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SUBJECT : ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR
{ASSIGNMENT}
SUBMITTED BY: ALTAF HUSSAIN DEADED
MCA 2ND
SEMS
20045110048
SUBMITTED TO: DR SANIYA MAAM

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What is Transactional Analysis in Organisational Behaviour?
Explain the following three types of transactional analysis:
Complementary, crossed and ulterior.
Organizational Behavior (OB) can be defined as the understanding, prediction and management of human
behavior both individually or in a group that occur within an organization.
Internal and external perspectives are the two theories of how organizational behavior can be viewed from an
organization’s point of view. In this tutorial, we will be learning in detail about both the theories.
Importance of OB
While working in an organization, it is very important to understand others behavior as well as make others
understand ours. In order to maintain a healthy working environment, we need to adapt to the environment
and understand the goals we need to achieve. This can be done easily if we understand the importance of OB.
Following points bring out the importance of OB −
 It helps in explaining the interpersonal relationships employees share with each other as well as with
their higher and lower subordinates.
 The prediction of individual behavior can be explained.
 It balances the cordial relationship in an enterprise by maintaining effective communication.
 It assists in marketing.
 It helps managers to encourage their sub-ordinates.
 Any change within the organization can be made easier.
 It helps in predicting human behavior & their application to achieve organizational goals.
 It helps in making the organization more effective.
Thus studying organizational behavior helps in recognizing the patterns of human behavior and in turn throw
light on how these patterns profoundly influence the performance of an organization.

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Transactional Analysis:
Transactional Analysis by Late Dr. Eric Berne is a highly effective and popular psychological theory developed in
the 1970s. Understanding Transactional
Analysis (also known as TA) is beneficial for every person. You could be a professional doing a regular job
routine, an entrepreneur, a student, or a homemaker! You could be anyone looking to improve your
communication with self and others using the TA model. Transactional Analysis elevates your thinking to a high
level while raising awareness so you can understand your own difficult and dysfunctional behaviors and
communication patterns to develop deeper connections with self and the world. Isn’t that truly life-changing?
Imagine being in control of the results you want and having a deep understanding of people and relationships
TYPES OF TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS:
The three different types of transaction are:
1. Complementary,
2. Crossed, and
3. Ulterior
 Complementary Transactions:
A complementary transaction occurs when the sender of the message gets the intended response from the
Employee `I just dropped the thing when I was almost done. Now I have to do it all over again.'
receiver. For example, an employee makes a mistake and, wanting some sympathy, apologizes to the boss.
Supervisor `It happens to all of us; don't worry about it.' This complementary transaction is illustrated below
SUPERVISOR EMPLOYEE
P

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A
C
Another example of a complementary transaction isa supervisor who wants a job done and delegates it,
expecting the employee to do it. The supervisor behaves on an adult-to-adult level. Supervisor `please
get this order ready for me by two o'clock.' Employee `I'll have it done before two o' clock, no problem.'
Generally, complementary transactions result in more effective communication with fewer hurt
feelings and arguments. In other words, they help human relations and performance. Exceptions
are if an employee uses an adapted child or critical parent ego state and the supervisor
does, too. These complementary transactions can lead to problems.
 Crossed Transactions:
Crossed transactions occur when the sender of the message does not get the expected response from the
receiver. Returning to our first example: Employee `I just dropped the thing when I was almost done. Now I
have to do it all over again.' Supervisor `you are so clumsy.' This transaction is illustrated below
SUPERVISOR EMPLOYEE
P
A

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C
From our second example: Supervisor `please get this order ready for me by two o' clock.' Employee `why
do I have to do it? Why don't you do it yourself? I am busy.' This cross transaction is an adult adapted to
child response.
Generally, cross transactions result in surprise, disappointment, and hurt feelings for the sender of the message.
The unexpected response often gets the person emotional, which often results in his or her changing to the
adapted child ego sate, which causes the communication to deteriorate further. Cross transactions often end in
arguments and hurt human relations.
Cross transactions can be helpful when the negative parent or child ego response is crossed with an adult
response. This cross over may result in the preferred adult to adult conversation
 Ulterior Transactions:
Ulterior, or hidden, transactions occur when the words seem to be coming from one ago state, but in reality the
words or behaviors are coming from another. For example, after a training program, one of the participants
came up to a consultant asking advice on an adult ego sate. When the consultant gave advice, the participant
twice had quick responses as to why the advice would not work (child rather than adult behavior). The
consultant realized that what the participant actually wanted was sympathetic understanding for his situation,
not advice. The consultant stopped making suggestions and listened actively, using reflective responses. The
consultant changed from the adult to the sympathetic parent ego state in order to have a complimentary
transaction.
Sometimes people don't know what they want or how to ask for it in a direct way, so they use ulterior
transactions. When possible, it is best to avoid ulterior transactions because they tend to waste time. Avoid
making people search for your hidden meanings. Plan your message before you send it. When receiving
messages look for ulterior transactions and turn them into complimentary transactions, as stated above

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How can we motivate people in an organization? Explain
the responsibilities of a member of a team:
Motivation in the public (people) sector is strongly linked to the institutional setting, as has been discussed
above. From a theoretical viewpoint, institutional theory may provide further insights into the origins of
employee motivation in the public sector. Values, norms, and rules - as the defining parts of institutions - infuse
social structures with values and promote stability and persistence over time (Peters 2000; Selznick 1984).
Viewed as organizations, institutions are shaped in response to their external environment and transcend to the
individual level of an employee’s identity, influencing his/her values and motives, which, in turn, define a range
of permissible and prohibited behavior (Ritz and Brewer 2013; Perry 2000; Scott 1987). Thus, employee
motivation in the public sector is a function of the degree to which an organization shares the individual’s values
or provides opportunities for the employee to satisfy these values (Christensen and Wright 2009). In addition, it
is not the sector that is the decisive element in the development of motivation. Instead, employees’ values are
influenced by the organization’s degree of ‘publicness’. This characteristic defines organizations not only in the
public sector, but also in the private and non-profit sectors (Bozeman 1987). However, in the following we
simply distinguish between two major types of employee motivation in the public sector: public sector
motivation and public service motivation. In doing so, we disentangle the various roles public sector
organizations play both in public servants’ motivation and in their internalization of different types of values
(Christensen and Wright 2009; Brewer and Selden 1998).
The first motivation concept with a key focus on public organizations is public sector motivation. According to
institutional theory, public sector motivation implies a “logic of consequentiality” involving institutional rules
and interpretations to be treated as alternatives in a rational choice problem (March and Olsen 1989). Rational
choice theory characterizes administrators as generally rational individuals (constrained by certain informational
and cognitive boundaries) who have a fixed set of preferences and who seek to maximize their utility (Brennan
and Buchanan 1985).
The responsibilities of a member of a team:
Roles refer to one’s position on a team. Responsibilities refer to the tasks and duties of their
particular role or job description. Employees are held accountable for completing several tasks
in the workplace. The clearer their supervisor outlines the tasks, the better employees can

