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Flying Circuits
By Ade Pitman
CAUTION:
THIS PRESENTATION IS DESIGNED TO TRAIN
FOR SIMULATED FLIGHT AND INTEREST ONLY.
PROPER FLIGHT TRAINING SHOULD BE GIVEN
FOR ACTUAL FLIGHT.
Flying Circuits: Objectives
• Understand the four forces affecting aircraft in flight
• Understand how aircraft wings generate lift
• Understand the three axis of flight & aircraft controls
• Identify the ‘six pack’ aircraft instruments, their operation & use
• Understand the circuit
• Learn how to join the circuit
• Understand when & where to use radio
What forces act on an aircraft?
Forces on an aircraft: LIFT
Four forces act on an aircraft.
Forces on an aircraft: LIFT
Four forces act on an aircraft.
LIFT is generated by the wings and horizontal stabilizer.
Forces on an aircraft: Weight
The Lift generated by the wings balances what?
In straight and level flight, LIFT balances
the aircraft’s WEIGHT
Lift: Lift Equation
You can work out how much lift a wing produces using the equation:
Coefficient
of lift
Air Density Area of
wing
Velocity
Forces on an aircraft: Thrust
The Engine generates what type of force?
Engines provide THRUST that makes the
aircraft move
Forces on an aircraft: Drag
What force acts to slow the aircraft down?
DRAG slows the aircraft down, and acts in
the opposite direction to THRUST
DRAG: Induced Drag
There are two types of Drag that act on an aircraft.
INDUCED DRAG:
This is a product of the
wingtip ‘Vortices’, and
increases as LIFT increases.
It also increases as the Angle
of Attack increases, as more
LIFT will be generated.
It reduces with speed, as at
speed you have a lower Angle
of Attack.
DRAG: Induced Drag
Wing Tip Vortices are caused by the HIGH PRESSURE air under a
wing flowing to the LOW PRESSURE air over the wing
DRAG: Induced Drag
Wing Tip Vortices are largest at
low speed / high angle of attack
DRAG: Parasitic ( or Form) Drag
PARASITIC DRAG:
This type of Drag is due to the
shape (or Form) of the aircraft.
More streamlined objects produce
less Parasitic Drag.
This is why Olympic cyclists wear
streamlined hats and smooth
clothing.
Parasitic Drag increases as the
Speed increases.
It reduces as speed decreases.
There are two types of Drag that act on aircraft. They are:
INDUCED DRAG:
This is a product of the wingtip ‘Vortices’, and increases as LIFT
increases.
It also increases as the Angle of Attack increases, as more LIFT will
be generated.
It reduces with speed, as at speed you have a lower Angle of
Attack.
TOTAL DRAG = PARASITIC DRAG + INDUCED DRAG
DRAG
BAD DRAG
Drag can be a BAD thing, and needs to be kept to a minimum;
such as when gliding.
Every time you move a control surface you increase drag.
GOOD DRAG
Drag can be a GOOD thing, as it can be used on some aircraft
controls such as glider ‘Spoilers’.
These destroy the lift on part of the wing, and slow the aircraft’s
descent.
GOOD DRAG
Drag is also used on ‘Air Brakes’.
The Red Arrows perform much of their routine with the Air Brakes
deployed.
This is because the jet engine is slow to accelerate if they need extra
power. Closing the Air Brakes instantly accelerates the aircraft.
How a wing works
Aircraft fly due to lift produced by their wings. The shape of a
wing is designed to create different pressures between its lower
and upper surface as the wing moves through the air.
As the wing changes speed, the amount of lift varies; becoming
greater the faster the wing travels through the air.
How a wing works
The wing generates different
pressures across its surface.
These pressures vary depending on
the angle at which the wing is
presented to the airflow.
This angle is called the ‘Angle of
Attack’.
The point at which all of these
pressures can be said to act is called
the ‘Centre of Pressure’.
How a wing works
As the Angle of Attack is increased,
more lift is generated, and the
Centre of Pressure moves towards
the front of the wing.
This continues until the angle
becomes too great, at which point
the lift generated starts to decrease.
This angle is called the ‘Critical
Angle’. For most training aircraft
this is around 15-16 degrees.
At this point the wing begins to
‘Stall’, as the airflow over the wing
becomes turbulent.
How a wing works: Stall
Turbulent air can be felt building up
during the stall, and feels like the
aircraft is being buffeted.
Most aircraft have a device called a
‘Stall Warning’, which typically alerts
the pilot by a horn sounding a few
degrees before the wing stalls.
Beyond the Critical Angle, or ‘Stalling
Angle’, the Centre of Pressure (which
has gradually been moving forwards
with increasing angle of attack)
suddenly moves rearwards.
How a wing works: Stall
The effect of the Centre
of Pressure moving
rearwards is to
automatically lower the
nose of the aircraft;
which is one of the stall
recovery procedures.
Aircraft stall due to
having too low an air
speed for the given
Angle of Attack.
How a wing works: Stall
Flying Circuits: Objective Progress
• Understand the four forces affecting aircraft in flight
• Understand how aircraft wings generate lift
• Understand the three axis of flight & aircraft controls
• Identify the ‘six pack’ aircraft instruments, their operation & use
• Understand the circuit
• Understand when & where to use radio
Aircraft Controls
Three Axis of Flight
An aircraft moves in three axis during flight. These are the
Longitudinal Axis, the Lateral Axis, and the Vertical (or Normal) Axis
Flight Controls: Pitch
ELEVATORS
Elevators, usually located at
the rear of the aircraft’s
fuselage .
They make the aircraft
‘pitch’ upwards or
downwards.
They either increase or
decrease the lift at the rear
of the aircraft.
Destroying lift at the rear
makes the nose point
upwards.
Flight Controls: Roll
Ailerons
Most aircraft have ailerons on
the wings, usually located at the
outboard ends although
airliners often have a second set
located near the wing root.
They make the aircraft ‘roll’ left
or right by either increasing or
decreasing the lift on each
wing.
Spoliers do the same thing on
fighter aircraft such as Tornado.
Flight Controls: Yaw
Rudder
The Rudder forms part of the
vertical stabiliser usually located at
the rear of the aircraft’s fuselage.
The rudder ‘yaws’ the aircraft left
or right using the rudder pedals.
The brakes are fitted to the end of
the rudder pedals.
Yawing the aircraft will make it
bank in the same direction.
Flying Circuits
How aircraft turn
To turn an aircraft the
pilot uses the control
column or yokes to create
LESS lift on the wing in
the direction they wish to
travel, and MORE lift on
the wing on the opposite
side to which they want
to turn.
This is called ‘Banking’
the aircraft.
How do aircraft change
direction?
How aircraft turn: Controls
How do aircraft change
direction?
The turn is made tighter
by adding an upward
force to the ELEVATORS.
The RUDDER provides
balance to the input of
the AILERON input.
This means that in effect
ALL of the aircraft`s
controls are used to make
a ‘coordinated’ turn.
TURNING
Lift during a turn:
During a turn the ailerons on each wing operate in different
directions.
This reduces the lift on the wing in the direction of the turn, and
increases the lift on the other wing. The Rudder acts similarly.
Aileron UP
LIFT reduced
Wing falls
LIFT increased
Aileron DOWN
Wing rises
How aircraft turn: Instruments
In a coordinated turn the
ball in the ‘Turn and Slip
Indicator’ will stay in the
middle.
Should the ball move from
the middle, it can be
‘balanced’ by more or less
RUDDER input depending on
which way the ball moves.
How do aircraft change
direction?
How aircraft turn: Instruments
During a turn the ‘Artificial
Horizon’ indicator will
show you how much the
aircraft has ‘banked’ over.
The orange arrow shows
that the aircraft is doing a
10 degree bank to the left.
The left wing will be lower
than the right wing, and
the aircraft is turning left.
How do aircraft change
direction?
