Rural Outmigration-Feminization-
Agricultural Production Nexus:
Case of Vietnam
Eva Salve Bacud; Ranjitha Puskur;
Tran Nhat Lam Duyen; Harold Glen Valera;
Joyce Luis; Bjoern Ole Sander

Presentation Outline
• How does migration affect farm labour availability?
• Do men’s and women’s roles in farm production change as a
consequence of migration?
• Are women able to access necessary productive assets and
services when they take over farm management?
• What are the implications of these changes for farm
production?

How can migration potentially affect agricultural production?
Region of
outmigration
(Push factors)
• Climate risks
• Low agricultural yield
• and income
• Low wage rate
• Surplus labour
• Extreme poverty
• Large household size
MIGRATION
Loss of migrants’
labour inputs
Technology adoption
(e.g. labour-saving technologies)
Purchase of farm production inputs
Hiring additional labour
(Managerial Feminization)
• Higher participation in and
control of decision-making
• Women becoming farm
managers
Change in farm
production
Migrants may send back remittances which can
be reinvested on farm
Receiving
region
(Pull factors)
• Emergence of industries
• Wage differential
• Employment opportunities
Shift to less
labour-intensive
crops
(Labour Feminization)
• Women providing
additional labor to
compensate loss
• Time poverty
• Drudgery
(no labour hiring, low machinery)

60.84
68.85
47.54
60.49
39.16
31.15
52.46
39.51
0.00
10.00
20.00
30.00
40.00
50.00
60.00
70.00
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
Thai Binh
(North)
Ha Tinh
(Central)
Bac Lieu (South) All
Incidence of migration by sex and province
% men*** % women*** % households with migrants**
27.03 24.27
42.11
30.43
66.22
57.28
56.58
59.68
6.76
18.45
1.32
9.88
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
Thai Binh (North) Ha Tinh (Central) Bac Lieu (South) All
Patterns of migration
Rural-rural migration** Rural-urban migration
International migration***
0.82171246
2.6023894
4.4938685
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
Thai Binh Ha Tinh Bac Lieu
Area of cultivated land (acre)***
27.98
10.20 3.70
5.18
6.12
5.82
66.84
83.67 90.48
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Thai Binh Ha Tinh Bac Lieu
% Poor by province
Extremely poor (<USD 1.90) Poor (USD 1.90- <3.20)
Not poor (>=USD 3.20)
Migration patterns

48.92%
44.25%
38.03%
43.50%
10.26%
9.46%
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
No migration
With Migration
Labour hour participation by migration incidence
Family male labour Family female labour Hired male Hired female
33.43%
40.55%
66.22%
54.34%
54.57%
12.63%
7.83%
4.31%
17.68%
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
Thai Binh
Ha Tinh
Bac Lieu
By location
Family male labour Family female labour Hired male Hired female
Changes in gendered division of labour
• More involvement of women is observed in areas
with high migration rates and in households
undertaking international migration
• Hiring of labour (esp. hired male) seems to
decrease with migration
45.39%
43.39%
39.48%
40.54%
44.05%
51.91%
11.90%
9.34%
6.19%
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
Rural
Urban
International
By patterns of migration
Family male labour Family female labour Hired male Hired female
• Increase in women’s labour as a consequence of migration

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
Rural
Urban
International
Rural
Urban
International
Rural
Urban
International
Rural
Urban
International
Rural
Urban
International
Rural
Urban
International
Rural
Urban
International
Land
Preparation
Seed
PreparationTransplanting
Chemical
Application
Manual
WeedingIrrigationHarvesting
Family male labour Family female labour Hired male Hired female
Changes in gendered division of labour
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
No Migration
With Migration
No Migration
With Migration
No Migration
With Migration
No Migration
With Migration
No Migration
With Migration
No Migration
With Migration
No Migration
With Migration
Land
Preparati
on*
Seedbed
Preparati
on*
Transplan
ting***
Fertilizer/
Chemical
Applicatio
n**
Manual
Weeding
Irrigation
***
Harvestin
g**
Family male labour Family female labour Hired male Hired female
Women are taking over tasks traditionally assigned to men, which are culturally defined as “heavy tasks”…