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achieve their team’s goals and succeed in their individual roles at the company. For a
supervisor or team leader to effectively delegate, however, they must understand that
individual’s role at the company. It can also be beneficial to understand the benefits of
implementing functional roles and responsibilities.
Understanding how to develop the right roles for your team is crucial to your
company’s success. In this article, we define what roles and responsibilities are and determine how to
best use each employee’s skillset for your team’s overall objective
Benefits of functional roles and responsibilities
Along with increasing team efficiency, creating functional roles and responsibilities provides
several other benefits that could help your company as a whole. Understanding these benefits
will motivate team leaders to implement them in the future if they haven’t already. Here are
some of the benefits of establishing functional roles and responsibilities.
1. Increased productivity
When teams understand what’s expected of them, they know what they need to work on.
Having a clear definition of their responsibilities will increase your team’s overall productivity.
This productivity will then lead to your team’s increased momentum and success in the long
run.
2. Team success
By effectively delegating necessary tasks and having a set schedule, you’re setting your team
up for success. Employees with clear duties and deadlines have all the tools they need to get
the job done and achieve optimal success.
3. Increased morale and momentum
When an employee’s responsibilities are clearly defined and they are successful in their role,
the entire team will benefit from it. Team success is a great way to build momentum for future
projects, thus fostering more productivity. This same success will also contribute to the team’s
heightened confidence.

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Team member roles and responsibilities
Each team member has a role to play on the team, defined by skillset and experience. Some
might be optimists, encouraging, innovative ideas and positivity, while others will be more
pragmatic and encourage definable goals and structure. The point is that all roles have their
own value in the collaboration of a team. Here are some general roles and responsibilities for a
team member:
 Actively participate.
 Be an active listener.
 Take notes.
 Complete tasks and assignments.
Team Member Responsibilities:
 Executing all tasks assigned by the team leader or manager diligently, on
schedule, and to the highest standard.
 Working with team members to achieve daily, weekly, and monthly targets.
 Participating in meetings and voicing concerns as well as suggestions for
improvement.
 Answering or escalating concerns and queries from clients or other stakeholders.
 Completing a range of administrative tasks.
 Maintaining a high level of professionalism while representing the company.
 Expanding your skills by attending workshops and training sessions.
 Effectively managing your time by prioritizing urgent tasks.
 Assisting the manager or leam Leader as required.
Team Member Requirements:
 High school diploma.
 A relevant degree or associate’s degree may be required.
 Previous experience working in a team would be advantageous.
 Excellent time management and interpersonal skills.
 Self-starter with a positive attitude.
 Ability to remain professional at all times.

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Who do we understand the other person from his/her
point of view:
When you tell a story, an important thing to choose is the point of view that
the story should take. Point of view determines who tells the story, as well
as the relationship that the narrator has to the characters in the story. A
story can have a much different feel depending on who is doing the telling.
The main points of view are first person and third person, with second
person appearing less frequently but still common enough that it gets
studied in writing classes. These are also the terms used to distinguish the
personal pronouns. The pronouns I and we are first-person pronouns; they
refer to the self. The pronoun you, used for both singular and plural
antecedents, is the second-person pronoun, the person who is being
addressed. The third person pronouns—he, she, it, they—refer to someone
or something being referred to apart from the speaker or the person being
addressed. Narratives are often identified as first, second, or third person
based on the kinds of pronouns they utilize
First Person Point of View
In first-person narration, the narrator is a person in the story, telling the
story from their own point of view. The narration usually utilizes the
pronoun I
(or we, if the narrator is speaking as part of a group). The character who
tells the story might be in the middle of the action or more of a character
who observes the action from the outer limits, but in either case you are
getting that character’s recounting of what happens.
It also means that impressions and descriptions are colored by
that character’s opinions, mood, past experiences, or even their warped
perceptions of what they see and hear.
Second Person Point of View
Second-person narration a little-used technique of narrative in which the
action is driven by a character ascribed to the reader, one known as you.
The reader is immersed into the narrative as a character involved in the
story. The narrator describes what "you" do and lets you into your own

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thoughts and background. The most well-known piece of fiction that
employs second-person narration might be Jay McInerney’s novel Bright
Lights, Big City.
Third Person Point of View
In third-person narration, the narrator exists outside the events of the story,
and relates the actions of the characters by referring to their names or by
the third-person pronouns he, she, or they.
Third-person narration can be further classified into several
types: omniscient, limited, and objective.
These high-impact influencers follow a pattern of four steps that all of us can put
into action. In earlier pieces we covered
Step 1: Go for great outcomes and
Step 2: Listen past your blind spots. Later we’ll cover
Step 3: Engage others in “their there.”
Step 4: When you’ve done enough… do more. Here we cover
To understand why this step is so important, imagine that you’re at one end of a
shopping mall — say, the northeast corner, by a cafe. Next, imagine that a friend
of yours is at the opposite end of the mall, next to a toy store. And imagine that
you’re telling that person how to get to where you are.
Now, picture yourself saying, “To get to where I am, start in the northeast corner
by a cafe.” That doesn’t make sense, does it? Because that’s where you are, not
where the other person is.
Yet that’s how we often try to convince others — on our terms, from our
assumptions, and based on our experiences. We present our case from our point
of view. There’s a communication chasm between us and them, but we’re acting
as if they’re already on our side of the gap.

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Like in the shopping mall example, we make a mistake by starting with
how we see things (“our here”). To help the other person move, we need to start
with how they see things (“their there”).
For real influence we need to go from our here to their there to engage others in
three specific ways:
1. Situational Awareness: Show that You Get “It.” Show that you
understand the opportunities and challenges your conversational
counterpart is facing. Offer ideas that work in the person’s there. When
you’ve grasped their reality in a way that rings true, you’ll hear comments
like “You really get it!” or “You actually understand what I’m dealing with
here.”
2. Personal Awareness: You Get “Them.” Show that you understand his or
her strengths, weaknesses, goals, hopes, priorities, needs, limitations,
fears, and concerns. In addition, you demonstrate that you’re willing to
connect with them on a personal level. When you do this right, you’ll hear
people say things like “You really get me!” or “You actually understand
where I’m coming from on this.”
3. Solution Awareness: You Get Their Path to Progress. Show people a
positive path that enables them to make progress on their own terms. Give
them options and alternatives that empower them. Based on your
understanding of their situation and what’s at stake for them personally,
offer possibilities for making things better — and help them think more
clearly, feel better, and act smarter. When you succeed, you’ll hear
comments like, “That could really work!” or “I see how that would help me.”
Explain the issues of Authority, Power and Conflicts
in organizational behavior:
INTRODUCTION
Managers are hired to ensure that organizational goals are
accomplished, and they do this by making choices among alternatives. This
decision making process would be only an exercise if the managers could not
put these decisions into effect. Power and authority are the means for
accomplishing this purpose. In the management of organizations, managers
use both the official and the unofficial powers and authority in their disposal

