebellion: The Expressionist Heritage,
eds. Stephen Bronner and Douglas Kellner. New York: Universe
Books, 1983 pp, pp.201–16.
44. Jump up^ Richard Murphy, Theorizing the Avant-Garde:
Modernism, Expressionism and the Problem of Postmodernity.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999, pp.74–141; Ulf
Zimmermann, "Expressionism and Döblin's Berlin Alexanderplatz "
in Passion and Rebellion, pp.217–234.
45. Jump up^ Sheila Watson, Wyndham Lewis Expressionist. Ph.D
Thesis, University of Toronto, 1965.
46. Jump up^ Sherrill E. Grace, Regression and Apocalypse: Studies
in North American Literary Expressionism. Toronto: University of
Toronto Press, 1989, pp.141–162.
47. Jump up^ Raymond S. Nelson, Hemingway, Expressionist Artist.
Ames, Iowa University Press, 1979; Robert Paul Lamb, Art
matters: Hemingway, Craft, and the Creation of the Modern Short
Story. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, c.2010.
48. Jump up^ Walter H. Sokel, The Writer in Extremis. Stanford,
California: Stanford University Press, 1959, p.1; R. S.
Furness, Expressionism. London: Methuen, 1973, p. 81.
49. Jump up^ Sherrill E. Grace, p.7.
50. Jump up^ Sherrill E. Grace, p.7
51. Jump up^ Sherrill E. Grace, pp 185–209.
52. Jump up^ Sherrill E. Grace, p.12.
53. Jump up^ Sherrill E. Grace, p.7, 241–3.
54. Jump up^ Jeffrey Stayton, "Southern Expressionism: Apocalyptic
Hillscapes, Racial Panoramas,and Lustmord in William Faulkner’s
Light in August". The Southern Literary Journal, Volume 42,
Number 1, Fall 2009, pp. 32–56.
55. Jump up^ Ken Worpole, Dockers and Detectives. London: Verso
Editions, 1983, pp. 77–93.
56. Jump up^ The Norton Grove Concise Encyclopedia of Music, ed
Stanley Sadie.New York: Norton1991, p. 244.
57. Jump up^ Theodor Adorno, Night Music: Essays on Music 1928–
1962. (London: Seagull, 2009), p.274-8.

42. 58. Jump up^ Nicole V. Gagné, Historical Dictionary of Modern and
Contemporary Classical Music (Plymouth, England: Scarecrow
Press, 2011), p.92.
59. Jump up^ Andrew Clements, "Classical preview: The Wooden
Prince", The Guardian, 5 May 2007.
60. Jump up^ The Cambridge Companion to Bartók, ed. Amanda
Bayley (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), p.152.
61. Jump up^ "Expressionism," Microsoft® Encarta® Online
Encyclopedia 2000. [1]; Donald Mitchell, Gustav Mahler: The
Wunderhorn Years: Chronicles and Commentaries. Rochester, NY:
Boydell Press, 2005
62. Jump up^ Edward Rothstein New York Times Review/Opera:
"Wozzeck; The Lyric Dresses Up Berg's 1925 Nightmare In a
Modern Message". New York Times February 3, 1994; Theodor
Adorno, Night Music (2009), p.276.
63. Jump up^ Theodor Adorno, Night Music (2009), pp275-6.
64. Jump up^ Mathias Goeritz, "El manifiesto de arquitectura
emocional", in Lily Kassner, Mathias Goeritz, UNAM, 2007, p. 272-
273
Further reading[edit]
• Alfirevic Djordje (2012), Expressionism as The Radical Creative
Tendency in Architecture, Arhitektura i urbanizam, No.34, pp. 14–
27.
• Antonín Matějček cited in Gordon, Donald E.
(1987). Expressionism: Art and Idea, p. 175. New Haven: Yale
University Press. ISBN 9780300033106
• Jonah F. Mitchell (Berlin, 2003). Doctoral thesis Expressionism
between Western modernism and Teutonic Sonderweg. Courtesy of
the author.
• Friedrich Nietzsche (1872). The Birth of Tragedy Out of The Spirit of
Music. Trans. Clifton P. Fadiman. New York: Dover, 1995. ISBN 0-
486-28515-4.
• Judith Bookbinder, Boston modern: figurative expressionism as
alternative modernism, (Durham, N.H. : University of New
Hampshire Press; Hanover: University Press of New England,
©2005.) ISBN 1-58465-488-0, ISBN 978-1-58465-488-9
• Bram Dijkstra, American expressionism: art and social change,
1920–1950, (New York : H.N. Abrams, in association with the
Columbus Museum of Art, 2003.)ISBN 0-8109-4231-3, ISBN 978-0-
8109-4231-8