How aircraft turn: Instruments
In real world flying, the
greater the angle of bank,
the more gravity, or ‘G’
affects the aircraft.
This makes the aircraft feel
heavier, and means that the
wings need to generate
more lift.
To make up for this, extra
power has to be applied by
the engine in banks over 30
degrees.
How do aircraft change
direction?
Flying Circuits: Objective Progress
• Understand the four forces affecting aircraft in flight
• Understand how aircraft wings generate lift
• Understand the three axis of flight & aircraft controls
• Identify the ‘six pack’ aircraft instruments, their operation & use
• Understand the circuit
• Learn how to join the circuit
• Understand when & where to use radio
Flaps
Remember the Forces on an aircraft?
Flaps increase BOTH Lift and Drag
Flaps: Use
Flaps are used on some aircraft to take-off, and all aircraft to land.
Flaps are either used as ‘Lift Flaps’, providing an increase in Lift
for a small increase in Drag.
Or; as ‘Drag Flaps’, providing a small increase in Lift for a large
increase in Drag.
• Lift Flaps are used during take off and the approach to landing.
Lift flaps are the first stage of flap (10 Degrees in a Cessna 150);
• Drag Flaps are used during landing. Drag flaps help to slow the
aircraft down during the landing phase. ( 30 Degrees in a
Cessna 150).
Remember the Lift Equation?
Coefficient
of lift
Air Density Area of
wing
Velocity
Increased using
Fowler Flaps
Improved
using Flaps
Flaps: Types
Several different types
including:
• Plain;
• Split;
• Slotted ( and multi slotted);
• Fowler.
Each type has its benefits and
drawbacks.
Flaps: Types
Multi-slotted ‘Fowler’ flaps on an airliner.
These flaps change the chord line ( and hence the lift), and
also increase the wing area.
Flaps: Types
Multi-slotted Fowler Flaps and Leading Edge Slats on a Tornado.
The flaps retract automatically when the wings sweep back.
Flaps: Types
Slotted Plain Flaps on a Bae Hawk.
Flaps: Types
Split Flaps on the Hawker Hurricane.
The flaps change the chord line ( and hence the lift), but NOT the
wing area. Note how they do not affect the upper wing.
Flaps: Use during take off
Flaps alter the aircraft`s ‘Stall Speed’, by increasing the Lift
generated by the wing.
The also add drag, so alter the take off angle.
With Lift Flaps deployed, the aircraft will take off sooner, at a
lower speed. It will however climb at a shallower angle due to the
extra drag.
Flaps: Use during landing
Flaps alter the aircraft`s ‘Stall Speed’, by increasing the Lift
generated by the wing.
The also add drag, so alter the landing angle.
With Drag Flaps deployed, the aircraft can fly slower and
approach the runway at a steeper angle.
A no-flap landing is faster and almost flat.
Flaps: Use during landing
Flaps alter the aircraft`s approach angle by allowing the aircraft to
fly at a steeper approach attitude, while maintaining a slower
approach speed.
The also allow the aircraft to fly at a nose down attitude.
When landing
without flaps the
approach is
almost flat. The
approach speed
is also higher
Aircraft Instruments
Flying Circuits : Flight Instruments
The ‘Six Pack’. Air Speed Indicator, Artificial Horizon, Altimeter, Turn
/ Slip Indicator, Direction Indicator and Vertical Speed Indicator.
Flight Instruments: How they work
• Two types of Flight
Instrument:
o Gyroscopic
Instruments
o Pressure
Instruments
WHICH are which?
Flight Instruments: Pressure Instruments
Altimeter
Shows if your altitude.
Vertical Speed
Indicator (VSI)
Shows the aircraft’s rate
of climb or sink.
Air Speed Indicator
Shows your aircraft`s speed.
Can be MPH or Knots.
Flight Instruments: Pressure Instruments
Two types of Air Pressure
There are TWO types of air pressure that
are used in Aircraft Instruments.
These are:
• Dynamic Pressure: Moving
• Static Pressure: Stationary, or ‘Static’
Flight Instruments: Pressure Instruments
Dynamic Pressure
This is ‘moving’ pressure.
The faster you go, the
higher the pressure gets.
When you ride your bike
you feel this pressure in
your face.
A ‘Pitot’ tube facing
forwards from the aircraft
senses this Dynamic
Pressure.
Flight Instruments: Pressure Instruments
Static Pressure
This is ‘stationary’ pressure.
This is the pressure of the
air that you feel on you,
without noticing it.
A ‘Static vents’ are usually
placed on the fuselage sides
to sense the Static Pressure.
There are usually one each
side so as to average the
pressure as it may be
different each side during a
turn.
Flight Instruments: Pressure Instruments
Static Air Pressure
Static Pressure reduces with altitude.
Think of a giant tube filled with air.
The air has a weight, and the closer
to the bottom of the tube you stand,
the heavier that weight of air will be.
The air will be more ‘Dense’.
This is sea level, so the air pressure
and density are greatest at sea level,
and reduces the higher up you go.
Aircraft instruments use this change
in pressure.
Pressure Instruments: Altimeter
Shows the aircraft’s Altitude ( or height).
Uses the STATIC pressure of the air, converted
into height ( usually in feet).
Has THREE indicator arrows:
Large – 20 ft increments
Medium – 200 ft
Small – Shows as a flag below 10,000’
Gauge shows what altitude?
2,920 feet
Pressure Instruments: Altimeter
Consider:
• Does air pressure change during a flight?
• Can air pressure be different at your
landing airfield to the one at which you
took off from?
Yes; it does so when you radio the tower during your landing
approach they will provide you with the local air pressure value.
This is called ‘QFE’.
When you fly the simulator you should reset the altimeter to this
new pressure using the dial on the ASI at the 7 o’clock position.
Notice how this appears to alter your altitude.
Altimeter : Just to confuse you
In aviation we use three
types of reading for
altitude:
• QNE: The pressure
altitude from the ISA
standard day of 1013
hPa (mB)
• QNH: The pressure
altitude from sea level
• QFE: Actual pressure at
the airfield
We use QFE at the airfield
for our circuits.
Pressure: Air Speed Indicator (ASI)
Uses STATIC pressure & DYNAMIC
pressure.
The Dynamic pressure as sensed also
includes the Static pressure that was
around the aircraft.
By subtracting the Static Pressure from
the figure sensed by the Pitot Probe the
true Dynamic Pressure can be
determined.
This is then converted to the speed of the
aircraft on the instrument.
This is converted by the Air Speed
Indicator into the Aircraft’s (True) Air
Speed.
The ASI shows the aircraft to be
flying at 130 Knots.
Pressure: Air Speed Indicator (ASI)
Pressure sensed by the Pitot = Dynamic Pressure & Static Pressure
Pressure sensed by the Pitot – Static Pressure = Dynamic Pressure
The ASI shows the aircraft to be
flying at 130 Knots.
• The GREEN arc shows the normal
flying speed of the aircraft.
• The AMBER arc shows the
caution range. You can fly at this
speed in still air, gently.
• The RED arc is the never exceed
speed. Do not fly faster than this.
Pressure: Air Speed Indicator (ASI)
Pressure: Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI)
Uses STATIC pressure.
This instrument shows the rate at
which the aircraft is climbing or
sinking.
It usually displays hundreds of feet
per minute.
The instrument shows the aircraft
is climbing at just over 700 feet a
minute.
This instrument is especially useful
when gliding, as it shows when you
have entered a ‘Thermal’.
Flight Instruments: Gyroscopic Instruments
Turn & Slip Indicator
Shows if your aircraft is
making a coordinated turn
Direction Indicator
Shows the direction your
aircraft is flying
Artificial Horizon
Provides an artificial horizon
to show the attitude at
which your aircraft is flying
Flight Instruments: Gyroscopic Instruments
What is a Gyro?
A Gyro is a device that
features a rotating mass fitted
to a ‘gimbal’.