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as managerial weapons to guide, modify, direct, and influence the
behaviours and actions of their subordinates toward the realization of the
organizations objectives. In carrying out this critical managerial function,
there is the obvious tendency that these activities will generate
disagreement and conflict between the managers and their subordinates,
among the groups that make up the subordinates, and within the individuals
that constitute the groups that formed the subordinates.
It is the ability of a manager to effectively and efficiently use his
managerial powers and authority to manage these conflicts in such a manner
so that they will positively contribute to the realization of the organization
objectives instead of producing dysfunctional behaviour that will be
detrimental to the operations and growth of the organization that
differentiate between experience and inexperience manager.
OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY:
In every human endeavour, it is objective that directs what should be
done and how it should be done. Objective is simply the “where” of
management. It is when one knows where one is going, that he or she will
know how to get there and when he or she has gotten to the place or
destination.
Relying on the above background, the objectives that direct the flow of
this article are stated below.
(a). To examine the functional relationship of authority, power, and conflict
in the management and operations of organizations.
(b). To find out the nature of their relationship – whether positive or
negative.
(c). To evaluate the implications of each of the relationships as they relate to
the overall functioning, growth, and development of organizations
AUTHORITY:
The word authority probably brings to our mind a picture of a parent
scolding a child or a military officer giving a command to a troop or a

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manager guiding or altering the behaviour of subordinates. Well, all these
are aspects of authority. Authority is a formal right to make decision based
on formal organizational relationships. Authority is also seen as the right to
command others to act or not to act in a manner deemed by the possessor of
the authority to further organization objectives. Directing the behaviour of
others is based on two sub-rights:
(a). the right to decide, and
(b). the right to issue appropriate implementing instructions.
Without the right to decide, no manager could be a successful planner,
and without the right to issue orders and instructions, the manager’s plans
would be worthless. This is because there could be no assurance of the
implementation of the plans.
Authority is the corner-stone of every organization. It gives every
organization the characteristic of hierarchy that establishes a defined chain
of command.
Authority establishes the relationship between the job to be done and
the people that will do the job.
Thus, authority is fundamental to every organization because the nature
of managerial responsibility involves decision making and influence.
FORMS OF AUTHORITY:
There is no general consensus among management writers and
researchers on what constitute the forms/ types of authority. Although
different writers and researchers give different names to the forms of
authority in obedience to the angle from which each of them looks at it, a
careful analysis of the different forms shows that the actual meaning which
they attach to the forms if summed together goes to the same direction. The
difference is only in the connotation and nomenclature and not on the facts.
In this article, we adopt the following forms of authority and the aim is to
treat the components and uses of authority in order to demonstrate how
they affect organizational behaviour and therefore its performance.
1. Managerial Authority. This is the form of authority given to managers
of formal organizations because they are responsible for acquiring,

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deploying, and controlling resources needed to accomplish objectives.
Managerial authority is composed of the right to enforce those choices based
on official position. Without these components, no manager, can successfully
carryout responsibilities. This is true because all managers, regardless of their
positions in the organization structure, are charged with the responsibility of
making decisions and ensuring that they are carried out. Thus, managerial
authority is the key means for executing managerial responsibility.
The exact nature and amount of managerial authority required at any
given location in the organization structure should be a function of the
responsibility there. Consequently, the manager’s responsibility should be a
determining factor in deciding the amount of authority that the manager is
granted. This balance between responsibility and authority is in keeping with
the principle of parity of authority and responsibility – a long recognized
guide to building and maintaining a sound organization structure.
2. Staff Authority. This is a kind of authority given to all staff of an
organization to make suggestions and recommendations about the solution
to problems, procedural changes or how their jobs could be made easier or
more attractive. Even though we normally associate this type of authority
with experts or professional personnel, it is actually possessed by every
member of the organization. This is because everyone in an organization
whether superior or subordinate has the right to recommend, to suggest,
and to advice.
One possible confusing aspect of the use of staff authority is the fact
that subordinates often do not elect to use their staff authority for one
reason or the other. In addition, some superiors discourage their
subordinates from using it. This situation can be compared to the right to
vote. In voting situation, there are those who voluntarily choose not to
exercise their voting rights, and there might be occasions where they are
virtually prohibited from doing so by others. Whether they are used or not,
voting rights are possessed by all qualified citizens and so it is with staff
authority.
3. Situational Authority. This is a form of authority that has both the
elements of managerial authority and that of staff authority. Generally, this

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kind of authority is delegated to a staff expert who is restricted in the areas
of organization structure and functions in which it can be exercised. This
expert is given the right to make binding decisions about a given function in
the organization structure.
This type of organization relationship often begins as a staff authority
relationship. For example, an accountant may be given the right to make
recommendations, give advice, or make suggestions on the matter European
Journal of Business and Management www.iiste.org ISSN 2222-1905 (Paper)
ISSN 2222-2839 (Online) Vol.6, No.22, 2014 176 of proper accounting
methods. As time passes and the expert’s superior gains confidence in the
quality of advice, the expert might be given a grant of situational authority
that is approved by the officer who supervises the chief accountant. This
means that the accountant can now issue decisions that have the prior
approval of the superior through the grant of situational authority.
Therefore, it is not necessary to involve the superior in every decision.
In practice, situational authority can be quite disruptive to the
organization if it is misused but if properly used, it can be an effective
managerial aid. Situational authority is a potent right and should only be
delegated after careful consideration and it should have some safeguards
about over what activities it can be exercised.
4. Operative Authority. This is a type of right given to members of an
organization to take certain decisions about how, in what order, and with
which tools they will carry out their assignments. Also included here is the
right to work without undue supervision.
Some people do not include the operative authority in their list of
forms of authorities but here, we deemed it necessary to include it in order
to give a complete explanation of the rights of organization members. For
example, at times a worker may be asked to take a decision about work
priorities, schedules, and tools and materials to be used for the work. The
decision is outside the scope of the managerial, staff, and situational
authority and because of that, the decision will be made by using operative
authority.

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Operative authority is made up of two basic rights – the right to carry
out responsibility and the right to determine, within reason, how and when it
will be done. Whether one is a manager, a technician, or an unskilled
labourer, one has these minimum rights. Without them, it would not be
possible to plan and carry out one’s personal responsibility.
POWER:
Power is the potential or actual ability of a person to affect the
behaviour of others. This ability can be based on a number of factors, such as
knowledge, personality, and even on authority. When power receives formal
recognition and backing by the organization, it will be called authority. In
other words, power is a larger concept than authority and indeed, subsumes
it as a formal power relationship. Power can also be seen as the influence
that is not based on organizational positions. Because of this, power applies
to any interpersonal influence that exists either within or outside the bounds
of formal organizational relationship.
The brief explanation below throws more light on the difference
between power and authority. If a supervisor issues directives to
subordinates on how to carry out a normal work routine, these directives will
be considered by both the supervisor and the subordinates to be official.
Here, the supervisor can be said to have used power in the form of position
authority which attaches to his or her role as a manager and which has been
delegated to him or her by a superior officer in order to get certain
organizational goals accomplished.
If a supervisor directs a subordinate to do a personal errand for him or
her, this errand is clearly outside the official relationship between the
supervisor and the subordinate and therefore, the instruction cannot be
founded on authority. This instruction, then, is an attempt to use power as
the basis of influence.
The extent to which an individual can exercise power can be viewed as a
function of the dependency relationship that exists between the parties. The
higher the dependency ratio; other things being equal, the higher the power
and vice versa.