43. • Ditmar Elger Expressionism-A Revolution in German Art ISBN 978-
3-8228-3194-6
• Paul Schimmel and Judith E Stein, The Figurative fifties : New York
figurative expressionism, The Other Tradition (Newport Beach,
California : Newport Harbor Art Museum : New York : Rizzoli,
1988.) ISBN 0-8478-0942-0, ISBN 978-0-8478-0942-4 0917493125
9780917493126
• Marika Herskovic, American Abstract and Figurative Expressionism:
Style Is Timely Art Is Timeless (New York School Press,
2009.) ISBN 978-0-9677994-2-1.
• Lakatos Gabriela Luciana, Expressionism Today, University of Art
and Design Cluj Napoca, 2011
External links[edit]
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media related
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dictionary.
• Hottentots in tails A turbulent history of the group by Christian
Saehrendt at signandsight.com
• German Expressionism A free resource with paintings from German
expressionists (high-quality).
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Impressionism
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the art movement. For other uses, see Impressionism (disambiguation).
Claude Monet, Haystacks, (sunset), 1890–1891, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston
Impressionism is a 19th-century art movement that originated with a group of Paris-based artists
whose independent exhibitions brought them to prominence during the 1870s and 1880s.
Impressionist painting characteristics include relatively small, thin, yet visible brush strokes,
open composition, emphasis on accurate depiction of light in its changing qualities (often
accentuating the effects of the passage of time), ordinary subject matter, inclusion of movement as a
crucial element of human perception and experience, and unusual visual angles.
The Impressionists faced harsh opposition from the conventional art community in France. The
name of the style derives from the title of a Claude Monet work, Impression, soleil
levant (Impression, Sunrise), which provoked the critic Louis Leroy to coin the term in
a satirical review published in the Parisian newspaper Le Charivari.
The development of Impressionism in the visual arts was soon followed by analogous styles in other
media that became known as impressionist music and impressionist literature.
Contents
[hide]
• 1 Overview
• 2 Beginnings

48. • 3 Impressionist techniques
• 4 Content and composition
• 5 Main Impressionists
• 6 Gallery
• 7 Timeline: Lives of the Impressionists
• 8 Associates and influenced artists
• 9 Beyond France
• 10 Sculpture, photography and film
• 11 Music and literature
• 12 Post-Impressionism
• 13 See also
• 14 Notes
• 15 References
• 16 External links
Overview[edit]
Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Dance at Le Moulin de la Galette (Bal du moulin de la Galette), Musée d'Orsay, 1876
Radicals in their time, early Impressionists violated the rules of academic painting. They constructed
their pictures from freely brushed colours that took precedence over lines and contours, following the
example of painters such as Eugène Delacroixand J. M. W. Turner. They also painted realistic
scenes of modern life, and often painted outdoors. Previously, still lifes andportraits as well
as landscapes were usually painted in a studio.[1]
The Impressionists found that they could capture
the momentary and transient effects of sunlight by painting en plein air. They portrayed overall visual
effects instead of details, and used short "broken" brush strokes of mixed and pure unmixed colour
—not blended smoothly or shaded, as was customary—to achieve an effect of intense colour
vibration.
Impressionism emerged in France at the same time that a number of other painters, including the
Italian artists known as theMacchiaioli, and Winslow Homer in the United States, were also