This has the effect of making
the device remain in a fixed
point when it is spinning.
It can also be used to sense
movement in any direction.
Because of this it is used in a
variety of aircraft instruments.
Flight Instruments: Gyroscopic Instruments
Aircraft instruments fitted with
Gyros sense the movement of
the aircraft in the axis of
movement.
For example; one gyro is fitted
to sense the aircraft when it
pitches, and one is fitted to
sense when it rolls.
Flight Instruments: Artificial Horizon
The Artificial Horizon (AI), as the
name suggests, provides the
pilot with an ‘artificial’ horizon.
This is particularly useful when
they can`t see the real horizon
during a climb, turn or during
bad weather.
The brown area simulates the
ground, and the blue area
simulates the sky.
The AI shown here indicates
that the left wing is low, but you
are not climbing or diving.
Flight Instruments: Artificial Horizon
The orange arrow and the scale above
it shows the angle at which you are
banking.
The AI shown here indicates that the
aircraft is making a 10 degree turn to
the left.
To fly straight and level, the orange
bars should line up with the white line
between the white section and the
brown section of the instrument.
This will place the orange arrow on
the zero degrees mark at the top of
the instrument.
Flight Instruments: Turn/ Slip Indicator
The Turn and slip indicator
shows the pilot whether they
are balancing the turn of the
aircraft by using all of the
controls, or ‘slipping’ the
aircraft through the air.
Slipping can be thought of as
being similar to when a car
slides sideways during a turn.
Flight Instruments: Direction Indicator (DI)
The Direction Indicator is your
compass, but this one is
stabilised by gyros.
The normal magnetic compass
will only show true when it is
level, whereas the DI works also
when the aircraft is not straight
and level.
This needs to be lined up with
the magnetic compass regularly
during your flight.
This should form part of your
FREDA checks.
Do you recognise the instruments in
this Cessna 172 cockpit?
Flying Circuits: Objective Progress
• Understand the four forces affecting aircraft in flight
• Understand how aircraft wings generate lift
• Understand the three axis of flight & aircraft controls
• Identify the ‘six pack’ aircraft instruments, operation & use
• Understand the circuit
• Learn how to join the circuit
• Understand when & where to use radio
The Circuit
Flying in the circuit
Most aircraft accidents happen near airfields, so to make take-offs
and landings safer all runways operate a system called a ‘Circuit’.
The circuit direction changes depending on the take-off direction.
The take-off direction depends on the wind, as aircraft should take of
into the wind.
The circuit is named after the runway direction (08) and the
flying direction, left shown here.
Flying in the circuit
The circuit has five components. These are:
• Take-off leg
• Crosswind leg
• Downwind leg
• Base Leg
• Final Leg, or ‘Finals’
Flying in the circuit: Take-off & Crosswind Legs
During these phases of flight the pilot should be ensuring that the
aircraft is at it`s best rate of climb speed as it climbs to circuit height.
The turn from take-off leg to crosswind leg usually takes place at
about 500 feet.
Flying in the circuit: Beginning of the flight
Beginning from the place at which the
aircraft is parked, you should call Air
Traffic Control and request permission to
start your aircraft.
They will advise the Fire Department.
“Airport Tower. [CALLSIGN].”
“ [CALLSIGN] is a Grob Tutor. One person on board.
Request Start and Radio Check”
“ [CALLSIGN] You are cleared to start. Readability Five.”
TOWER SAYS
“Go ahead [CALLSIGN]”
Flying in the circuit: Take-off & Crosswind Legs
After you have started the engine and
performed a series of checks to make
sure that everything is working, you ask
for permission to ‘Taxi’ to the runway.
Air Traffic Control will grant this and
advise of runway direction, wind /
direction and air pressures (QFE / QNH).
“ [CALLSIGN] You are cleared to taxi to Holding Point Alpha
via the taxiway. Runway 25 Left in use. Wind 06 kts
270 degrees. QFE 1015 mb. QFE 1003 mb. Squark 7000. ”
“ [CALLSIGN]. Request Taxi”.
This is a lot of information to remember so write it down. You also
need to repeat this to Air Trafic Control, who will correct you if you
have made a mistake.
Flying in the circuit: Take-off & Crosswind Legs
This is your ‘Transponder
Code’. The aircraft
broadcasts this to help
Radar identify you.
“ [CALLSIGN] You are cleared to taxi to Holding Point Alpha
via the taxiway. Runway 25 Left in use. Wind 06 kts
270 degrees. QNH 1015 mb. QFE 1003 mb. Squark 7000. ”
Notice that the wind
direction is almost
straight down the runway
Notice that the QNH (as it
is sea level) is higher
pressure than the airfield,
as it is not at sea level.
Flying in the circuit: Holding Point
You should now taxi to the
taxiway and carry out engine
power checks before lining up
at the Holding Point.
This is a line across the taxiway
marked with a letter; ‘A’ in this
case.
You then call the ‘Tower’.
“ [CALLSIGN]. Ready for
departure”.
[TOWER] “ [CALLSIGN] Line up and wait”
The ‘Tower’ will ask you to line up on the runway, but not take off
[YOU] “Line up and wait [CALLSIGN] ”
Flying in the circuit: Take Off
When it is safe, the ‘Tower’ will
give you permission to take off.
“ [CALLSIGN] Cleared for
take off. Wind 06 kts
270 degrees”
Notice that they will repeat the
wind, as it may have changed.
You repeat the clearance.
“ Cleared take off
[CALLSIGN]”.
NOW IT GETS
EXCITING !!
Flying in the circuit: Take Off
• Ensure your brakes are OFF and the steering is CENTRED;
• Apply FULL THROTTLE and the aircraft will start to move;
• Accelerate to Take OFF Velocity, ( Cessna 150, 55kts);
Flying in the circuit: Take Off
• At your Take OFF Velocity (V2)
ease back on the controls and the
aircraft will begin to lift off the
runway;
• Adjust the aircraft attitude to
achieve the best rate of climb,
( Cessna 150, 65kts.)
• If you are going too fast then
ease the controls back
further.
• If you are going too slowly
then push the controls
forwards to reduce the angle
at which you are climbing.
Flying in the circuit: Take Off
• Use the Artificial Horizon to ensure
that your wings are level ( unless
you are taking off in a crosswind).
There will be no crosswind in the
simulator.
• Note the Vertical Speed Indicator
will be showing a positive rate of
climb.
Flying in the circuit: Take Off
• Use the Direction Indicator to ensure that
you are still in line with the runway as you
climb. You won`t be able to see it.
• In this example you took off from Runway
25 Left, so you should be flying a heading
of 250 degrees.
• Check your Turn & Slip Indicator
occasionally to make sure all your
movements are coordinated.
Flying in the circuit: Take Off
• At about 500’ carry out a slight 90 degree LEFT turn ( as the circuit
direction is left) onto the Crosswind Leg. Turn no sharper than 10
degrees of bank;
• Continue climbing until Circuit Height
• Once at Circuit Height, level the aircraft`s attitude, let the speed
climb to cruise speed ( Cessna 150, 80kts) then reduce the throttle
to cruise power ( about 60%).
Flying in the circuit: Downwind Leg
The downwind leg is when you fly parallel to the runway.
Airfields have a stated ‘circuit height’. This is the height that you will
be at when flying the downwind leg.
The circuit height at St Athan is 800’, whereas the circuit height at
Swansea is 1000’.
Flying in the circuit: Downwind Leg
During the downwind leg you should:
Call Air Traffic Control to report your intension; for example:
“ [Callsign] Downwind to land”
Flying in the circuit: Downwind Leg
During the downwind leg you
should assess the airfield,
and decide if it is safe on
which to land.
You should also call Air Traffic
Control to report your
intension; for example:
You should also check that
your aircraft is safe to land by
carrying out the BUMFICH
checks.
“ [Callsign] Downwind to land”
Air Traffic Control will
probably ask you to report
when you are on ‘Finals’.