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FORMS OF POWER:
Influence that is based on power has many forms and in our discussion
here, we shall try as much as possible to explain how power gains its support
and potency in organization as the base for our classification.
1. Rational or Legal Power. This is a type of power that is recognized and
accepted by subordinates as being in agreement with the laid down rules and
regulations that are considered legitimate by both parties. Here, there is little
or no question about whether its use is considered proper or not. Whatever
its source might be, whether through ability or knowledge, once the
members of the society or organization consider it legitimate to accept a
given type of influence, that influence will be properly classified as rational
power.
2. Reward Power. This is a form of power that comes from one’s ability
to control and dispense benefits to others. The controller of the benefits has
the ability to shape the behaviour of others by the simple act of dispensing or
withholding these benefits. The strength of this type of power is primarily
determined by two major forces and these are the size of the reward and the
belief that it will be dispensed. This proposition is based on the assumption
that other things being equal, a large reward gives greater power than a
small reward.
3. Coercive Power. This is a kind of power that emanates from a
person’s ability to punish others. This ability to punish others is often strong
motivation and can, in many ways, be viewed as the obverse of reward
power. European Journal of Business and Management www.iiste.org ISSN
2222-1905 (Paper) ISSN 2222-2839 (Online) Vol.6, No.22, 2014 177 While
reward power relies on dispensing of rewards for its strength, coercive
power depends on the meting out of punishment for its effectiveness. The
effectiveness of coercive power depends on the definition of the
punishment, its perceived impact, the probability that it will be used, and the
measurement of desired behaviour.

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For example, if the possible punishment is not defined as such by the
offender, if it is seen to be relatively mild, or if the chances of its being used
is slight, coercive power will be less effective and vice versa.
4. Referent Power. This is a form of power that exists when one has
influence over another because the other identifies with him or her. For
instance, if “A” has influence over “B” because “B” identifies with “A”, that
power or influence will be called referent power. This identification will give
“A” the power to influence the behaviour of “B” even though “A” may not be
aware of the identification. For example, star athletes are worshipped by
aspiring youngsters who see that their own abilities can be enhanced by
emulating the star’s behaviour. At times, people with whom others identify
might not be aware of their own referent power. Because of this, it is often
difficult to completely trace power relationship in referent power.
5. Charismatic Power. This is a kind of power that occurs as a result of
one’s magnetic quality of personality. The possessor of the personality uses it
to influence the behaviour of others. For example, Hitler exercised this type
of power in Germany before and during World War II. Those who possess’
charismatic powers find it relatively easy to influence their followers. One of
the dimensions of charismatic power that helps explain its potency is that
charismatic leaders also help their followers attain personal goals. By
following such leaders, the followers can realize their own objectives.
6. Expert Power. Expert power exists where one exerts influence over
others because of one’s possession of knowledge or special skill. This skill
attracts respect for the expert. For example, Nobel Scientists are respected
for their skills and because of this; they are said to posses’ expert power.
Those who admire the skill or who need it to solve problems are willing to
subordinate themselves in return for the expert’s assistance. A student who
needs a teacher’s help in solving a problem is an example. The student
attributes the power of knowledge to the teacher and behaves in a manner
that will enable him or her to have the advantage of the teacher’s knowledge
in solving the problem. A successful use of expert power within its sphere of
influence tends to increase its potency while its use outside its sphere tends
to weaken its strength.

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SOURCES OF POWER:
In the work environment just like the general society, there are
numerous sources through which managers and leaders or anybody in
authority can enrich himself or herself with power. These sources all revolve
around the dependency of one actor on another. The ability to create and
manage dependency relationship is among the most important determinants
of the amount of power any actor can wield. Some of these sources of power
are discussed below.
1. Power through the Control of Resources. This is one of the most
important sources of power in the organizations and even in our society.
Those that possess resources exert tremendous influence on the behaviour
of others. Naturally, resources such as money and materials are not equitably
distributed and because of this, those who possess them command respect
and wield influence which enables them to influence the behaviour of others.
This is in line with the general notion in commerce that money commands
variety. The word “variety” here includes respect and influence.
2. Position Power. This source of power is attached to offices in
organization. Various offices have powers emanating from them and the
higher the office in the organization chart, the higher the power that comes
from it. Organization chart generally depicts the hierarchy of formal authority
through which position power gains its potency and recognition.
3. Personal Qualities. Personal qualities are another good source of power to
some managers and leaders. These qualities consist of knowledge, charisma,
and possession of special skills. These qualities enable the individuals that
possess them to influence the behaviour of others and therefore enhance
their ability to manage and control their subordinates.
4. Professionalism. Professionalism as a source of power in
organization comes as a result of an increase in professional expertise
through professional examinations and training. In the organization, those
people that passed professional examinations and equally had some training
usually possess more power than those that did not pass any professional

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examination and did not even attend any training. European Journal of
Business and Management www.iiste.org...
ORGANIZATIONAL CONFLICT:
Conflict is a problem. Human life is full of problems. There is no living
human being that does not have one type of problem or the other no matter
the person’s level of intelligent, wisdom, and the amount of authority and
power that the person possesses. This is the same thing with organizations.
Organizations are made up of human beings and therefore cannot avoid
conflict.
Organizational conflict occurs when two or more individuals or groups
that have opposing goals, ideas, philosophies, or orientations disagree with
each other in organization decision making. The conflict most of the time is
as a result of disagreement on resource allocation. At times, conflict can
occur as a result of bad organizational system which does not allow enough
freedom to the workers or as a result of clash of values that is caused by job
requirements. Conflict is central to organization life and no organization can
do without it. Although conflict often leads to some frustrations and
confrontations within or between organizations, it is part of the universal
principles of organizational management
THE VALUE OF CONFLICT:
Conflict is a natural phenomenon and therefore unavoidable in
organization life. In managing organizations, managers must appreciate and
recognize the value of conflict as it relates to the performance of
organizations. Our discussion of the value of conflict covers both the negative
and the positive aspects of the conflict and their contributions to
organizational goals.
On the negative side of conflict are the consequences or adverse
effects of conflict in organization where some management writers and
researchers of the classical thinking argued that conflict could cause losses in
productivity because groups or workers would not cooperate in getting work
finished on time as they would not share important information. They

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equally pointed out that too much conflict distract managers from their work
and reduce their concentration on the job and that conflict can affect the
morale of the workers. Buttressing their points further, they said that long
stretched conflict could cause stress, frustration, and anxiety, which are
detrimental to workers well-being.
It was based on these arguments that Robbins, S.P. (1978) pointed
out that conflict should be avoided by all possible means and when it
appeared by any mistake, it should be stopped as quickly as possible by
managerial fiat.
On the positive side of conflict are the management writers and
researchers from the modern school of thought. Here, they argued that
conflict can be a catalyst for change as it can force organizations to re-
examine corporate goals or reset priorities and that it can also force
managers to face important issues they have been ignoring and make higher-
quality decisions on those issues. They also pointed out that suppressing all
conflict at times leads to further negative consequences as workers will begin
to sabotage each other covertly rather than confronting each other directly.
They went further to say that managers should allow some levels of conflict
in organization because it can serve as a mechanism for fine-tuning the
organization’s goal hierarchy and that after its resolution, it can clarify the
proper power and authority relationships between different organizational
members or subunits. It was on the strength of these arguments that Paul L.
and Lorsch J. (1969) advised that some optimal levels of conflict are
necessary in organization and that managers should be recognized and
rewarded based on their skills in conflict diagnosis and management rather
than on their skills in conflict suppression.
A summary of all the arguments show that the modern view and by
implication the popular view is not to oppose conflict but to provide for it.
The aim is not to eliminate fire, or have a wildfire, but to have a “controlled
burn”. Managers, like foresters, must know when conditions are right for
“burning” and when it is enough. Seen in this perspective, conflict can be
considered healthy and good for both the organization and the workers; not
evil and inhibiting in the organization’s striving for effectiveness.

