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Similar to Ben Duke - Keele University - CSP Final Paper - Graduate Centre for Europe - 1 October 2014
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Ben Duke - Keele University - CSP Final Paper - Graduate Centre for Europe - 1 October 2014
- 1. 1 Education, Learning and Teaching, an Interdisciplinary Europeanization Neo- Troika: Facilitating Cross Border and Transport Aspects of Travelling Europe Abstract This paper considers the challenge of equipping the populous with the necessary critical thinking skills to benefit from Europeanization. The Shapley-Value decomposition technique lists education as an important factor in countries reducing inequality.i The knowledge- generating neo-troika, consisting of education, learning and teaching, is critical in enabling people to make informed decisions. Educated people are able to evaluate complex, theoretical, abstract ideas e.g. democratic participation, representation and neoliberalism. This paper posits that Europeanization, including the interconnectedness of place and spatial awareness in travelling Europe and crossing borders, is more effective with an educated population.ii This paper seeks to provide a brief overview of epistemology and ontology,two concepts that have a significant e ffect when discussing how social science research should be conducted. This paper considers the lives of people in relation to political, social, economic, cultural and historical contexts.iii This paper will focus on how a researcher accurately measures and interprets the effect of education upon travelling decisions and demonstrate numerous ways to assess the effect of education when travelling across Europe. Migrants, particularly in the European CE4 countries Czech Republic, Poland, Hungary and Sovakia, travel to access resources such as safe and secure housing,food and water, and utilities such as gas, electricity, coal and oil. Climate change, resource allocation and an ageing demography also impact the Europeanization dynamic.iv The paper concludes by summarising the key role interdisciplinary neo-troika has in ensuring that all citizens benefit from Europeanization.
- 2. 2 Introduction This paperis a theoretical review of how the educational, learning and teaching aspects ofEuropeanization, e.g. the knowledge generating neo-troika, can inform and enhance the travelling decisions of citizens in European Union (EU) nations.v The term ‘neo-troika’ has been employed in reference to three financial institutions that were used to intervene in various European countries,effectively fighting to stabilise their financial affairs. Knowledge generating neo-troika has a similar role to that of the financial institutions, albeit operating at a less pressurised and slower pace. It has the same level of importance in its remit of educating the European people. The financial institutions ‘troika’ consist of the European Commission (EC), the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the European Central Bank (ECB). This paper is presented in four sections.The first section discusses some of the reasons why people travel cross-borders into and within European Union (EU) countries. Section two critically evaluates some of the research techniques which could be employed to investigate the effect of education on travel choices. The third section follows with a conceptual review of how epistemological and ontological choices can significantly affect the final research methodological design. Section four theorises on various methodological problems whic h might be encountered during a research inquiry into how education influences EU travel choice. This paper concludes with a critical summary which provides education and transport policy suggestions and awareness ofhowbest to use transport options.European nations will become better equipped to predict future transport demands when people are better educated, have increased mobility, and use the latest techn ological advances to avoid areas most likely to be affected by climate change.The latter two aspects demonstrate urban planning an d spatialawareness created by the knowledge generating neo-troika.vi The Role of the Knowledge Generating Neo-troika One of the main reasons why people travel throughout Europe is to find work.vii Changing patterns of trade act facilitate European Union (EU) integration,viii with more “than 70% of the EU’s citizens live in urban areas”.ix Cities are centres of employment, leisure and tourism, and therefore are often the final destination after the use of public or private transport.There is currently a knowledge gap regarding how the choice of methods of transport, reason for travel and the choice of travel destination interact with each other when travelling Europe.x Similarly, there needs to be a better understanding ofhow these decisions are impacted by the interdisciplinary Europeanization neo-troika. This is especially important when EU consultation projects on transport initiatives take place, which will have an effect upo n climate change and the environment.xi Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1762) argued the merits of delivering equal development of cities as being instrumental in enacting a form of social justice.xii A present day interpretation of this discourse might suggest that transport systems as part of urban development should be egalitarian in nature, equal in how they will affect all people living in the city. The costs and benefits of lower congestion and CO2 emissions, for example, should be shared by all. The Europeanization