Your reply is:
“Wilco [ Callsign] ”
Flying in the circuit: BUMFICH Checks
B Brakes Operational
U Undercarriage Down
M Engine Fuel Mixture set to RICH
F Fuel. Sufficient for a go-around
I Instruments. Altimeter set to airfield ‘QFE’
C Carburettor heat to hot ( to stop icing)
H Hatches & Harnesses secure
Flying in the circuit: Base Leg
Following the downwind leg you turn 90 degrees onto the Base Leg.
Here you begin your descent to land.
Generally you need to apply carburettor and then heat reduce the
throttle / engine revs ( from 2100 to 1700 in a Cessna 150) and start
lowering your flaps.
Lowering your flaps will slow the aircraft down, by providing more drag.
They will also provide more list at the slower speed at which you are
flying.
Once flaps and throttle are set you should Trim the aircraft to it`s landing
speed. ( 65 kts in a Cessna 150).
At St Athan your height should drop from 800’ on the downwind leg to
between 400 ft – 500 ft when you turn onto Finals.
Watch your AIRSPEED. It can drop off too quickly. If it does add throttle.
Flying in the circuit: Final Leg, or ‘Finals’
Just before the wingtip lines up
with the runway you should
turn 90 degrees onto the Final
Leg.
Here you begin your descent to
actually land on the runway.
Balance your height for speed.
Point the nose of the aircraft
down if you are too slow.
If you are too fast reduce your
throttle / engine revs.
You may need to lower your
flaps another setting if you are
too high on the approach.
WATCH
YOUR
SPEED
Flying in the circuit: Final Leg, or ‘Finals’
You should call Air Traffic
Control to let them know that
you are ‘On Finals’. “Finals to land”.
[Callsign]Air Traffic Control will either
clear you to land, and tell you
the wind speed and direction,
or tell you to ‘Continue’.
‘Continue’ does NOT give you
permission to land.
Air Traffic Control may tell you to
‘Go around’ if it is not safe to land.
If this happens apply full throttle
and begin to climb and re-fly the
circuit.
Flying in the circuit: Landing
At about the height of a double-
decker bus you should ‘Flare’.
This means that you should no
longer be facing downwards. You
should start to fly the aircraft
parallel along the runway.
The aircraft speed will drop off,
and as it does it will get closer to
the ground.
You should ease back on the
controls as it does this to raise
the nose slightly.
If all goes well the mainwheels will
touch the ground just before the
nose wheels.
WATCH YOUR SPEED
Flying in the circuit: Landing
You should look at the far end
of the runway once you have
flared, not the area directly in
front of you.
In a REAL aircraft you will feel
the ‘Ground Effect’ once you
are nearly on the ground.
This will greatly reduce your
drag and make you feel like the
aircraft is floating.
Keep the controls back and
allow the aircraft to sink gently
into this.
DO NOT POINT DOWN.
Flying in the circuit: Landing
Notice how the aircraft should ‘flare’ during landing, and the
AoA increases as speed decreases.
Flying in the circuit: Landing
Once you have touched
down safely steer the aircraft
using the Rudder pedals.
These are attached to the
nosewheel steering., so will
steer the aircraft on the
ground.
Slow the aircraft down by
applying the brakes, which
are fitted to the toe end of
the rudder pedals.
You can steer also by using
one brake only at a time.
Flying in the circuit: Shutting Down
Once you have taxied to where
you are parking the aircraft you
should stop and apply the Parking
Brake.
You should then carry out the
checks on the aircraft before
shutting down the engine.
To stop the engine pull the
MIXTURE lever to fully LEAN.
This will starve the engine of fuel.
Once the engine stops, turn off
the ignition and place the key on
the dash board.
Flying in the circuit: Radio (Pilot)
“Finals to land”
[Callsign]
“Downwind to land”.
[Callsign]
BUMFICH
Flying in the circuit: Radio (Air Traffic Control)
“[Callsign]
Cleared to land.
[Wind & Direction]
“[Callsign]
Call Finals”
Flying Circuits: Objective Progress
• Understand the four forces affecting aircraft in flight
• Understand how aircraft wings generate lift
• Understand the three axis of flight & aircraft controls
• Identify the ‘six pack’ aircraft instruments, operation & use
• Understand the circuit
• Learn how to fly the circuit
• Understand when & where to use radio
EXERCISE:
Use simulator to
practice flying a
circuit
The Over Head Join
MOST aircraft crashes happen at
or near air fields.
When joining the circuit at an
unfamiliar or busy air field you can
request the ‘Tower’ to allow you
to join in the ‘Overhead’.
In this case you fly into the
airfield’s ‘Control Zone’ ( the area
looked after by Air Traffic Control),
at a height above that of the
circuit.
This is normally around 2000’.
This allows you to have a good,
safe look at what is happening on
the ground and in the circuit.
The Over Head Join
You should fly at 2000’ over the
Downwind Leg, and aim to cross
the ‘Piano Keys’ at the end of the
runway where aircraft are landing
at this height.
You should the descend on the
‘Dead Side’ of the airfield, calling
your position.
The Dead Side is the side opposite
to the Downwind Leg.
Fly over the piano keys at the
Crosswind end of the runway at
Circuit Height.
This places you on the Crosswind
Leg at the correct circuit height.
The Over Head Join
“Dead side,
descending”.
[Callsign]
The Over Head Join
Flying Circuits: Objective Progress
• Understand the four forces affecting aircraft in flight
• Understand how aircraft wings generate lift
• Understand the three axis of flight & aircraft controls
• Identify the ‘six pack’ aircraft instruments, operation & use
• Understand the circuit
• Learn how to join the circuit
• Understand when & where to use radio telephony
EXERCISE:
Use the
simulator to
land using an
Overhead Join
Radio Telephony
When you have your Air Experience
Flight you will hear the Pilot talking
to Air Traffic Control.
This is part of ‘Radio Telephony’;
the use of radio equipment.
We have practiced this throughout
these exercises.
Radio Telephony
But what happens if the radio fails?
Radio Telephony
If you loose radio contact with the
‘Tower’ they can use a bright light
to communicate with you.
But HOW do they know?
Aircraft are usually fitted with a ‘Transponder’ that transmits an
identifying signal that is seen on radar screens.
Modern Transponders can report the aircraft altitude (Mode C),
and some are able to warn of traffic proximity (Mode S).
The digits run from 0000 to 7777, and each Air Traffic unit has
its own code.
Radio Telephony: Transponder
The Transponder is normally selected to 7000 in the UK
until allocated a four digit code by Air Traffic Control.
This is referred to as ‘Squark’. For example: “Squawk 7000”.
DLH – Deutsche Lufthansa
1670 – transponder code
H – Heavy
A340 – Aircraft type
EDDL – Europe, Deutschland, Dusseldorf
220 - altitude (Mode C)
240 - airspeed
FL280 - allocated flight level (28,000 ft)
Radio Telephony: Transponder
If radio failure occurs, aircraft
should select and squawk 7600.
The Transponder return on radar is shown above
There are standard ‘7 Codes’ used by aircraft. These are:
Radio Telephony: Transponder ‘7’ Codes
7000: Standard code in UK if no other has been allocated
7004: Aerobatic display code (UK)
7500: Aircraft hijacking (WORLDWIDE)
7600: Radio Failure
7700: Emergency (WORLDWIDE)
Radio Telephony: Radio Discipline
As with all types of radio use, there are certain rules that
make your transmissions easier to understand.
It is good Airmanship to maintain radio discipline, “No need
to transmit, is need enough not to transmit”.
• Do not ‘trample’ on someone else’s call. Wait for a gap;
• Keep radio transmissions brief and to the point
ONLY TRANSMIT IF YOU NEED
TO COMMUNICATE
• Be ready to relay a radio message if you can hear both
stations, but one of them is unable to hear the other. This
might be in event of a ‘MAYDAY’ call.