22.
Write a short note on:
 Organizational culture.
Organizational culture is the collection of values, expectations, and
practices that guide and inform the actions of all team members. Think of it as
the collection of traits that make your company what it is. A great
culture exemplifies positive traits that lead to improved performance, while a
dysfunctional company culture brings out qualities that can hinder even the most
successful organizations.
Don’t confuse culture with organizational goals or a mission
statement, although both can help define it. Culture is created through consistent
and authentic behaviors, not press releases or policy documents. You can watch
company culture in action when you see how a CEO responds to a crisis, how a
team adapts to new customer demands, or how a manager corrects an employee
who makes a mistake.
Organizational culture affects all aspects of your business, from
punctuality and tone to contract terms and employee benefits. When workplace
culture aligns with your employees, they’re more likely to feel more comfortable,
supported, and valued. Companies that prioritize culture can also weather
difficult times and changes in the business environment and come out stronger.

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Culture is a key advantage when it comes to attracting talent and
outperforming the competition. 77 percent of workers consider a company’s
culture before applying, and almost half of employees would leave their current
job for a lower-paying opportunity at an organization with a better culture. The
culture of an organization is also one of the top indicators of employee
satisfaction and one of the main reasons that almost two-thirds (65%) of
employees stay in their job.
 Organizational politics:
Meaning of Organizational Politics: – Organizational politics are informal,
unofficial, and sometimes behind efforts to sell ideas, influence an organization,
increase power, or achieve other targeted objectives. Political behavior in
organizations involves many activities such as spreading rumors, leaking confidant
information, favoring others in the organization for mutual benefit. Organizational
Politics is self-serving behavior not approved by the organization.
It is also known as office politics and organizational politics. It involves the use of
power and social networking within a workplace to achieve changes that benefit
the organization or individuals within it.
 The positive side of organizational politics is characterized by their analysis of
the situation in terms of personal and organizational goals, open problem
solving, and victory.
 The downside of organizational politics is characterized by observing the
situation in a win-win situation, keeping hidden agendas, advancing self-
interest.
 When people play politics, it causes controversy, conflict, tension, anxiety and
uncertainty in the organization.
Organizational politics has the following feature:–

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 It’s purpose is personal gain arising from the use of power and not
organizational gain.
 It is a deliberate attempt to use politics as a source to broaden its power base.
 It is not part of a person’s job requirement. It is used to benefit a person.
 It may be legitimate or illegal mate political behavior.
 Organizational communications:
Organizational communication can be defined as a method of conveying and
sharing information such as organizational goals, plans used to achieve those
goals, policies, rules & regulations, and other trivial details.
Informally, communication in an organization might take place in different ways,
but, formally, each organization follows a particular communication method to
convey information.
Organizational communication is an integral part of every organization, and it
plays an essential role in building a successful business. Communication in an
organization affects the way people behave in the organization. Communication in
an organization is a vital managerial component because the role of management
is to make plans and give directions.
People working in an organization, whether managers or employees who work at
the front line, must be aware of how to behave to create the best working
environment in the organization.
Communication in an organization also shapes the way people behave in the
organization. The behavior of people in the organization affects the way people
motivate each other to achieve organizational goals. Organizational
communication plays an essential role in the way people interact with one
another in meetings.
On the other hand, ineffective organizational communication results in
misunderstanding, lack of coordination, and incompetence in the organization.

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Therefore, it is essential to have effective communication in the organization to
execute plans effectively and contribute to the organization’s success.
Effective communication in an organization is so vital that nowadays, even
recruiters look for communication skills as one of the primary skills in the people
they want to hire. You will commonly find phrases such as business
communication, corporate communication, or organizational communication skills
in job advertisements.
 Organizational change:
Organizational Change looks both at the process in which a company or any
organization changes its operational methods, technologies, organizational
structure, whole structure, or strategies, as well as what effects these changes
have on it. Organizational change usually happens in response to – or as a result of
– external or internal pressures.
It is all about reviewing and modifying structures – specifically management
structures – and business processes.
Small commercial enterprises need to adapt to survive against larger competitors.
They also need to learn to thrive in that environment. Large rivals need to adapt
rapidly when a smaller, innovative competitor comes onto the scene.
To avoid falling behind, or to remain a step ahead of its rivals, a business must
seek out ways to operate more efficiently. It must also strive to operate more cost
effectively.

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Ever since the advent of the Internet, the business environment today has been
changing at a considerably faster pace compared to forty years ago.
Organizational change is a requirement for any business that wants to survive and
thrive.
Explain the following principles underlying design of organizations:

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Specialization:
Specialization is a strategy developed by a business to focus on the production of a
very limited range of products or services in order to gain maximum productivity,
expertise and leadership in the targeted field. Companies that specialize say they
get a better return on investment.
It is the opposite of diversification – when a company spreads from its core
activity into new areas.
Specialization may also refer to regions of a country or even whole nations.
Several countries around the world specialize in producing goods or delivering
services that are native to their geographical area, and they import other goods
and services.
The term may also refer to an agreement within an organization, group or
community under which the members most suited for a specific task or activity
assume greater responsibility for its performance and execution. Police officers
focus on maintaining law and order, doctors concentrate on keeping people
healthy, accountants specialize in balancing the books, etc.

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Specializations exist in every profession. In medicine you can become a
pediatrician, a biologist can become an astrobiologist, while an accountant can
specialize in corporate accounts, tax, etc.
Specialization – division of labor

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The division of labor refers to the separation of tasks in a community, organization
or company so that workers or members may specialize.
People, organizations and countries are blessed with or acquire specialized
capabilities and either form combinations or trade to exploit those capabilities in
others as well as their own.
Adam Smith (1723-1790), a Scottish pioneer of political economy and moral
philosopher, considered by many as the ‘father of modern economics’ wrote
about the division of labor right at the beginning of his famous work – An Inquiry
into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations.
Meaning of Coordination:
The purpose of organising, division of work, departmentation, span of
management, centralisation and decentralisation, delegation of authority and
organisation structure is to optimally achieve the organisational goals. This is
possible if departments of the organisation are co-ordinated in a unified direction.
Once the activities of the organisation are broken into smaller units which are re-
grouped into departments (on the basis of similarity of features), managers need
to coordinate the activities of these departments by communicating
organisational goals to each department, setting departmental goals and linking
the performance of each department with others so that all the departments
collectively contribute towards the organisational goals. Coordination is “the
process of linking the activities of various departments of the organisation.”
It is “the process of integrating the objectives and activities of the separate units
(departments or functional areas) of an organisation in order to achieve
organisational goals efficiently.”
Coordination is “integration of the activities of individuals and units into a
concerted effort that works towards a common aim.” — Pearce and Robinson
Co-ordination maintains unity of action amongst individuals and departments.
Absence of co-ordination will result in sub-optimal attainment of goals. In extreme
situations, it may result in losses and liquidation of companies.