neo-troika is a key component in equipping EU citizens with soft skills, such as problem solving, relationship building and critical evaluation skills.xiii Educating EU citizens will increase the inclination toward environmentally sustainable transport initiatives and reduce the pressure on naturalresources.xiv Energy and land-use,linked in with leisure and tourism, will be used more efficiently and therefore stimulate employment and sustainable economic growth.xv Critical evaluation skills obtained from education, learning and teaching will make a significant contribution to an EU citizen’s quality of life. Essentially, the Europeanization neo-troika will contribute to ‘a forward-looking vision on the socio-ecological transition towards a new model of urban development reinforcing EU cities as hubs of innovation and centres of job creation’.xvi Table 1 depicts how the knowledge transfer neo-troika interact with various socio-demographic factors for cross-border travel, both into and between EU member states. The information here is used to assess past reasons for travelling and analysing the likelihood of future changes due to increased education. The onset of information and communication technologies (ICT) is expected to reduce the number of people travelling for work, as more people using tablets or handheld digital devices will be able to choose to work from home.xvii Education Comparative education 3 ‘soft power’ (Foucault) Bilateral and multilateral cooperation 3 Learning Traveller’s accounts 3 Data to develop indicators3 Overseas, ‘liminal’ experiential learning Teaching The creation of meaning 1 e.g. social construction (Gergen, 1991, p16) Virtual and Digital Communication 1 Social (S) Friends within EU or out of the EU 1 Physical mobility 1 Linguistic competence 1 Media 1 Tastes 1 Familiar with area In or out of the EU1 Spatial competence 1 Political (P) Attitude towards the EU 1 Solidarity in the EU 1 Democracy and Human Rights in the EU 1 Economic (E) Money transfers 1 Exchange rates 1 Buying goods abroad 1 Economic stability 1 Common currency1 Cultural (C) Unifying myths 3 Cultural narratives 2 Self-evaluation helps to solve the data interoperability problem 3 Singing/cooking in native tongue 1 Cultural diversity 2
- 3. 3 Mode of Transport Foot Refugee/Asylum (P) Boat Refugee/Asylum(P) Air Travel Leisure, Study and Work (S and C) Rail Study/Work(S and C) Car Work/Study (S and C) Reason for Travel Find work (E) Social protection (E) Flee persecution (P) Military incursion (P) Civil War (P) Social Unrest (P) Natural Disaster (E) Shelter, Food, Waterand Heating (E) Leisure Holidays, Tourism (S and C) EU Choice of Destination Austria Belgium Bulgaria Croatia Cyprus Czech Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Germany Greece Hungary Italy EU Choice of Destination Ireland Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Malta Netherlands Poland Portugal Romania Slovakia Slovenia Spain Sweden UK Table 1 - Effects of the knowledge transfer neo-troika on travelling decisions throughout the EU 1 Hanquinet and Savage, 2013, p10-14; 2 Popkewitz and Martins, 2013, p37-39; 3 Ydesen, 2013, p726-728 Epistemology and objectivity in education and transport research The OECD (2013), in their approach to measuring subjective wellbeing, provide one of numerous examples demonstrating the importance of epistemology and ontology when embarking on a research inquiry: “Good mental states,including all the various evaluations,positive and negative, that people make of their lives and the affective reactions of people to their experiences”.xviii It is evident that the researcher needs to interpret individuals’ perceptions in relation to political, social, economic, cultural and historical domains.xix The OECD subjective wellbeing methodology also highlights how a qualitative research design is much better equipped to accurately establish the reasons behind travel choices. The researcher’s epistemological and ontological position at the outset of research is crucial. Previously we have looked at the socio- political-economic-cultural reasons behind travelling decisions in Europe. This approach uses underlying reasons similar to the Hanquinet and Savage (2013) EUCROSS research project.xx Hanquinet and Savage consider mobility in physical cross-border practices, alongside Europeanization and globalisation. The latter two words can be defined as “feeling European – feeling citizen of the world”.xxi The research on this subject can be approached in terms of ‘informed mobility’, where the interconnectednes s of the four categories are central to interpreting how mode of transport,choice of destination and reasons for travelling across Europe are influenced by the leve l of educational attainment of the traveller. The work of Skelly (2013) also supports the criticality of socio-demography, ‘where networks and the fluidity of our contemporary social circumstances are instead central’.xxii Such social circumstances include educational attainment. An epistemological approach to measure individuals’ perception of the success ofa transport project would be supported by consideration of and feedback from educated travellers. This would be an alternative epistemological approach to assessing how ‘European’ the traveller feels wh en crossing borders.xxiii An epistemological and ontological decision to interpret the reasons why people travel across Europe in terms of actual ‘mobility’ is influenced by the mechanics of globalisation. Urry observes that there appears ‘to be different societies with their clustering of social institutions, and with