Radio Telephony:
RADIO
TRANSPONDER
RADIO
TRANSMIT
BUTTON
Flying Circuits: Objective Progress
• Understand the four forces affecting aircraft in flight
• Understand how aircraft wings generate lift
• Understand the three axis of flight & aircraft controls
• Identify the ‘six pack’ aircraft instruments, operation & use
• Understand the circuit
• Learn how to join the circuit
• Understand when & where to use radio telephony

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Flying Circuits

  • 2. CAUTION: THIS PRESENTATION IS DESIGNED TO TRAIN FOR SIMULATED FLIGHT AND INTEREST ONLY. PROPER FLIGHT TRAINING SHOULD BE GIVEN FOR ACTUAL FLIGHT.
  • 3. Flying Circuits: Objectives • Understand the four forces affecting aircraft in flight • Understand how aircraft wings generate lift • Understand the three axis of flight & aircraft controls • Identify the ‘six pack’ aircraft instruments, their operation & use • Understand the circuit • Learn how to join the circuit • Understand when & where to use radio
  • 4. What forces act on an aircraft?
  • 5. Forces on an aircraft: LIFT Four forces act on an aircraft.
  • 6. Forces on an aircraft: LIFT Four forces act on an aircraft. LIFT is generated by the wings and horizontal stabilizer.
  • 7. Forces on an aircraft: Weight The Lift generated by the wings balances what? In straight and level flight, LIFT balances the aircraft’s WEIGHT
  • 8. Lift: Lift Equation You can work out how much lift a wing produces using the equation: Coefficient of lift Air Density Area of wing Velocity
  • 9. Forces on an aircraft: Thrust The Engine generates what type of force? Engines provide THRUST that makes the aircraft move
  • 10. Forces on an aircraft: Drag What force acts to slow the aircraft down? DRAG slows the aircraft down, and acts in the opposite direction to THRUST
  • 11. DRAG: Induced Drag There are two types of Drag that act on an aircraft. INDUCED DRAG: This is a product of the wingtip ‘Vortices’, and increases as LIFT increases. It also increases as the Angle of Attack increases, as more LIFT will be generated. It reduces with speed, as at speed you have a lower Angle of Attack.
  • 12. DRAG: Induced Drag Wing Tip Vortices are caused by the HIGH PRESSURE air under a wing flowing to the LOW PRESSURE air over the wing
  • 13. DRAG: Induced Drag Wing Tip Vortices are largest at low speed / high angle of attack
  • 14. DRAG: Parasitic ( or Form) Drag PARASITIC DRAG: This type of Drag is due to the shape (or Form) of the aircraft. More streamlined objects produce less Parasitic Drag. This is why Olympic cyclists wear streamlined hats and smooth clothing. Parasitic Drag increases as the Speed increases. It reduces as speed decreases.
  • 15. There are two types of Drag that act on aircraft. They are: INDUCED DRAG: This is a product of the wingtip ‘Vortices’, and increases as LIFT increases. It also increases as the Angle of Attack increases, as more LIFT will be generated. It reduces with speed, as at speed you have a lower Angle of Attack. TOTAL DRAG = PARASITIC DRAG + INDUCED DRAG
  • 16. DRAG
  • 17. BAD DRAG Drag can be a BAD thing, and needs to be kept to a minimum; such as when gliding. Every time you move a control surface you increase drag.
  • 18. GOOD DRAG Drag can be a GOOD thing, as it can be used on some aircraft controls such as glider ‘Spoilers’. These destroy the lift on part of the wing, and slow the aircraft’s descent.
  • 19. GOOD DRAG Drag is also used on ‘Air Brakes’. The Red Arrows perform much of their routine with the Air Brakes deployed. This is because the jet engine is slow to accelerate if they need extra power. Closing the Air Brakes instantly accelerates the aircraft.
  • 20. How a wing works Aircraft fly due to lift produced by their wings. The shape of a wing is designed to create different pressures between its lower and upper surface as the wing moves through the air. As the wing changes speed, the amount of lift varies; becoming greater the faster the wing travels through the air.
  • 21. How a wing works The wing generates different pressures across its surface. These pressures vary depending on the angle at which the wing is presented to the airflow. This angle is called the ‘Angle of Attack’. The point at which all of these pressures can be said to act is called the ‘Centre of Pressure’.
  • 22. How a wing works As the Angle of Attack is increased, more lift is generated, and the Centre of Pressure moves towards the front of the wing. This continues until the angle becomes too great, at which point the lift generated starts to decrease. This angle is called the ‘Critical Angle’. For most training aircraft this is around 15-16 degrees. At this point the wing begins to ‘Stall’, as the airflow over the wing becomes turbulent.
  • 23. How a wing works: Stall Turbulent air can be felt building up during the stall, and feels like the aircraft is being buffeted. Most aircraft have a device called a ‘Stall Warning’, which typically alerts the pilot by a horn sounding a few degrees before the wing stalls. Beyond the Critical Angle, or ‘Stalling Angle’, the Centre of Pressure (which has gradually been moving forwards with increasing angle of attack) suddenly moves rearwards.
  • 24. How a wing works: Stall The effect of the Centre of Pressure moving rearwards is to automatically lower the nose of the aircraft; which is one of the stall recovery procedures. Aircraft stall due to having too low an air speed for the given Angle of Attack.
  • 25. How a wing works: Stall
  • 26. Flying Circuits: Objective Progress • Understand the four forces affecting aircraft in flight • Understand how aircraft wings generate lift • Understand the three axis of flight & aircraft controls • Identify the ‘six pack’ aircraft instruments, their operation & use • Understand the circuit • Understand when & where to use radio
  • 28. Three Axis of Flight An aircraft moves in three axis during flight. These are the Longitudinal Axis, the Lateral Axis, and the Vertical (or Normal) Axis
  • 29. Flight Controls: Pitch ELEVATORS Elevators, usually located at the rear of the aircraft’s fuselage . They make the aircraft ‘pitch’ upwards or downwards. They either increase or decrease the lift at the rear of the aircraft. Destroying lift at the rear makes the nose point upwards.
  • 30. Flight Controls: Roll Ailerons Most aircraft have ailerons on the wings, usually located at the outboard ends although airliners often have a second set located near the wing root. They make the aircraft ‘roll’ left or right by either increasing or decreasing the lift on each wing. Spoliers do the same thing on fighter aircraft such as Tornado.
  • 31. Flight Controls: Yaw Rudder The Rudder forms part of the vertical stabiliser usually located at the rear of the aircraft’s fuselage. The rudder ‘yaws’ the aircraft left or right using the rudder pedals. The brakes are fitted to the end of the rudder pedals. Yawing the aircraft will make it bank in the same direction.
  • 33. How aircraft turn To turn an aircraft the pilot uses the control column or yokes to create LESS lift on the wing in the direction they wish to travel, and MORE lift on the wing on the opposite side to which they want to turn. This is called ‘Banking’ the aircraft. How do aircraft change direction?
  • 34. How aircraft turn: Controls How do aircraft change direction? The turn is made tighter by adding an upward force to the ELEVATORS. The RUDDER provides balance to the input of the AILERON input. This means that in effect ALL of the aircraft`s controls are used to make a ‘coordinated’ turn.
  • 35. TURNING Lift during a turn: During a turn the ailerons on each wing operate in different directions. This reduces the lift on the wing in the direction of the turn, and increases the lift on the other wing. The Rudder acts similarly. Aileron UP LIFT reduced Wing falls LIFT increased Aileron DOWN Wing rises
  • 36. How aircraft turn: Instruments In a coordinated turn the ball in the ‘Turn and Slip Indicator’ will stay in the middle. Should the ball move from the middle, it can be ‘balanced’ by more or less RUDDER input depending on which way the ball moves. How do aircraft change direction?