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Co-ordination harmonizes and balances conflicting opinions of individuals and
departments, promotes group effort and directs their movement in a unified
direction — the organisational goal. For example, if production department does
not coordinate its activities with the sales department, production may be more
or less than the required sales.
Production more than sales will result in piling of stock and blocking up funds in
inventory and production less than sales will result in loss of sales revenue and
goodwill of the firm. Coordination, thus, facilitates smooth running of a business.
Effective coordination is based on interdependence of organisational activities. It
is based on systems approach to management which acknowledges that different
departments of the organisation are interdependent (input of one is the output of
other).
It also assumes interdependence of organisation’s internal and external
environment. The degree of coordination depends upon the degree of
interdependence. More the interdependence (internal or external), more is the
need for coordination and vice versa.
If there is no interdependence amongst organisational activities, there is no need
for coordination. This is known as systems approach to coordination. Coordination
is the most basic and fundamental principle of organisation. It is “the orderly
arrangement of group effort to provide unity of action in the pursuit of a common
purpose.
KNOWLEDGE AND COMPETENCE
The core competence approach of strategy views the business in a particular way.
For this approach business are open systems intermingling with their

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environments to obtain resources and deliver outputs. As per this approach of
strategy, the capacity of the business to build up core competences that are not
acquired by its competitors and that generate recognizable profits for consumers
form the basis of its superior performance.
The business can create competitive advantage in both new and current markets
as below:
 By leveraging the presently available core competences
 By building new competences
 Through alliance relationships with suppliers, customers and also
competitors
The collective learning or knowledge of the organization forms the basis of its core
competences.
Knowledge
In recent time the study of core competences has concentrated more on
knowledge as its main aspect. In an organizational perspective, principles, facts,
skills, and rules which update the organizational decision-making, behaviour and
actions are regarded as knowledge. The organization’s activities, competences,
products and services are founded on this knowledge. Also the capability of the
organization to build up new knowledge, and thereby core competences, faster
and more efficiently when compared to its competitors form the key for its
competitive advantage.
Competence
The competence-competence principle, which recognizes the power of an
arbitrator to determine his or her own jurisdiction under the arbitration
agreement, is widely recognized in most jurisdictions around the world. However,
the so-called “negative effect” of the principle - the notion that courts ought not
to pronounce on the validity and scope of the arbitration agreement, which
should first be determined by the arbitrator - is less widely and consistently
accepted. In a case involving Uber Technologies Inc. and its related companies
(Uber), the Supreme Court of Canada has re-affirmed the application of the

32.
competence-competence principle to the vast majority of challenges to an
arbitrator’s jurisdiction, including challenges based on the alleged invalidity of the
arbitration agreement, but created a new and narrow exception where referral of
a jurisdictional challenge to the arbitrator would effectively prevent access to
arbitration
Knowledge and Resource based Approach
In the knowledge and resource-based approach to strategy, the point of
concentration as the chief supply of competitive advantage is the business itself
instead of the industry.
The business which is capable of performing extraordinarily in a global market is
able to do so as it has certain qualities which make them both distinguishable
from and better than their competitors. Core competences of the business are
these distinctive qualities.
Core competences are certainly distinguishable for competences. While
competences are Abilities acquired by all competitors in an industry form the
competences where as core competences are acquired only by those who
accomplish superior performance.
Core competences have to be based on superior knowledge. For a good strategy
for business it is important to know the elements of the core competences, details
of the knowledge on which they are formed, creation and management of
knowledge and lastly about, the knowledgeable deployment of the core
competences. Under standing these aspects are essential to give proper strategic
direction to the business.
Control and commitment
The larger shape of institutional change is always difficult to recognize when one
stands right in the middle of it. Today, throughout American industry, a significant
change is under way in long-established approaches to the organization and
management of work. Although this shift in attitude and practice takes a wide

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variety of company-specific forms, its larger shape—its overall pattern—is already
visible if one knows where and how to look.
Consider, for example, the marked differences between two plants in the chemical
products division of a major U.S. corporation. Both make similar products and
employ similar technologies, but that is virtually all they have in common.
The first, organized by businesses with an identifiable product or product line,
divides its employees into self-supervising 10- to 15-person work teams that are
collectively responsible for a set of related tasks. Each team member has the
training to perform many or all of the tasks for which the team is accountable, and
pay reflects the level of mastery of required skills. These teams have received
assurances that management will go to extra lengths to provide continued
employment in any economic downturn. The teams have also been thoroughly
briefed on such issues as market share, product costs, and their implications for
the business.
A recent management campaign to document an “airtight case” against
employees who have excessive absenteeism or sub-par performance mirrors
employees’ low morale and high distrust of management. A constant stream of
formal grievances, violations of plant rules, harassment of supervisors, wildcat
walkouts, and even sabotage has prevented the plant from reaching its
productivity and quality goals and has absorbed a disproportionate amount of
division staff time. Dealings with the union are characterized by contract
negotiations on economic matters and skirmishes over issues of management
control.
At issue here is not so much age or unionization but two radically different
strategies for managing a company’s or a factory’s work force, two incompatible
views of what managers can reasonably expect of workers and of the kind of
partnership they can share with them. For simplicity, I will speak of these
profound differences as reflecting the choice between a strategy based on
imposing control and a strategy based on eliciting commitment.

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The “control” strategy.
The traditional—or control-oriented—approach to work-force management took
shape during the early part of this century in response to the division of work into
small, fixed jobs for which individuals could be held accountable. The actual
definition of jobs, as of acceptable standards of performance, rested on “lowest
common denominator” assumptions about workers’ skill and motivation. To
monitor and control effort of this assumed caliber, management organized its own
responsibilities into a hierarchy of specialized roles buttressed by a top-down
allocation of authority and by status symbols attached to positions in the
hierarchy.
The “commitment” strategy.
Since the early 1970s, companies have experimented at the plant level with a
radically different work-force strategy. The more visible pioneers—among them,
General Foods at Topeka, Kansas; General Motors at Brookhaven, Mississippi;
Cummins Engine at Jamestown, New York; and Procter & Gamble at Lima, Ohio—
have begun to show how great and productive the contribution of a truly
committed work force can be. For a time, all new plants of this sort were
nonunion, but by 1980 the success of efforts undertaken jointly with unions—
GM’s cooperation with the UAW at the Cadillac plant in Livonia, Michigan, for
example—was impressive enough to encourage managers of both new and
existing facilities to rethink their approach to the work force.
Innovation and Adaptation:
Innovation and adaptation have permitted humanity to not only survive but to
reach new heights. Innovation led to the development of new tools,
industrialization, computerization and untold scientific advancements, with both
positive and negative consequences. Adaptation has involved, amongst others,
design of warmer, lighter or even camouflages clothes and shoes, construction of
sturdier structures and migration. Today, with billions of mouths to feed and the