49. exploring plein-air painting. The Impressionists, however, developed new techniques specific to the
style. Encompassing what its adherents argued was a different way of seeing, it is an art of
immediacy and movement, of candid poses and compositions, of the play of light expressed in a
bright and varied use of colour.
The public, at first hostile, gradually came to believe that the Impressionists had captured a fresh
and original vision, even if the art critics and art establishment disapproved of the new style.
By recreating the sensation in the eye that views the subject, rather than delineating the details of
the subject, and by creating a welter of techniques and forms, Impressionism is a precursor of
various painting styles, including Neo-Impressionism, Post-Impressionism, Fauvism, and Cubism.
Beginnings[edit]
In the middle of the 19th century—a time of change, as Emperor Napoleon III rebuilt Paris and
waged war—the Académie des Beaux-Arts dominated French art. The Académie was the preserver
of traditional French painting standards of content and style. Historical subjects, religious themes,
and portraits were valued; landscape and still life were not. The Académie preferred carefully
finished images that looked realistic when examined closely. Paintings in this style were made up of
precise brush strokes carefully blended to hide the artist's hand in the work.[2]
Colour was restrained
and often toned down further by the application of a golden varnish.[3]
The Académie had an annual, juried art show, the Salon de Paris, and artists whose work was
displayed in the show won prizes, garnered commissions, and enhanced their prestige. The
standards of the juries represented the values of the Académie, represented by the works of such
artists as Jean-Léon Gérôme andAlexandre Cabanel.
In the early 1860s, four young painters—Claude Monet, Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Alfred Sisley,
and Frédéric Bazille—met while studying under the academic artistCharles Gleyre. They discovered
that they shared an interest in painting landscape and contemporary life rather than historical or
mythological scenes. Following a practice that had become increasingly popular by mid-century,
they often ventured into the countryside together to paint in the open air, but not for the purpose of
making sketches to be developed into carefully finished works in the studio, as was the usual
custom.[4]
By painting in sunlight directly from nature, and making bold use of the vivid synthetic
pigments that had become available since the beginning of the century, they began to develop a
lighter and brighter manner of painting that extended further the Realism of Gustave Courbet and
the Barbizon school. A favourite meeting place for the artists was the Café Guerbois on Avenue de
Clichy in Paris, where the discussions were often led by Édouard Manet, whom the younger artists
greatly admired. They were soon joined by Camille Pissarro, Paul Cézanne, and Armand Guillaumin.
[5]
Édouard Manet, The Luncheon on the Grass (Le déjeuner sur l'herbe), 1863
During the 1860s, the Salon jury routinely rejected about half of the works submitted by Monet and
his friends in favour of works by artists faithful to the approved style.[6]
In 1863, the Salon jury

50. rejected Manet's The Luncheon on the Grass (Le déjeuner sur l'herbe) primarily because it depicted
a nude woman with two clothed men at a picnic. While the Salon jury routinely accepted nudes in
historical and allegorical paintings, they condemned Manet for placing a realistic nude in a
contemporary setting.[7]
The jury's severely worded rejection of Manet's painting appalled his
admirers, and the unusually large number of rejected works that year perturbed many French artists.
After Emperor Napoleon III saw the rejected works of 1863, he decreed that the public be allowed to
judge the work themselves, and the Salon des Refusés (Salon of the Refused) was organized. While
many viewers came only to laugh, the Salon des Refusés drew attention to the existence of a new
tendency in art and attracted more visitors than the regular Salon.[8]
Alfred Sisley, View of the Saint-Martin Canal, Paris, 1870, Musée d'Orsay
Artists' petitions requesting a new Salon des Refusés in 1867, and again in 1872, were denied. In
December 1873, Monet, Renoir, Pissarro, Sisley, Cézanne, Berthe Morisot, Edgar Degas and
several other artists founded the Société Anonyme Coopérative des Artistes Peintres, Sculpteurs,
Graveurs ("Cooperative and Anonymous Association of Painters, Sculptors, and Engravers") to
exhibit their artworks independently.[9]
Members of the association were expected to forswear
participation in the Salon.[10]
The organizers invited a number of other progressive artists to join them
in their inaugural exhibition, including the older Eugène Boudin, whose example had first persuaded
Monet to adopt plein air painting years before.[11]
Another painter who greatly influenced Monet and
his friends, Johan Jongkind, declined to participate, as did Édouard Manet. In total, thirty artists
participated in their first exhibition, held in April 1874 at the studio of the photographer Nadar.
Claude Monet, Impression, soleil levant (Impression, Sunrise), 1872, oil on canvas, Musée Marmottan Monet,Paris
The critical response was mixed. Monet and Cézanne received the harshest attacks. Critic and
humorist Louis Leroy wrote a scathing review in the newspaper Le Charivari in which, making
wordplay with the title of Claude Monet's Impression, Sunrise(Impression, soleil levant), he gave the
artists the name by which they became known. Derisively titling his article The Exhibition of the
Impressionists, Leroy declared that Monet's painting was at most, a sketch, and could hardly be
termed a finished work.
He wrote, in the form of a dialog between viewers,