  • 37. How aircraft turn: Instruments During a turn the ‘Artificial Horizon’ indicator will show you how much the aircraft has ‘banked’ over. The orange arrow shows that the aircraft is doing a 10 degree bank to the left. The left wing will be lower than the right wing, and the aircraft is turning left. How do aircraft change direction?
  • 38. How aircraft turn: Instruments In real world flying, the greater the angle of bank, the more gravity, or ‘G’ affects the aircraft. This makes the aircraft feel heavier, and means that the wings need to generate more lift. To make up for this, extra power has to be applied by the engine in banks over 30 degrees. How do aircraft change direction?
  • 39. Flying Circuits: Objective Progress • Understand the four forces affecting aircraft in flight • Understand how aircraft wings generate lift • Understand the three axis of flight & aircraft controls • Identify the ‘six pack’ aircraft instruments, their operation & use • Understand the circuit • Learn how to join the circuit • Understand when & where to use radio
  • 40. Flaps
  • 41. Remember the Forces on an aircraft? Flaps increase BOTH Lift and Drag
  • 42. Flaps: Use Flaps are used on some aircraft to take-off, and all aircraft to land. Flaps are either used as ‘Lift Flaps’, providing an increase in Lift for a small increase in Drag. Or; as ‘Drag Flaps’, providing a small increase in Lift for a large increase in Drag. • Lift Flaps are used during take off and the approach to landing. Lift flaps are the first stage of flap (10 Degrees in a Cessna 150); • Drag Flaps are used during landing. Drag flaps help to slow the aircraft down during the landing phase. ( 30 Degrees in a Cessna 150).
  • 43. Remember the Lift Equation? Coefficient of lift Air Density Area of wing Velocity Increased using Fowler Flaps Improved using Flaps
  • 44. Flaps: Types Several different types including: • Plain; • Split; • Slotted ( and multi slotted); • Fowler. Each type has its benefits and drawbacks.
  • 45. Flaps: Types Multi-slotted ‘Fowler’ flaps on an airliner. These flaps change the chord line ( and hence the lift), and also increase the wing area.
  • 46. Flaps: Types Multi-slotted Fowler Flaps and Leading Edge Slats on a Tornado. The flaps retract automatically when the wings sweep back.
  • 47. Flaps: Types Slotted Plain Flaps on a Bae Hawk.
  • 48. Flaps: Types Split Flaps on the Hawker Hurricane. The flaps change the chord line ( and hence the lift), but NOT the wing area. Note how they do not affect the upper wing.
  • 49. Flaps: Use during take off Flaps alter the aircraft`s ‘Stall Speed’, by increasing the Lift generated by the wing. The also add drag, so alter the take off angle. With Lift Flaps deployed, the aircraft will take off sooner, at a lower speed. It will however climb at a shallower angle due to the extra drag.
  • 50. Flaps: Use during landing Flaps alter the aircraft`s ‘Stall Speed’, by increasing the Lift generated by the wing. The also add drag, so alter the landing angle. With Drag Flaps deployed, the aircraft can fly slower and approach the runway at a steeper angle. A no-flap landing is faster and almost flat.
  • 51. Flaps: Use during landing Flaps alter the aircraft`s approach angle by allowing the aircraft to fly at a steeper approach attitude, while maintaining a slower approach speed. The also allow the aircraft to fly at a nose down attitude. When landing without flaps the approach is almost flat. The approach speed is also higher
  • 53. Flying Circuits : Flight Instruments The ‘Six Pack’. Air Speed Indicator, Artificial Horizon, Altimeter, Turn / Slip Indicator, Direction Indicator and Vertical Speed Indicator.
  • 54. Flight Instruments: How they work • Two types of Flight Instrument: o Gyroscopic Instruments o Pressure Instruments WHICH are which?
  • 55. Flight Instruments: Pressure Instruments Altimeter Shows if your altitude. Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI) Shows the aircraft’s rate of climb or sink. Air Speed Indicator Shows your aircraft`s speed. Can be MPH or Knots.
  • 56. Flight Instruments: Pressure Instruments Two types of Air Pressure There are TWO types of air pressure that are used in Aircraft Instruments. These are: • Dynamic Pressure: Moving • Static Pressure: Stationary, or ‘Static’
  • 57. Flight Instruments: Pressure Instruments Dynamic Pressure This is ‘moving’ pressure. The faster you go, the higher the pressure gets. When you ride your bike you feel this pressure in your face. A ‘Pitot’ tube facing forwards from the aircraft senses this Dynamic Pressure.
  • 58. Flight Instruments: Pressure Instruments Static Pressure This is ‘stationary’ pressure. This is the pressure of the air that you feel on you, without noticing it. A ‘Static vents’ are usually placed on the fuselage sides to sense the Static Pressure. There are usually one each side so as to average the pressure as it may be different each side during a turn.
  • 59. Flight Instruments: Pressure Instruments Static Air Pressure Static Pressure reduces with altitude. Think of a giant tube filled with air. The air has a weight, and the closer to the bottom of the tube you stand, the heavier that weight of air will be. The air will be more ‘Dense’. This is sea level, so the air pressure and density are greatest at sea level, and reduces the higher up you go. Aircraft instruments use this change in pressure.
  • 60. Pressure Instruments: Altimeter Shows the aircraft’s Altitude ( or height). Uses the STATIC pressure of the air, converted into height ( usually in feet). Has THREE indicator arrows: Large – 20 ft increments Medium – 200 ft Small – Shows as a flag below 10,000’ Gauge shows what altitude? 2,920 feet
  • 61. Pressure Instruments: Altimeter Consider: • Does air pressure change during a flight? • Can air pressure be different at your landing airfield to the one at which you took off from? Yes; it does so when you radio the tower during your landing approach they will provide you with the local air pressure value. This is called ‘QFE’. When you fly the simulator you should reset the altimeter to this new pressure using the dial on the ASI at the 7 o’clock position. Notice how this appears to alter your altitude.
  • 62. Altimeter : Just to confuse you In aviation we use three types of reading for altitude: • QNE: The pressure altitude from the ISA standard day of 1013 hPa (mB) • QNH: The pressure altitude from sea level • QFE: Actual pressure at the airfield We use QFE at the airfield for our circuits.
  • 63. Pressure: Air Speed Indicator (ASI) Uses STATIC pressure & DYNAMIC pressure. The Dynamic pressure as sensed also includes the Static pressure that was around the aircraft. By subtracting the Static Pressure from the figure sensed by the Pitot Probe the true Dynamic Pressure can be determined. This is then converted to the speed of the aircraft on the instrument.
  • 64. This is converted by the Air Speed Indicator into the Aircraft’s (True) Air Speed. The ASI shows the aircraft to be flying at 130 Knots. Pressure: Air Speed Indicator (ASI) Pressure sensed by the Pitot = Dynamic Pressure & Static Pressure Pressure sensed by the Pitot – Static Pressure = Dynamic Pressure
  • 65. The ASI shows the aircraft to be flying at 130 Knots. • The GREEN arc shows the normal flying speed of the aircraft. • The AMBER arc shows the caution range. You can fly at this speed in still air, gently. • The RED arc is the never exceed speed. Do not fly faster than this. Pressure: Air Speed Indicator (ASI)
  • 66. Pressure: Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI) Uses STATIC pressure. This instrument shows the rate at which the aircraft is climbing or sinking. It usually displays hundreds of feet per minute. The instrument shows the aircraft is climbing at just over 700 feet a minute. This instrument is especially useful when gliding, as it shows when you have entered a ‘Thermal’.
  • 67. Flight Instruments: Gyroscopic Instruments Turn & Slip Indicator Shows if your aircraft is making a coordinated turn Direction Indicator Shows the direction your aircraft is flying Artificial Horizon Provides an artificial horizon to show the attitude at which your aircraft is flying
  • 68. Flight Instruments: Gyroscopic Instruments What is a Gyro? A Gyro is a device that features a rotating mass fitted to a ‘gimbal’. This has the effect of making the device remain in a fixed point when it is spinning. It can also be used to sense movement in any direction. Because of this it is used in a variety of aircraft instruments.