35.
risk that climate change will cause rapid and unprecedented impacts, the stakes
are as high as ever and the need to innovate and adapt ever greater.
Innovation
In agriculture, innovation encompasses the successful development, transfer,
adoption and diffusion of techniques and technologies to increase agricultural
productivity. It is mediated by institutions (practices, norms, and policies),
individuals or groups, and is specific to socio-economic and cultural contexts.
Farmer innovations, in particular, are based on traditional knowledge as well as
external knowledge (through agricultural extension, NGO projects) and take the
form of informal experimentation or planned interventions. Agricultural
innovation is not just about new technologies; it also encompasses new ways of
doing things, (institutional changes), new perspectives (cognitive changes), and
aiming for different goals (aspirational changes). Grassroots innovations have
been found to be effective among farmers because they tend to develop
locallyappropriate technologies that are suited to particular contexts. However,
linking the successes of such innovations to existing policies is often difficult
because they are typically informal, difficult to test or replicate, and not recorded
in the way scientific experiments are. Whether an innovation will be adopted by
others is difficult to predict. We try to address this gap by documenting
innovations by farmers, assessing what has enabled these innovations, and
exploring factors that have enabled diffusion of their innovation
Adaptation:
Simply put, adaptation is “the process of adjustment to actual or expected climate
and its effects”. Adaptation actions can occur at different levels (individual,
household, community, village, district, nation) and by several actors (NGOs,
farmers, government officials).
• The Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK) or Farmer Science Centre, which assesses
location-specific technology to improve cultivation and agricultural output
through technology demonstrations and trainings.

36.
• District-level horticulture and agriculture departments acknowledge and
support farmers using innovative farming practices by providing relevant
information on available government schemes, climate services, such as weather
advisories, and advice on fertiliser dosage and pest management.
• National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) provides
credit support through a range of programmes covering subsidies, financial
inclusion, development of farmer cooperatives etc.
• Non-governmental organisations, such as Gram Vikas and MYRADA, play key
roles in providing technical assistance and serving as knowledge brokers to
facilitate capacity building at the grassroots level.
To adapt, people must have the capacity to do so. This capacity to make
adjustments in one’s practices, is called adaptive capacity.
It can be in the form of technical capacity (e.g. developing drought-tolerant crop
varieties), informational capacity (e.g. access to weather forecasts), and
institutional capacity (e.g. having policies and processes to implement adaptation
at multiple scales). Also critical is natural capacity (access to fertile soil and water
for irrigation), social capacity (e.g. networks to rely upon during food shortages),
financial capacity (credit facilities), and personal attributes (e.g. education).
Team functioning:
A team is a group of individuals (human or non-human) working together to
achieve their goal.
A team works as a whole together to achieve certain things. A team is usually
located in the same setting as it is normally connected to a kind of organization,
company, or community. Teams can meet in-person (directly face-to-face) or
virtually when practicing their values and activities or duties.
As defined by Professor Leigh Thompson of the Kellogg School of
Management, "[a] team is a group of people who are interdependent with respect
to information, resources, knowledge and skills and who seek to combine their
efforts to achieve a common goal".[1]

37.
Team members need to learn how to help one another, help other team
members realize their true potential, and create an environment that allows
everyone to go beyond their limitations.[4]
A team becomes more than just a collection of people when a strong sense of
mutual commitment creates synergy, thus generating performance greater than
the sum of the performance of its individual members.
One of the many ways for a business to organize employees is in teams. A team is
made up of two or more people who work together to achieve a common goal.
Teams offer an alternative to a vertical chain-of-command and are a much more
inclusive approach to business organization, Teams are becoming more common
in the business world today. Effective teams can lead to an increase in employee
motivation and business productivity.
The team can be defined by following ways too:
 A group of people who compete in a sport, game, etc., against another group.
 A group of people who work together.
 A group of two or more animals used to pull a wagon, cart, etc.

38.
 A number of persons forming one of the sides in a game or contest.
 A number of persons associated in some joint action: a team of experts.
Team decision making:
Group or team decision making can often be problematic, depending on the
personalities and agendas of those involved, and the types of decisions you’re
needing to make. Drawing on a varied, diverse range of expertise can support your
team reaching a better decision, but there can be challenges in trying to get
people in the same “room” (in person or virtually) and reaching an agreement.
We’ve seen the power of using Loomio to make group decisions, and wanted to
share some common decision making techniques you can deploy offline, or online,
using a tool like ours to land on the best possible outcome.
Common group decision making techniques
Team decision making, whether you’re a board, professional services firm, or a
nonprofit organisation is complex. The degree to which your organisation is willing
to make collective decisions will differ depending on the type of decisions needing
to be made and organisational culture. We’ll outline some common techniques
used amongst boards, senior leaders and volunteer organisations the world over -
which technique will resonate best with your team, and deliver quality decisions,
every time?
1. Brainstorming
Not uncommon to most organisations, brainstorming allows a free flowing range
of ideas and alternatives to be generated by a group or team. This is a quantity
versus quality approach, as these initial ideas or thought starters are not
necessarily a final decision, but may guide the group to reach one.
In general, steps should be taken to:
 Accept all ideas from the group, without judgement
 Build on the ideas of others

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 Ensure a level playing field, regardless of a contributor’s role in the
organisation
 Listen to everyone invited to participate
 Record ideas for further discussion
By producing a high volume of ideas, from a wide range of participants, you
should produce a diverse pool of concepts and actions that aren’t influenced by
the strong opinions of one or two individuals.
If you feel that some of your team will be unwilling to participate in a traditional
meeting environment, you may want to consider a “digital brainstorming”
solution, like Loomio. This will allow multiple people to suggest ideas at the same
time, at their own pace, and remove any of the common anxiety and confidence
barriers that can exist by sharing ideas in a group setting.
2. Nominal Group Technique
The Nominal Group Technique provides a way for people to put forward their
ideas or arguments in a private way, and evaluate those ideas to reach a final
team decision.
Generally, a Nominal Group decision would ensure:
 Ideas are submitted in writing, individually
 Each member has the opportunity to present their ideas to the group and
provide further detail
 The group will then discuss the ideas presented and privately vote on the
presented options
 A decision is made based on the majority vote, or may continue with
another cycle of voting once the most popular ideas are established.
This structured process tends to encourage timely, efficient decision making, and
removes any unhelpful and time consuming digressions or debates. Group
members can feel more accountable for taking a position and presenting their
ideas to the wider group. The turn taking element allows everyone to have an
equal say on the matter and avoids quick agreement on an issue until all voices
are heard. Although effective, this technique can limit creativity of ideas.