51. Impression—I was certain of it. I was just telling myself that,
since I was impressed, there had to be some impression in it ...
and what freedom, what ease of workmanship! Wallpaper in its
embryonic state is more finished than that seascape.[12]
Claude Monet, Woman with a Parasol - Madame Monet and Her
Son (Camille and Jean Monet), 1875,National Gallery of Art,Washington,
D.C.
The term impressionists quickly gained favour with the public. It was
also accepted by the artists themselves, even though they were a
diverse group in style and temperament, unified primarily by their
spirit of independence and rebellion. They exhibited together—
albeit with shifting membership—eight times between 1874 and
1886. The Impressionists' style, with its loose, spontaneous
brushstrokes, would soon become synonymous with modern life.[3]
Monet, Sisley, Morisot, and Pissarro may be considered the
"purest" Impressionists, in their consistent pursuit of an art of
spontaneity, sunlight, and colour. Degas rejected much of this, as
he believed in the primacy of drawing over colour and belittled the
practice of painting outdoors.[13]
Renoir turned away from
Impressionism for a time during the 1880s, and never entirely
regained his commitment to its ideas. Édouard Manet, although
regarded by the Impressionists as their leader,[14]
never abandoned
his liberal use of black as a colour, and never participated in the
Impressionist exhibitions. He continued to submit his works to the
Salon, where his painting Spanish Singer had won a 2nd class
medal in 1861, and he urged the others to do likewise, arguing that
"the Salon is the real field of battle" where a reputation could be
made.[15]

52. Camille Pissarro, Boulevard Montmartre, 1897, the Hermitage, Saint
Petersburg
Among the artists of the core group (minus Bazille, who had died in
the Franco-Prussian Warin 1870), defections occurred as Cézanne,
followed later by Renoir, Sisley, and Monet, abstained from the
group exhibitions so they could submit their works to the Salon.
Disagreements arose from issues such as Guillaumin's membership
in the group, championed by Pissarro and Cézanne against
opposition from Monet and Degas, who thought him unworthy.
[16]
Degas invited Mary Cassatt to display her work in the 1879
exhibition, but also insisted on the inclusion of Jean-François
Raffaëlli, Ludovic Lepic, and other realists who did not represent
Impressionist practices, causing Monet in 1880 to accuse the
Impressionists of "opening doors to first-come daubers".[17]
The
group divided over invitations to Paul Signac and Georges Seurat to
exhibit with them in 1886. Pissarro was the only artist to show at all
eight Impressionist exhibitions.
The individual artists achieved few financial rewards from the
Impressionist exhibitions, but their art gradually won a degree of
public acceptance and support. Their dealer, Durand-Ruel, played a
major role in this as he kept their work before the public and
arranged shows for them in London and New York. Although Sisley
died in poverty in 1899, Renoir had a great Salon success in 1879.
[18]
Monet became secure financially during the early 1880s and so
did Pissarro by the early 1890s. By this time the methods of
Impressionist painting, in a diluted form, had become commonplace
in Salon art.[19]
Impressionist techniques[edit]

53. Mary Cassatt, Lydia Leaning on Her Arms (in a theatre box), 1879
French painters who prepared the way for Impressionism include
the Romantic colourist Eugène Delacroix, the leader of the
realistsGustave Courbet, and painters of the Barbizon school such
as Théodore Rousseau. The Impressionists learned much from the
work of Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot and Eugène Boudin, who
painted from nature in a direct and spontaneous style that
prefigured Impressionism, and who befriended and advised the
younger artists.
A number of identifiable techniques and working habits contributed
to the innovative style of the Impressionists. Although these
methods had been used by previous artists—and are often
conspicuous in the work of artists such as Frans Hals, Diego
Velázquez,Peter Paul Rubens, John Constable,
and J. M. W. Turner—the Impressionists were the first to use them
all together, and with such consistency. These techniques include:
• Short, thick strokes of paint quickly capture the essence of the
subject, rather than its details. The paint is often
applied impasto.
• Colours are applied side-by-side with as little mixing as
possible, a technique that exploits the principle of simultaneous
contrast to make the colour appear more vivid to the viewer.
• Grays and dark tones are produced by mixing complementary
colours. Pure impressionism avoids the use of black paint.
• Wet paint is placed into wet paint without waiting for successive
applications to dry, producing softer edges and intermingling of
colour.
• Impressionist paintings do not exploit the transparency of thin
paint films (glazes), which earlier artists manipulated carefully to
produce effects. The impressionist painting surface is typically
opaque.
• The paint is applied to a white or light-coloured ground.
Previously, painters often used dark grey or strongly coloured
grounds.