  • 69. Flight Instruments: Gyroscopic Instruments Aircraft instruments fitted with Gyros sense the movement of the aircraft in the axis of movement. For example; one gyro is fitted to sense the aircraft when it pitches, and one is fitted to sense when it rolls.
  • 70. Flight Instruments: Artificial Horizon The Artificial Horizon (AI), as the name suggests, provides the pilot with an ‘artificial’ horizon. This is particularly useful when they can`t see the real horizon during a climb, turn or during bad weather. The brown area simulates the ground, and the blue area simulates the sky. The AI shown here indicates that the left wing is low, but you are not climbing or diving.
  • 71. Flight Instruments: Artificial Horizon The orange arrow and the scale above it shows the angle at which you are banking. The AI shown here indicates that the aircraft is making a 10 degree turn to the left. To fly straight and level, the orange bars should line up with the white line between the white section and the brown section of the instrument. This will place the orange arrow on the zero degrees mark at the top of the instrument.
  • 72. Flight Instruments: Turn/ Slip Indicator The Turn and slip indicator shows the pilot whether they are balancing the turn of the aircraft by using all of the controls, or ‘slipping’ the aircraft through the air. Slipping can be thought of as being similar to when a car slides sideways during a turn.
  • 73. Flight Instruments: Direction Indicator (DI) The Direction Indicator is your compass, but this one is stabilised by gyros. The normal magnetic compass will only show true when it is level, whereas the DI works also when the aircraft is not straight and level. This needs to be lined up with the magnetic compass regularly during your flight. This should form part of your FREDA checks.
  • 74. Do you recognise the instruments in this Cessna 172 cockpit?
  • 75. Flying Circuits: Objective Progress • Understand the four forces affecting aircraft in flight • Understand how aircraft wings generate lift • Understand the three axis of flight & aircraft controls • Identify the ‘six pack’ aircraft instruments, operation & use • Understand the circuit • Learn how to join the circuit • Understand when & where to use radio
  • 77. Flying in the circuit Most aircraft accidents happen near airfields, so to make take-offs and landings safer all runways operate a system called a ‘Circuit’. The circuit direction changes depending on the take-off direction. The take-off direction depends on the wind, as aircraft should take of into the wind. The circuit is named after the runway direction (08) and the flying direction, left shown here.
  • 78. Flying in the circuit The circuit has five components. These are: • Take-off leg • Crosswind leg • Downwind leg • Base Leg • Final Leg, or ‘Finals’
  • 79. Flying in the circuit: Take-off & Crosswind Legs During these phases of flight the pilot should be ensuring that the aircraft is at it`s best rate of climb speed as it climbs to circuit height. The turn from take-off leg to crosswind leg usually takes place at about 500 feet.
  • 80. Flying in the circuit: Beginning of the flight Beginning from the place at which the aircraft is parked, you should call Air Traffic Control and request permission to start your aircraft. They will advise the Fire Department. “Airport Tower. [CALLSIGN].” “ [CALLSIGN] is a Grob Tutor. One person on board. Request Start and Radio Check” “ [CALLSIGN] You are cleared to start. Readability Five.” TOWER SAYS “Go ahead [CALLSIGN]”
  • 81. Flying in the circuit: Take-off & Crosswind Legs After you have started the engine and performed a series of checks to make sure that everything is working, you ask for permission to ‘Taxi’ to the runway. Air Traffic Control will grant this and advise of runway direction, wind / direction and air pressures (QFE / QNH). “ [CALLSIGN] You are cleared to taxi to Holding Point Alpha via the taxiway. Runway 25 Left in use. Wind 06 kts 270 degrees. QFE 1015 mb. QFE 1003 mb. Squark 7000. ” “ [CALLSIGN]. Request Taxi”. This is a lot of information to remember so write it down. You also need to repeat this to Air Trafic Control, who will correct you if you have made a mistake.
  • 82. Flying in the circuit: Take-off & Crosswind Legs This is your ‘Transponder Code’. The aircraft broadcasts this to help Radar identify you. “ [CALLSIGN] You are cleared to taxi to Holding Point Alpha via the taxiway. Runway 25 Left in use. Wind 06 kts 270 degrees. QNH 1015 mb. QFE 1003 mb. Squark 7000. ” Notice that the wind direction is almost straight down the runway Notice that the QNH (as it is sea level) is higher pressure than the airfield, as it is not at sea level.
  • 83. Flying in the circuit: Holding Point You should now taxi to the taxiway and carry out engine power checks before lining up at the Holding Point. This is a line across the taxiway marked with a letter; ‘A’ in this case. You then call the ‘Tower’. “ [CALLSIGN]. Ready for departure”. [TOWER] “ [CALLSIGN] Line up and wait” The ‘Tower’ will ask you to line up on the runway, but not take off [YOU] “Line up and wait [CALLSIGN] ”
  • 84. Flying in the circuit: Take Off When it is safe, the ‘Tower’ will give you permission to take off. “ [CALLSIGN] Cleared for take off. Wind 06 kts 270 degrees” Notice that they will repeat the wind, as it may have changed. You repeat the clearance. “ Cleared take off [CALLSIGN]”. NOW IT GETS EXCITING !!
  • 85. Flying in the circuit: Take Off • Ensure your brakes are OFF and the steering is CENTRED; • Apply FULL THROTTLE and the aircraft will start to move; • Accelerate to Take OFF Velocity, ( Cessna 150, 55kts);
  • 86. Flying in the circuit: Take Off • At your Take OFF Velocity (V2) ease back on the controls and the aircraft will begin to lift off the runway; • Adjust the aircraft attitude to achieve the best rate of climb, ( Cessna 150, 65kts.) • If you are going too fast then ease the controls back further. • If you are going too slowly then push the controls forwards to reduce the angle at which you are climbing.
  • 87. Flying in the circuit: Take Off • Use the Artificial Horizon to ensure that your wings are level ( unless you are taking off in a crosswind). There will be no crosswind in the simulator. • Note the Vertical Speed Indicator will be showing a positive rate of climb.
  • 88. Flying in the circuit: Take Off • Use the Direction Indicator to ensure that you are still in line with the runway as you climb. You won`t be able to see it. • In this example you took off from Runway 25 Left, so you should be flying a heading of 250 degrees. • Check your Turn & Slip Indicator occasionally to make sure all your movements are coordinated.
  • 89. Flying in the circuit: Take Off • At about 500’ carry out a slight 90 degree LEFT turn ( as the circuit direction is left) onto the Crosswind Leg. Turn no sharper than 10 degrees of bank; • Continue climbing until Circuit Height • Once at Circuit Height, level the aircraft`s attitude, let the speed climb to cruise speed ( Cessna 150, 80kts) then reduce the throttle to cruise power ( about 60%).
  • 90. Flying in the circuit: Downwind Leg The downwind leg is when you fly parallel to the runway. Airfields have a stated ‘circuit height’. This is the height that you will be at when flying the downwind leg. The circuit height at St Athan is 800’, whereas the circuit height at Swansea is 1000’.
