1.
Introduction
 You may have been assigned an essay in the past
called “Cause and Effect Essay” or “Process
Analysis Essay” but those limited structures are
rarely found in published essays.
 Published, literary essays employ a combination
of structural or development techniques to add
more variety and interest.
 We will learn several types of structures and
development techniques in this presentation.

2.
Description
 Writers add color and interest to their writing
with plenty of description, appealing to the
five senses.
 Topic: In Pennsylvania where I grew up, many
people show signs of being smokers.
 Description: “Everywhere you go you can see
people with tubes leading from their noses,
behind their ears, and over to portable
oxygen tanks: in grocery stores, in cars, at
Bingo night in the neighborhood church.”

3.
Examples
 Writers often start a paragraph with a general
statement, but then once they have
established a topic, give specific examples
that will stick in the reader’s mind.
 Topic: Many people are still cigarette
smokers despite the health risks.
 Example: “The first of my relatives to die of
cigarette-smoking related ailments was my
grandfather, who succumbed to heart failure
at 67.”

4.
Narration (Storytelling)
 Stories grab the reader’s attention and can
help make an abstract or general point
unforgettable.
 Topic: There is always someone in my family
smoking.
 Narration: “My father even smoked while he
was changing clothes. He would be smoking
as he rushed to get out of his overalls, coated
with oil from the shift at Midas Mufflers and
into his bartender clothes.”

5.
Definition
 Writers often place a difficult word or idea into a
recognizable category and then explain how it is
different from all others.
 Topic: Microcredit loans
 Definition: “These small loans, as little as $25, go
to the poorest people, mostly women living on
$1 a day or less. These loans could protect
against terrorism by undermining the poverty
that feeds social decay and destruction.”

6.
Process Analysis
 Describing a process may be an important
element of an essay.
 Topic: Autopsies
 Process: “For the benefit of readers who are
interested, here’s what generally happens
during a forensic autopsy: The first step is to
photograph the body. Trace evidence such as
hair samples and nail scrapings are collected,
and fingerprints taken.”

7.
Compare/Contrast
 By comparing an unfamiliar subject to a familiar one,
writers help readers gain a context for a topic.
 Topic: American Impressionism
 Compare/Contrast: “American impressionists such
as John H. Twachtman, Childe Hassam, Theodore
Robinson, and Mary Cassatt were influenced by the
French painter in the 1890s and into the early 20th
century. Like their French counterparts, they were
interested in recreating the sensation of light in
nature and used intense colors and similar dab or
fleck brushstrokes, but they departed with the
French painter’s avant garde approach to form.”

8.
Cause and Effect
 Writers often explore the reasons an event or
trend occurred or discuss its aftereffects.
 Topic: The Great Depression
 Cause and Effect: “The Great Depression was
the worst economic slump ever in U.S. history
and one which spread to virtually all of the
industrialized world. The main cause was the
greatly unequal distribution of wealth
throughout the 1920’s.”

9.
Conclusion
 Structure is an integral element of the literary
essay.
 Writers make choices about how to employ a
variety of structures within their essays to
create an interesting reading experience, and
to best convey their desired meaning and
purpose.
 Structural varieties include: description,
narration, examples, process analysis,
definition, compare/contrast, and
cause/effect.