54. • The play of natural light is emphasized. Close attention is paid
to the reflection of colours from object to object. Painters often
worked in the evening to produceeffets de soir—the shadowy
effects of evening or twilight.
• In paintings made en plein air (outdoors), shadows are boldly
painted with the blue of the sky as it is reflected onto surfaces,
giving a sense of freshness previously not represented in
painting. (Blue shadows on snow inspired the technique.)
New technology played a role in the development of the style.
Impressionists took advantage of the mid-century introduction of
premixed paints in tin tubes (resembling modern toothpaste tubes),
which allowed artists to work more spontaneously, both outdoors
and indoors.[20]
Previously, painters made their own paints
individually, by grinding and mixing dry pigment powders with
linseed oil, which were then stored in animal bladders.[21]
Many vivid synthetic pigments became commercially available to
artists for the first time during the 19th century. These
included cobalt blue, viridian, cadmium yellow, and
synthetic ultramarine blue, all of which were in use by the 1840s,
before Impressionism.[22]
The Impressionists' manner of painting
made bold use of these pigments, and of even newer colours such
as cerulean blue,[3]
which became commercially available to artists
in the 1860s.[22]
The Impressionists' progress toward a brighter style of painting was
gradual. During the 1860s, Monet and Renoir sometimes painted on
canvases prepared with the traditional red-brown or grey ground.
[23]
By the 1870s, Monet, Renoir, and Pissarro usually chose to paint
on grounds of a lighter grey or beige colour, which functioned as a
middle tone in the finished painting.[23]
By the 1880s, some of the
Impressionists had come to prefer white or slightly off-white
grounds, and no longer allowed the ground colour a significant role
in the finished painting.[24]
Content and composition[edit]
Camille Pissarro, Hay Harvest at Éragny, 1901, National Gallery of
Canada, Ottawa, Ontario

55. Prior to the Impressionists, other painters, notably such 17th-
century Dutch painters as Jan Steen, had emphasized common
subjects, but their methods of composition were traditional. They
arranged their compositions so that the main subject commanded
the viewer's attention. The Impressionists relaxed the boundary
between subject and background so that the effect of an
Impressionist painting often resembles a snapshot, a part of a larger
reality captured as if by chance.[25]
Photography was gaining
popularity, and as cameras became more portable, photographs
became more candid. Photography inspired Impressionists to
represent momentary action, not only in the fleeting lights of a
landscape, but in the day-to-day lives of people.
Berthe Morisot, Reading, 1873,Cleveland Museum of Art
The development of Impressionism can be considered partly as a
reaction by artists to the challenge presented by photography,
which seemed to devalue the artist's skill in reproducing reality.
Both portrait and landscape paintings were deemed somewhat
deficient and lacking in truth as photography "produced lifelike
images much more efficiently and reliably".[26]
In spite of this, photography actually inspired artists to pursue other
means of artistic expression, and rather than compete with
photography to emulate reality, artists focused "on the one thing
they could inevitably do better than the photograph—by further
developing into an art form its very subjectivity in the conception of
the image, the very subjectivity that photography eliminated".[26]
The
Impressionists sought to express their perceptions of nature, rather
than create exact representations. This allowed artists to depict
subjectively what they saw with their "tacit imperatives of taste and
conscience".[27]
Photography encouraged painters to exploit aspects
of the painting medium, like colour, which photography then lacked:
"The Impressionists were the first to consciously offer a subjective
alternative to the photograph".[26]