a clear and policed border surrounding each society as region’.xxiv The researcher could interpret this observation by exchanging the term society with globe and the term region with Europe.xxv In essence,the researcherwould be producing a working definition of globalisation, while focussing the research on travel throughout Europe.The qualitative aspects ofthe study,analysing t ravelling decisions and including how they are affected by the traveller’s educational attainment, would still remain the primary objective of the research. Methodological problems Research into the effect of knowledge generating neo-troika on EU cross-borders travelchoices can be problematical. An essentialelement of such a research investigation is location. The EU area is a very large area to travel through for work, leisure and/ortrade, in addition, the EU constantly changes in size and shape geographically.There are candidate countries at various stages ofEU compliance, fulfilling Schengen and ‘acquis communitaire’ requirements, waiting for EU accession. Romania and Bulgaria have recently had substantial trade restrictions removed, being allowed entrance to all other EU member states from 1 January 2014.xxvi Different member states are at different stages of the development cycle, measured under a working definition of the ability to provide their citizens with basic social goods s uch as education and healthcare. This working definition could easily be reinterpreted in any number of ways, dependent upon the reader’s epistemological and ontological view. For example, the percentage of citizens who make 50% or more of their cross -border tourism journeys using public transportation could be affected by the particular geographical location one is travelling to or from, which might be acting to exclude other forms of transport.Similarly, any of the variables present in Hanquinet and Savage’ (2013) EUCROSS methodology could be influenced by the travellers’ original location. In addition the five generic domains discussed earlier are also influenced by location. If a person lives within walking distance of work or university he or she has less need to use public transport, or to have access to a private vehicle. Location is problematical because historically some EU member states have individually experienced incidents producing major structural transformation within. These have been periods of civil war, e.g. Czech Republic and Slovakia,xxvii or the dissolution the Soviet Union, e.g. Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania.xxviii Here the physical geographical location of the member state has not changed. However, people’s
- 4. 4 perception, affinity, sense of identity and belonging and attitudes could have changed fundamentally, depending upon their historical relationship to the location. Other countries have had substantialsocial unrest,such as Poland, which have had differing effects on the five broad categories compared to other member states. Changes in demography, political economy and the adoption of (or failure to adopt) technological changes can all fragment and change a location. In turn this will affect people’s perceptions of travel choices, particularly in relation to their identity and the social reasons why they travelled. How people socially interact with their place and spatial surroundings are substantially influenced by circumstances within their own location. The issue of geographical size is also methodologically problematical, especially when researching the sociological reasons why people are travelling from one region to another, within the same nation state. A region, district or neighbourhood within a city, or possibly a rural area, can have its own morphological typology.xxix Other variables can influence mode of travel or travel destination,such as different spoken languages.Depending upon the size of a geographical area studied or number of factors analysed, the researcher might have grea t difficulty in establishing that the data collected is homogeneously representative of the area as a whole.xxx From an interconnected place and spatial planning perspective it is important to have a picture of the existing infrastructure, such as the location of public transport hubs.EU travelling behaviour research would benefit from information regarding the topographic nature of areas being studied.xxxi This often requires access to historical maps, which visualise the areas’ social amenities such as shopping precincts, workplaces, tourist locations and farmland. Maps that delineate how the character and nature of the area has changed over a period of time, in turn influence people’s travel choices.xxxii For example, current farmland could have been the former site of a major factory, employing lots of people at different income levels. Now this area only provides low-income casual employment for fruit picking farm workers. Martin (2013) provides an apt narrative, describing where topographic, historical maps and education interact to inform European tra vel choices: ‘Finally there must be practical problems such as existence and availability of the necessary map data…Use of historic aerial photos is also crucial to study the evolution of the chosen district’.xxxiii The people who once traveled into the area to work no longer do so. Workers who have ‘informed mobility’, enabled by the knowledge generating neo-troika, will have asked for and read the maps of their local area. Such people, on being informed by local map reading that their area has few employment opportunities or social amenities, may well make the decision