  • 91. Flying in the circuit: Downwind Leg During the downwind leg you should: Call Air Traffic Control to report your intension; for example: “ [Callsign] Downwind to land”
  • 92. Flying in the circuit: Downwind Leg During the downwind leg you should assess the airfield, and decide if it is safe on which to land. You should also call Air Traffic Control to report your intension; for example: You should also check that your aircraft is safe to land by carrying out the BUMFICH checks. “ [Callsign] Downwind to land” Air Traffic Control will probably ask you to report when you are on ‘Finals’. Your reply is: “Wilco [ Callsign] ”
  • 93. Flying in the circuit: BUMFICH Checks B Brakes Operational U Undercarriage Down M Engine Fuel Mixture set to RICH F Fuel. Sufficient for a go-around I Instruments. Altimeter set to airfield ‘QFE’ C Carburettor heat to hot ( to stop icing) H Hatches & Harnesses secure
  • 94. Flying in the circuit: Base Leg Following the downwind leg you turn 90 degrees onto the Base Leg. Here you begin your descent to land. Generally you need to apply carburettor and then heat reduce the throttle / engine revs ( from 2100 to 1700 in a Cessna 150) and start lowering your flaps. Lowering your flaps will slow the aircraft down, by providing more drag. They will also provide more list at the slower speed at which you are flying. Once flaps and throttle are set you should Trim the aircraft to it`s landing speed. ( 65 kts in a Cessna 150). At St Athan your height should drop from 800’ on the downwind leg to between 400 ft – 500 ft when you turn onto Finals. Watch your AIRSPEED. It can drop off too quickly. If it does add throttle.
  • 95. Flying in the circuit: Final Leg, or ‘Finals’ Just before the wingtip lines up with the runway you should turn 90 degrees onto the Final Leg. Here you begin your descent to actually land on the runway. Balance your height for speed. Point the nose of the aircraft down if you are too slow. If you are too fast reduce your throttle / engine revs. You may need to lower your flaps another setting if you are too high on the approach. WATCH YOUR SPEED
  • 96. Flying in the circuit: Final Leg, or ‘Finals’ You should call Air Traffic Control to let them know that you are ‘On Finals’. “Finals to land”. [Callsign]Air Traffic Control will either clear you to land, and tell you the wind speed and direction, or tell you to ‘Continue’. ‘Continue’ does NOT give you permission to land. Air Traffic Control may tell you to ‘Go around’ if it is not safe to land. If this happens apply full throttle and begin to climb and re-fly the circuit.
  • 97. Flying in the circuit: Landing At about the height of a double- decker bus you should ‘Flare’. This means that you should no longer be facing downwards. You should start to fly the aircraft parallel along the runway. The aircraft speed will drop off, and as it does it will get closer to the ground. You should ease back on the controls as it does this to raise the nose slightly. If all goes well the mainwheels will touch the ground just before the nose wheels. WATCH YOUR SPEED
  • 98. Flying in the circuit: Landing You should look at the far end of the runway once you have flared, not the area directly in front of you. In a REAL aircraft you will feel the ‘Ground Effect’ once you are nearly on the ground. This will greatly reduce your drag and make you feel like the aircraft is floating. Keep the controls back and allow the aircraft to sink gently into this. DO NOT POINT DOWN.
  • 99. Flying in the circuit: Landing Notice how the aircraft should ‘flare’ during landing, and the AoA increases as speed decreases.
  • 100. Flying in the circuit: Landing Once you have touched down safely steer the aircraft using the Rudder pedals. These are attached to the nosewheel steering., so will steer the aircraft on the ground. Slow the aircraft down by applying the brakes, which are fitted to the toe end of the rudder pedals. You can steer also by using one brake only at a time.
  • 101. Flying in the circuit: Shutting Down Once you have taxied to where you are parking the aircraft you should stop and apply the Parking Brake. You should then carry out the checks on the aircraft before shutting down the engine. To stop the engine pull the MIXTURE lever to fully LEAN. This will starve the engine of fuel. Once the engine stops, turn off the ignition and place the key on the dash board.
  • 102. Flying in the circuit: Radio (Pilot) “Finals to land” [Callsign] “Downwind to land”. [Callsign] BUMFICH
  • 103. Flying in the circuit: Radio (Air Traffic Control) “[Callsign] Cleared to land. [Wind & Direction] “[Callsign] Call Finals”
  • 104. Flying Circuits: Objective Progress • Understand the four forces affecting aircraft in flight • Understand how aircraft wings generate lift • Understand the three axis of flight & aircraft controls • Identify the ‘six pack’ aircraft instruments, operation & use • Understand the circuit • Learn how to fly the circuit • Understand when & where to use radio
  • 106. The Over Head Join
  • 107. MOST aircraft crashes happen at or near air fields. When joining the circuit at an unfamiliar or busy air field you can request the ‘Tower’ to allow you to join in the ‘Overhead’. In this case you fly into the airfield’s ‘Control Zone’ ( the area looked after by Air Traffic Control), at a height above that of the circuit. This is normally around 2000’. This allows you to have a good, safe look at what is happening on the ground and in the circuit. The Over Head Join
  • 108. You should fly at 2000’ over the Downwind Leg, and aim to cross the ‘Piano Keys’ at the end of the runway where aircraft are landing at this height. You should the descend on the ‘Dead Side’ of the airfield, calling your position. The Dead Side is the side opposite to the Downwind Leg. Fly over the piano keys at the Crosswind end of the runway at Circuit Height. This places you on the Crosswind Leg at the correct circuit height. The Over Head Join “Dead side, descending”. [Callsign]
  • 109. The Over Head Join
  • 110. Flying Circuits: Objective Progress • Understand the four forces affecting aircraft in flight • Understand how aircraft wings generate lift • Understand the three axis of flight & aircraft controls • Identify the ‘six pack’ aircraft instruments, operation & use • Understand the circuit • Learn how to join the circuit • Understand when & where to use radio telephony
  • 111. EXERCISE: Use the simulator to land using an Overhead Join
  • 113. When you have your Air Experience Flight you will hear the Pilot talking to Air Traffic Control. This is part of ‘Radio Telephony’; the use of radio equipment. We have practiced this throughout these exercises. Radio Telephony But what happens if the radio fails?
  • 114. Radio Telephony If you loose radio contact with the ‘Tower’ they can use a bright light to communicate with you. But HOW do they know?
  • 115. Aircraft are usually fitted with a ‘Transponder’ that transmits an identifying signal that is seen on radar screens. Modern Transponders can report the aircraft altitude (Mode C), and some are able to warn of traffic proximity (Mode S). The digits run from 0000 to 7777, and each Air Traffic unit has its own code. Radio Telephony: Transponder
  • 116. The Transponder is normally selected to 7000 in the UK until allocated a four digit code by Air Traffic Control. This is referred to as ‘Squark’. For example: “Squawk 7000”. DLH – Deutsche Lufthansa 1670 – transponder code H – Heavy A340 – Aircraft type EDDL – Europe, Deutschland, Dusseldorf 220 - altitude (Mode C) 240 - airspeed FL280 - allocated flight level (28,000 ft) Radio Telephony: Transponder If radio failure occurs, aircraft should select and squawk 7600. The Transponder return on radar is shown above
  • 117. There are standard ‘7 Codes’ used by aircraft. These are: Radio Telephony: Transponder ‘7’ Codes 7000: Standard code in UK if no other has been allocated 7004: Aerobatic display code (UK) 7500: Aircraft hijacking (WORLDWIDE) 7600: Radio Failure 7700: Emergency (WORLDWIDE)
  • 118. Radio Telephony: Radio Discipline As with all types of radio use, there are certain rules that make your transmissions easier to understand. It is good Airmanship to maintain radio discipline, “No need to transmit, is need enough not to transmit”. • Do not ‘trample’ on someone else’s call. Wait for a gap; • Keep radio transmissions brief and to the point ONLY TRANSMIT IF YOU NEED TO COMMUNICATE • Be ready to relay a radio message if you can hear both stations, but one of them is unable to hear the other. This might be in event of a ‘MAYDAY’ call.
  • 120. Flying Circuits: Objective Progress • Understand the four forces affecting aircraft in flight • Understand how aircraft wings generate lift • Understand the three axis of flight & aircraft controls • Identify the ‘six pack’ aircraft instruments, operation & use • Understand the circuit • Learn how to join the circuit • Understand when & where to use radio telephony

Editor's Notes

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  20. Ref~: Pooleys ‘The Airplane – Technical’, 7th Edition, P147
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  63. Cessna 150 Cockpit
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