56. Claude Monet, Jardin à Sainte-Adresse, 1867, Metropolitan Museum of
Art, New York.,[28]
a work showing the influence of Japanese prints
Another major influence was Japanese ukiyo-e art prints
(Japonism). The art of these prints contributed significantly to the
"snapshot" angles and unconventional compositions that became
characteristic of Impressionism. An example is Monet'sJardin à
Sainte-Adresse, 1867, with its bold blocks of colour and
composition on a strong diagonal slant showing the influence of
Japanese prints[29]
Edgar Degas was both an avid photographer and a collector of
Japanese prints.[30]
His The Dance Class (La classe de danse) of
1874 shows both influences in its asymmetrical composition. The
dancers are seemingly caught off guard in various awkward poses,
leaving an expanse of empty floor space in the lower right quadrant.
He also captured his dancers in sculpture, such as the Little Dancer
of Fourteen Years.
Main Impressionists[edit]
Berthe Morisot, The Harbour at Lorient, 1869, National Gallery of
Art,Washington, D.C.
The central figures in the development of Impressionism in France,
listed alphabetically, were:
• Frédéric Bazille (1841–1870)
• Gustave Caillebotte (who, younger than the others, joined
forces with them in the mid-1870s) (1848–1894)
• Mary Cassatt (American-born, she lived in Paris and
participated in four Impressionist exhibitions) (1844–1926)
• Paul Cézanne (although he later broke away from the
Impressionists) (1839–1906)
• Edgar Degas (who despised the term Impressionist) (1834–
1917)
• Armand Guillaumin (1841–1927)
• Édouard Manet (who did not participate in any of the
Impressionist exhibitions) (1832–1883)[31]

57. • Claude Monet (the most prolific of the Impressionists and the
one who embodies their aesthetic most obviously)[32]
(1840–
1926)
• Berthe Morisot (1841–1895)
• Camille Pissarro (1830–1903)
• Pierre-Auguste Renoir (1841–1919)
• Alfred Sisley (1839–1899)
Gallery[edit]
•
Frédéric Bazille, Paysage au bord du Lez, 1870, Minneapolis Institute
of Art
•
Alfred Sisley, Bridge at Villeneuve-la-Garenne, 1872,Metropolitan
Museum of Art
•
Berthe Morisot, The Cradle, 1872, Musée d'Orsay

58. •
Armand Guillaumin, Sunset at Ivry (Soleil couchant à Ivry),
1873, Musee d'Orsay
•
Édouard Manet, Boating, 1874,Metropolitan Museum of Art
•
Alfred Sisley, La Seine au Point du jour, 1877, Museum of modern art
André Malraux - MuMa, Le Havre
•

59. Édouard Manet, The Plum, 1878, National Gallery of Art,Washington,
D.C.
•
Édouard Manet, A Bar at the Folies-Bergère (Un Bar aux Folies-
Bergère), 1882, Courtauld Institute of Art
•
Edgar Degas, After the Bath, Woman Drying Herself, c. 1884–1886
(reworked between 1890 and 1900), MuMa, Le Havre
•
Edgar Degas, L'Absinthe, 1876,Musée d'Orsay, Paris

60. •
Edgar Degas, Dancer with a Bouquet of Flowers (Star of the Ballet),
1878
•
Edgar Degas, Woman in the Bath, 1886, Hill-Stead
Museum,Farmington, Connecticut
•
Edgar Degas, Dancers at The Bar, 1888, The Phillips
Collection, Washington, D.C.

61. •
Gustave Caillebotte, Paris Street, Rainy Day, 1877, Art Institute of
Chicago
•
Pierre-Auguste Renoir, On the Terrace, 1881, Art Institute of Chicago
•
Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Girl with a Hoop, 1885
•

62. Claude Monet, The Cliff at Étretat after the Storm, 1885,Clark Art
Institute,Williamstown, Massachusetts
•
Mary Cassatt, The Child's Bath(The Bath), 1893, oil on canvas,Art
Institute of Chicago
Timeline: Lives of the Impressionists[edit]
The
Impressionists
Associates and influenced artists[edit]

63. James Abbott McNeill Whistler, Nocturne in Black and Gold: The Falling
Rocket, 1874, Detroit Institute of Arts
Among the close associates of the Impressionists were several
painters who adopted their methods to some degree. These
includeGiuseppe De Nittis, an Italian artist living in Paris who
participated in the first Impressionist exhibit at the invitation of
Degas, although the other Impressionists disparaged his work.
[33]
Federico Zandomeneghi was another Italian friend of Degas who
showed with the Impressionists. Eva Gonzalès was a follower of
Manet who did not exhibit with the group. James Abbott McNeill
Whistler was an American-born painter who played a part in
Impressionism although he did not join the group and preferred
grayed colours. Walter Sickert, an English artist, was initially a
follower of Whistler, and later an important disciple of Degas; he did
not exhibit with the Impressionists. In 1904 the artist and
writer Wynford Dewhurst wrote the first important study of the
French painters published in English, Impressionist Painting: its
genesis and development, which did much to popularize
Impressionism in Great Britain.
By the early 1880s, Impressionist methods were affecting, at least
superficially, the art of the Salon. Fashionable painters such asJean
Béraud and Henri Gervex found critical and financial success by
brightening their palettes while retaining the smooth finish expected
of Salon art.[34]
Works by these artists are sometimes casually
referred to as Impressionism, despite their remoteness from
Impressionist practice.
The influence of the French Impressionists lasted long after most of
them had died. Artists like J.D. Kirszenbaum were borrowing
Impressionist techniques throughout the 1900s.
Beyond France[edit]
Peder Severin Krøyer's 1888 workHip, Hip, Hurrah! shows members of
the Skagen Painters
As the influence of Impressionism spread beyond France, artists,
too numerous to list, became identified as practitioners of the new
style. Some of the more important examples are:

64. • The American Impressionists, including Mary Cassatt, William
Merritt Chase, Frederick Carl Frieseke, Childe Hassam,Willard
Metcalf, Lilla Cabot Perry, Theodore Robinson, Edmund
Charles Tarbell, John Henry Twachtman, Catherine Wileyand J.
Alden Weir.
• The Australian Impressionists, including Tom Roberts, Arthur
Streeton, Charles Conder and Frederick McCubbin (who were
prominent members of the Heidelberg School), and John Peter
Russell, a friend of Van Gogh, Rodin, Monet and Matisse.
• Anna Boch, Vincent van Gogh's friend Eugène Boch, Georges
Lemmen and Théo van Rysselberghe Impressionist painters
from Belgium.
• Ivan Grohar, Rihard Jakopič, Matija Jama, and Matej Sternen,
Impressionists from Slovenia. Their beginning was in the school
of Anton Ažbe in Munich and they were influenced by Jurij
Šubic and Ivana Kobilca, Slovenian painters working in Paris
• Walter Richard Sickert and Philip Wilson Steer were well known
Impressionist painters from the United Kingdom.
• Lovis Corinth, Max Liebermann, Ernst Oppler, Max
Slevogt and Karl Walther in Germany
• László Mednyánszky in Hungary
• Theodor von Ehrmanns and Hugo Charlemont who were rare
Impressionists among the more dominant Vienna
Secessionist painters in Austria
• Roderic O'Conor, and Walter Osborne in Ireland
• Konstantin Korovin and Valentin Serov in Russia
• Francisco Oller y Cestero, a native of Puerto Rico and a friend
of Pissarro and Cézanne
• William McTaggart in Scotland.
• Laura Muntz Lyall, a Canadian artist
• Władysław Podkowiński, a Polish Impressionist and symbolist
• Nazmi Ziya Güran, who brought Impressionism to Turkey
• Chafik Charobim in Egypt
• Eliseu Visconti in Brazil
• Joaquín Sorolla in Spain
• Faustino Brughetti, Fernando Fader, Candido Lopez, Martín
Malharro, Walter de Navazio, Ramón Silva in Argentina

65. • Skagen Painters a group of Scandinavian artists who painted in
a small Danish fishing village
• Nadežda Petrović in Serbia
• Frits Thaulow in Norway and later France.
Sculpture, photography and film[edit]
The sculptor Auguste Rodin is sometimes called an Impressionist
for the way he used roughly modeled surfaces to suggest transient
light effects.[35]
Pictorialist photographers whose work is characterized by soft focus
and atmospheric effects have also been called Impressionists.
French Impressionist Cinema is a term applied to a loosely defined
group of films and filmmakers in France from 1919–1929, although
these years are debatable. French Impressionist filmmakers
include Abel Gance, Jean Epstein, Germaine Dulac, Marcel
L’Herbier, Louis Delluc, and Dmitry Kirsanoff.
Music and literature[edit]
Main articles: Impressionist music and Impressionism (literature)
Claude Monet, Water Lilies, 1916,The National Museum of Western Art,
Tokyo
Musical Impressionism is the name given to a movement
in European classical music that arose in the late 19th century and
continued into the middle of the 20th century. Originating in France,
musical Impressionism is characterized by suggestion and
atmosphere, and eschews the emotional excesses of the Romantic
era. Impressionist composers favoured short forms such as
the nocturne, arabesque, and prelude, and often explored
uncommon scales such as the whole tone scale. Perhaps the most
notable innovations of Impressionist composers were the
introduction of major 7th chords and the extension of chord
structures in 3rds to five- and six-part harmonies.