to commute to the larger cities or leave the area altogether. Conclusion To conclude, it is worth recalling the main reasons people choose to travel across borders in Europe. A substantialamount of EU travel within and between countries is by people going to, from, or looking for work. Transport polices that can get people to work efficiently, cheaply and reduce CO2 emissions would be beneficial to the whole of society.A major infrastructure programme of increased t ram provision and EU railway network electrification would improve EU citizens transport choices.xxxiv Embarking on such projects would not be prohibitively expensive. Social protection payments would be reduced as more people would be working, helping to modernise EU transport. Public health would improve long term due to reduced respiratory diseases and cancer risk with fewer fossilised fuel emissions.xxxv Crime rates would likely decrease with more people working. Studies have shown that the influx of a large employer into an area has a job creation multiplier effect.xxxvi Here, a new employer moves into the area and starts employing local people. As a result other companies become attracted to the area, employing more people and resulting in increased trading. A United States study found the multiplier, after a large employer relocated, in the surrounding area, of between 1.6 for manufacturing and 4.9 for high technology jobs.xxxvii If this was replicated, a transport infrastructure project employing a workforce of 1,000 people would produce another 1, 600 manufacturing jobs elsewh ere. In addition, an employer, when employing 1,000 skilled workers, would also generate 4,900 high technology jobs elsewhere in the area. This highlights the role of regeneration via employment generated by the need to travel for work, coupled with education’s vital role within that process. This paperhas demonstrated howthere are many numerous factors which influence travelling across Europe.The role ofeducation,learning and teaching, is now established as being front and centre of improving how existing transport infrastructure is currently us ed.Furthermore, the analysis detailed in this paper will inform European transport policy makers of the multidimensional reasons for travelling, for work, education, healthcare and leisure. The five broad domains previously mentioned enabled critical analysis of which causal fact ors interacted, shedding light on the most favourable conditions under which people would be motivated to choose to travel. Causal factors range from accessibility to public transport, with rural communities not having social amenities or the likelihood of high income or job security. The central theme that educationalattainment at the time one makes the decision to travel has substantialinfluence on when, whe re, howand why they travel, has been demonstrated.Travellers and migrants who remember fleeing military incursion, food or fuel shortages,orthe perception of state surveillance, are less likely to travel to certain countries, which for themmight evoke traumatic memories. Educated individuals, who have been taught how to use the latest digital devices, are able to access current information on the internet about their cultural heritage and assess ifa former home nation has culturally changed.Critical evaluation skills learnt while being educated will enhance ‘informed mobility’. People will be able to make informed decisions about the likelihood of war returning, or having access to health and social care amenities in certain areas, or feeling safe in terms of civil defence. Fundamental to having ‘informed mobility’ is enabling people to be sufficiently educated to make transport decisions, regardless of which social issue motivates their reasons for travelling Europe.
- 5. 5 Glossary (*This is the page number where the acronym first appears) Acronym (Page No*) Full Wording BMC (p6) Bio Med Central, The Open Access Publisher Public Health CELSI (p6) Central European Labour Studies Institute CMEPIUS (p7) Centre of the Republic of Slovenia for Mobility and European Educational and Training Programmes CRESC (p7) Centre for Research on Socio-Cultural Change EBRD (p6) European Bank for Reconstruction and Development ESPON (p7) European Spatial Planning Observation Network EU (p2) European Union EUCROSS (p4) The Europeanization of Everyday Life: Cross-border Practices and Transnational Identifications among EU and Third-Country Citizens EUROREG (p7) Centre for European, Regional and Local Studies GDN (p7) Global Development Network GEOSPECS (p7) Geographic Specificities and Development Potentials in Europe GRINCOH (p6) Growth-Innovation-Competitiveness Fostering Cohesion in Central and Eastern Europe GSS (p6) Government Statistical Service GVAR (p7) Global Vector Autoregressions IAUS (p7) Institute of Architecture and Urban & Spatial Planning of Serbia ICLEI (p6) Local Governments for Sustainability IMF (p2) International Monetary Fund ITF/OECD (p7) International Transport Forum, a member of the OECD JRF (p6) Joseph Rowntree Foundation LERU (p7) League of European Research Universities MCA (p7) Multiple Correspondence Analysis OECD (p4) Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development ONS (p7) Office for National Statistics PCA (p7) Principal Component Analysis RESPAG (p6) Regional Development, Spatial Planning and Strategic Governance UNHCR (p7) United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees VINNOVA (p6) Swedish Governmental Agency,under the Ministry of Enterprise, Energy and Communication
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