40.
A digital tool like Loomio can be useful supporting the sharing of ideas, and
transparent voting on the options available.
3. The Delphi Technique
If it’s difficult to assemble your team members, then this technique could be
useful for your organisation. Led by a non participating coordinator, a group’s
ideas are collated, reviewed and revised without anyone formally meeting.
Typically, the Delphi Technique is deployed by:
 Email questionnaires sent by and collated by a coordinator
 Ideas are submitted in writing, individually
 Coordinator summarises ideas and distributes them back to the team
anonymously
 Team members are provided the opportunity to refine ideas and comments
on pros and cons of other’s ideas
 The coordinator continues this process until ideas are finalised and no
further input is received
 Sometimes, a clear decision will emerge from this process, but team
members may be asked to vote on the clear favourites.
The anonymous contributions in this process seek to provide team member
accountability, reduce anxiety and eliminate biases from dominant group
members. Removing the need to schedule meetings can also fast track the
decision making process. Premature decisions aren’t made before all ideas are
shared with the group.
Traditionally this decision making technique has been lengthy, but employing
digital tools to support the decision making process, especially around the
feedback loop and voting process if required can certainly streamline the
technique.
4. The Stepladder Technique
Similar to the Nominal Group and Delphi methods, the Stepladder Technique
ensures that ideas are provided by a group, and evaluated. However, this method

41.
staggers the entry of team members to make a decision and a final decision is
made collaboratively as a group.
Starting with two people who assess the problem or issue. Then one more
member is added to the decision making team to present their ideas and discuss
the issues. Members then continue to be added one at a time until everyone has
become part of the discussion. They then work together to get an outcome, or
decision.
Key factors to bear in mind include:
 Allowing team members adequate time to consider the problem
 New group members have the opportunity to speak first, before other’s
ideas are presented
 Discussion time for new ideas must be allowed for
 Final solutions must wait until all group members are on board
The structure of this process allows similar positives to other team decision
making techniques: team member accountability and eliminating biases from
dominant group members. It also prevents decisions being made too hastily
before everyone has a chance to participate. The feeling of collective decision
making is often reported with this technique, as is high quality decision making.
Using a digital tool such as Loomio can help support the Stepladder Technique.
Setting up closed Threads or Groups, then slowly inviting more team members,
can assist the step by step ideation of this approach. It can also ensure that all
information is being captured in one place, and is transparent to the decision
making team.
If these common group decision making techniques don’t appeal, there are
some simple strategies you can apply to get the best quality decision making from
your team. Try these tips in your next Limo decision thread.
1. Keep your groups smaller for important decisions - large groups tend to
make biased decisions based on others in the group,
2. Ensure your group has a diverse range of experience and opinions -
generally diverse ideas generate better outcomes,

42.
3. Use a devil’s advocate - having someone actively challenge the ideas of
others can ensure you’re making the right decisions for the right reasons,
4. Gather individual opinions before sharing with a wider group - this can
reduce bias in a group situation,
5. Providing a safe place to speak out - you won’t generate good ideas without
a safe place to share them (constructive criticism is key),
6. Experts don’t necessarily make the best decision makers - they can be part
of your decision making process but shouldn’t hold the only opinion,
7. Collective responsibility - the final outcome and decision making process
should feel like everyone’s journey.
Team Conflict
A team is formed when more than one person is involved and work according to
the norms set by the organization. When more than one person with the
heterogeneous nature comes together, there is always the possibility for conflict
to take birth.
Conflict in an organization arises when there is a difference in ideologies, beliefs,
experience, skills, viewpoints, circumstances, rules, methods of working and so on.
All these come under sources of conflict.
Conflict in teams arises when there’s a lack of agreement amongst two or more
team members. They can take the form of arguments, problematic relationships,
negative behaviors, or even aggressive actions

43.
Conflicts in an organization are the main cause of bad working, management, etc.
If in an organization, the working and management system will not work according
to norms then the company’s goals and profits are affected.
So, to avoid this situation in an organization, the conflicts must be dealt by the
leader as soon as possible. The leader should possess some effective conflict
resolution skills for resolving team conflict at work. So,
What is Conflict Resolution?
Conflicts within an organization should not be ignored instead one should
complain, blame or should even deal with it with common strategies of
compromise or negotiation.

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One should understand and go in depth of the matter and then should solve it
step wise step by maintaining a healthy balance within the employers and in the
organization. So this is called conflict resolution in the workplace.
12 Team Conflict Resolution Techniques:
Workplace conflicts arises due to many reasons. Let’s have a look at few
workplace conflict resolution strategies on how to resolve conflict in a team:
1. Refer the conflict in depth:
This is the initial step to resolve the conflict in workplace. The head or the leader
should refer the conflict in teams by going in depth of it, so that the reason is
known behind the matter. The head should discuss the matter with other team
members and then after thorough discussion one should start the conflict
resolution process.
Referring the conflict at work means to have a view or an overview of the matter
that what exactly has happened. This should be done as soon as possible because
if the issue is not seen or taken into account within the time, the conflict rises to a
larger extent. It ultimately affects the working, pace and the organization on the
whole.

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2. See its impact, cooperation needed:
After referring the conflict, see its impact on the working and performance. Then
discuss it with the team members. After the team members know about the
conflict, they should start the process of resolving it after reaching the consensus.
At this point, the need for cooperation is vital because if every member of the
team will cooperate only then the work on the resolution of conflict will
commence. Seeing the impact will help the members to know in which manner
the problem should be solved and by using what kind of strategy.
Sometimes, the issue is small and its impact too, but the strategy used to resolve
the issue is lengthy, and then it wastes time as well as the money. So, to prevent
such wastage of time as well as the money, one should evaluate the impact
properly.
3. Communicate:
Communicating throughout the resolution is necessary. The communication
should be kept open. The team members should talk about the issue openly that
too with active participation.
In order to communicate well, one must be a good listener. Listen to what others
say and then respond accordingly, but in accordance with the discussion and
resolution.
Etc etc,,,

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Problem Solving Teams:
Problem-solving team, which is a team from the same department or functional
area that’s involved in efforts to improve work activities or to solve specific
problems. Members share ideas or offer suggestions on how work processes and
methods can be improved. Problem-solving team is the temporary combination of
workers who gather to solve ...
A team of people collected to deal with a task that includes settling at least one
issues that have just emerged or to manage issues as they emerge. In a business
setting, a critical thinking group will normally be shaped temporarily casing joining
staff from various hierarchical levels with different significant ranges of abilities.
Critical thinking Teams is a program that unites key line chiefs to take care of
ongoing task issues with the assistance of a facilitator. It is the missing connection
among learning and doing. Authoritative structure framed by laborers who offer
thoughts or offer recommendations on the most proficient method to improve
working procedures and strategies. Critical thinking groups assume a significant
job concerning association inspected and identified with elements of critical
thinking groups.

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Theproblemsolvingactivitiesare:
The success of a company or organization depends heavily on the managers’
ability to help workers develop their problem solving skills. Problem solving
activities that address areas such as teamwork and cooperation, adaptability or
reinforcement of decision-making strategies help.
All processes of problem solving begin with the identification of the problem. The
team will then evaluate the possible course of action and select the best way to
tackle it. This needs a profound understanding of your team and its core strengths.

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Not only among corporates, but problem solving activities find their use in
educational settings as well. Students who are good at solving problems will
become much more successful than those who are not. Remote work and
education are on the rise.
Enabling smooth interpersonal communication to solve problems can become a
task in these situations. However, engaging all the people concerned in problem
solving activities before shifting to the remote space can ease the process.
THE END