66. The influence of visual Impressionism on its musical counterpart is
debatable. Claude Debussy and Maurice Ravel are generally
considered the greatest Impressionist composers, but Debussy
disavowed the term, calling it the invention of critics.Erik Satie was
also considered in this category, though his approach was regarded
as less serious, more musical novelty in nature. Paul Dukas is
another French composer sometimes considered an Impressionist,
but his style is perhaps more closely aligned to the late
Romanticists. Musical Impressionism beyond France includes the
work of such composers asOttorino Respighi (Italy) Ralph Vaughan
Williams, Cyril Scott, and John Ireland (England), and Manuel De
Falla, and Isaac Albeniz (Spain).
The term Impressionism has also been used to describe works of
literature in which a few select details suffice to convey the sensory
impressions of an incident or scene. Impressionist literature is
closely related to Symbolism, with its major exemplars
being Baudelaire, Mallarmé, Rimbaud, and Verlaine. Authors such
as Virginia Woolf, D.H. Lawrence, and Joseph Conrad have written
works that are Impressionistic in the way that they describe, rather
than interpret, the impressions, sensations and emotions that
constitute a character's mental life.
Camille Pissarro, Children on a Farm, 1887
Post-Impressionism[edit]
Main article: Post-Impressionism
Post-Impressionism developed from Impressionism. During the
1880s several artists began to develop different precepts for the use
of colour, pattern, form, and line, derived from the Impressionist
example: Vincent van Gogh, Paul Gauguin, Georges Seurat,
and Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec. These artists were slightly younger
than the Impressionists, and their work is known as post-
Impressionism. Some of the original Impressionist artists also
ventured into this new territory; Camille Pissarro briefly painted in
a pointillist manner, and even Monet abandoned strict plein
air painting. Paul Cézanne, who participated in the first and third
Impressionist exhibitions, developed a highly individual vision
emphasising pictorial structure, and he is more often called a post-
Impressionist. Although these cases illustrate the difficulty of
assigning labels, the work of the original Impressionist painters
may, by definition, be categorised as Impressionism.

67. •
Georges Seurat, A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande
Jatte, 1884–1886, The Art Institute of Chicago
•
Vincent van Gogh, Cypresses, 1889, Metropolitan Museum of Art
•
Paul Gauguin, The Midday Nap, 1894, Metropolitan Museum of Art
•
Paul Cézanne, The Card Players, 1894–1895, Musée d'Orsay, Paris
See also[edit]

68. • Art periods
• Expressionism (as a reaction to Impressionism)
• Les XX
• Luminism (Impressionism)
• Macchiaioli
Notes[edit]
1. Jump up^ Exceptions include Canaletto, who painted outside
and may have used the camera obscura.
2. Jump up^ Nathalia Brodskaya, Impressionism, Parkstone
International, 2014, pp. 13-14
3. ^ Jump up to:a b c
Samu, Margaret. "Impressionism: Art and
Modernity". In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York:
The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000 (October 2004)
4. Jump up^ Bomford et al. 1990, pp. 21–27.
5. Jump up^ Greenspan, Taube G. "Armand Guillaumin", Grove
Art Online. Oxford Art Online, Oxford University Press.
6. Jump up^ Seiberling, Grace, "Impressionism", Grove Art
Online. Oxford Art Online, Oxford University Press.
7. Jump up^ Denvir (1990), p.133.
8. Jump up^ Denvir (1990), p.194.
9. Jump up^ Bomford et al. 1990, p. 209.
10. Jump up^ Jensen 1994, p. 90.
11. Jump up^ Denvir (1990), p.32.
12. Jump up^ Rewald (1973), p. 323.
13. Jump up^ Gordon; Forge (1988), pp. 11–12.
14. Jump up^ Distel et al. (1974), p. 127.
15. Jump up^ Richardson (1976), p. 3.
16. Jump up^ Denvir (1990), p.105.
17. Jump up^ Rewald (1973), p. 603.
18. Jump up^ Distel, Anne, Michel Hoog, and Charles S. Moffett.
1974.Impressionism; a Centenary Exhibition, the Metropolitan
Museum of Art, December 12, 1974–February 10, 1975. [New
York]: [Metropolitan Museum of Art]. p. 190. ISBN
0870990977.