Is it feminization of labour or farm management?
0.00
0.50
1.00
1.50
2.00
2.50
3.00
3.50
4.00
Decision-making index by migration incidence
No Migration With Migrantion
0.00
0.50
1.00
1.50
2.00
2.50
3.00
3.50
4.00
4.50
Decision-making index by migration pattern
Rural Urban Intl
0.00
0.50
1.00
1.50
2.00
2.50
3.00
3.50
4.00
4.50
Decision-making index by location
Thai Binh Ha Tinh Bac Lieu
*Scores: 1=Husband only makes decision; 2=Both, husband dominates; 3=Both equally; 4=Both, wife dominates; 5=Wife only
**Choice of crop: (a) What crop to grow, (b) What variety to use
***Crop management: (a) When to/How much fertilizer to apply, (b) When to/How much pesticides; (c) When to irrigate; (d) Who solves problems; (e) Who
rents labour; (f) When to harvest
****Post-harvest: (a) What variety to use for next season; (b) Utilization of rice; (c) When to sell
…not only labour is feminized, women handle overall management of the farm
• Wives in migrant households have higher involvement in decision-making in majority of domains, but husbands
still dominate decisions related to farm investments e.g. buying land and renting/buying machinery.

…but do women have access to necessary assets?
22%
9%
45%
14%
22%
97%
90%
26%
9%
37%
17% 16%
96% 92%
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Cattle Tractor *Diesel
pump
Reaper *Power
tiller
Hand tools Mobile
phone
Access of households to productive assets
No Migration With Migration
22% 18%
49%
27% 27%
96% 97%
25%
5%
33%
12% 14%
95%
89%
48%
4%
16%
20%
14%
100%
92%
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
120%
**Cattle ***Tractor ***Diesel
pump
**Reaper **Power
tiller
Hand tools Mobile
phone
Access of hosueholds to productive assets by migration
pattern
Rural Urban International
0.00%
50.00%
100.00%
150.00%
200.00%
250.00%
300.00%
350.00%
400.00%
450.00%
Rural Migration Urban Migration International
Allocation of remittances Buying/Renting farm equipment
Hiring farm labourers
*Agricultural inputs
***Loan repayment
**Savings
***Education
Recreation & Culture
Communication
Transportation
Household utilities
Health
House construction
*Clothing
***Food
• Access to farm machinery which could have reduced women’s
labour burden remains limited
• Remittances are allocated mainly for consumer durables and the
least for investments on farm inputs, machines, and hired labour

• “…livelihood diversification activities made women feel that they
had a heavy workload, that they slept less, and had no time for
leisure; they felt tired and worn out with aching backs, legs,
and arms. And although results in higher income, better
nutritional status, and education for children, it can have
negative impact on women’s overall welfare.”—Chi 2008

• “Low popularity of harvesting machinery is mainly
because it is too costly and too heavy to be moved from
field to field. In many cases, the design of harvesters is
unsuited to the characteristics of rice farms in Vietnam
(small fields, narrow pathway, soft and muddy soil)”—
Chi 2008

Implications for agricultural production
897.43
797.35
740.00
760.00
780.00
800.00
820.00
840.00
860.00
880.00
900.00
920.00
*No migration *With Migration
All
Rice yield (kg/acre)
• Migrant households have lower yield
• Investment in production inputs (i.e. seeds, fertilizers, pesticides) increases rice yield
• Increasing woman labour hours reduces the yield

Implications for use of Agricultural Inputs (Rice)
0
500,000
1,000,000
1,500,000
2,000,000
2,500,000
3,000,000
Household farm spending
Non-migrant Migrant
0
500,000
1,000,000
1,500,000
2,000,000
2,500,000
3,000,000
3,500,000
Household farm spending by migration pattern
Rural Urban Intl
• Migrant households, especially those with international migrants, are spending less on farm inputs
than non-migrant households
• Usage of these inputs significantly contributes to higher production
“Higher expenditures on seeds, insecticides and pesticides, hired labor, and machinery rental have a positive
association with rice produced”—De Brauw 2007, Vietnam

Key Messages
– When men in farming households migrate, women take over
tasks that are traditionally assigned to men—land preparation,
irrigation, fertilizers application, pesticides and chemical
application
– Women also take on farm managerial responsibilities in the
absence of men
– Not hiring additional labour and low farm machinery use could
be leading to time poverty and enhanced drudgery of women
affecting their health and well-being

gender.cgiar.org
We would like to acknowledge all CGIAR Research Programs and
Centers for supporting the participation of their gender scientists to
the Seeds of Change conference.
Photo: Neil Palmer/IWMI