Cognition is defined as 'the mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses. ' At Cambridge Cognition we look at it as the mental processes relating to the input and storage of information and how that information is then used to guide your behavior

1. Contemporary Issues in
Education:
Theory, Policy and Practice
Dr. Larry Adams – Dean IDM Sri
Lanka.

3. Definitions Learning is
1. a persisting change in human performance or
performance potential . . . (brought) about as a
result of the learners interaction with the
environment (Driscoll, 1994, pp. 8-9).
2. the relatively permanent change in a
persons knowledge or behavior due to
experience (Mayer, 1982, p. 1040).
3. an enduring change in behavior, or in the
capacity to behave in a given fashion, which
results from practice or other forms of
experience (Shuell, 1986, p. 412).

4. what is cognition in psychology
• Cognition is defined as 'the mental action or process of
acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought,
experience, and the senses. ' At Cambridge Cognition we look
at it as the mental processes relating to the input and storage of
information and how that information is then used to guide your
behavior

5. Learning Theory
Q How do people learn?
A Nobody really knows.
But there are 6 main theories
• Behaviorism
• Cognitivism
• Social Learning Theory
• Social Constructivism
• Multiple Intelligences
• Brain-Based Learning

6. Behaviorism
• Confined to observable and measurable behavior
• Learning is defined by the outward expression of
new behaviors
• Focuses solely on observable behaviors
• A biological basis for learning
• Learning is context-independent
• Classical Operant Conditioning
• Reflexes (Pavlovs Dogs)
• Feedback/Reinforcement (Skinners Pigeon Box)
Behaviorism Theories:
• Classical Conditioning – Pavlov - A stimulus is presented in order to get a
response - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=asmXyJaXBC8
• Operant Conditioning – Skinner - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ne6o-
uPJarA

7. Behaviorism in the Classroom
• Rewards and punishments
• Responsibility for student learning rests
squarely with the teacher
• Lecture-based, highly structured

8. Critiques of Behaviorism
• Does not account for processes taking place in
the mind that cannot be observed
• Advocates for passive student learning in a
teacher-centric environment
• One size fits all
• Knowledge itself is given and absolute
• Programmed instruction teacher-proofing

9. Cognitivism
• Grew in response to Behaviorism
• Knowledge is stored cognitively as symbols
• Learning is the process of connecting symbols in
a meaningful memorable way
• Studies focused on the mental processes that
facilitate symbol connection
Cognitivism Theories:
• Discovery Learning - Jerome Bruner - Bruner said anybody can learn anything at any age,
provided it is stated in terms they can understand. -
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e1MTybVmF5Y
• Meaningful Verbal Learning – David Ausubel- When learners have difficulty with new
material, go back to the concrete anchors (Advance Organizers). Provide a Discovery
approach, and they learn. Advance Organizers New material is presented in a systematic
way, and is connected to existing cognitive structures in a meaningful way. -
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QvyX5fAtl-k

10. Cognitivism in the Classroom
• Inquiry-oriented projects
• Opportunities for the testing of hypotheses
• Curiosity encouraged
• Staged scaffolding

11. what is hypotheses
• A supposition or proposed explanation made on the basis of
limited evidence as a starting point for further investigation
• A hypothesis is a proposed explanation for a phenomenon. For a
hypothesis to be a scientific hypothesis, the scientific method
requires that one can test it. Scientists generally base scientific
hypotheses on previous observations that cannot satisfactorily be
explained with the available scientific theories

12. Latest Cognitive Learning
• This type learning focuses on the thinking of students and how the students use
their thinking in order to solve the problem as cognitive learning works on the
principle of using old knowledge to create new knowledge. These students start
thinking critically and start using old information to create a new way to solve the
problem by using their thinking.

13. Critiques of Cognitivism
• Like Behaviorism, knowledge itself is given and
absolute
• Input Process Output model is mechanistic and
deterministic
• Does not account enough for individuality
• Little emphasis on affective characteristics

14. Social Learning Theory (SLT)
• Grew out of Cognitivism
• Learning takes place through observation and
sensorial experiences
• Imitation is the sincerest form of flattery
• SLT is the basis of the movement against violence
in media video games
Learning From Models -
• Albert Bandura (1973) - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pbe25oKpqbs
1. Attend to pertinent clues
2. Code for memory (store a visual image)
3. Retain in memory
4. Accurately reproduce the observed activity
5. Possess sufficient motivation to apply new learning
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6lYsmt9qUVI

15. Social Learning Theory
• Research indicates that the following factors influence the strength of
learning from models
1. How much power the model seems to have
2. How capable the model seems to be
3. How nurturing (caring) the model seems to be
4. How similar the learner perceives self and model
5. How many models the learner observes

16. Social Learning Theory
• Four interrelated processes establish and strengthen identification
with the model
1. Children want to be like the model
2. Children believe they are like the model
3. Children experience emotions like those the model is feeling.
4. Children act like the model.

17. Social Learning Theory
• Through identification, children come to believe they have the same
characteristics as the model.
When they identify with a nurturing and competent model, children
feel pleased and proud. When they identify with an inadequate model,
children feel unhappy and insecure.

18. SLT in the Classroom
• Collaborative learning and group work
• Modeling responses and expectations
• Opportunities to observe experts in action

19. Critiques of Social Learning Theory
• Does not take into account individuality,
context, and experience as mediating factors
• Suggests students learn best as passive receivers
of sensory stimuli, as opposed to being active
learners
• Emotions and motivation not considered important
or connected to learning

20. Social Constructivism
• Grew out of and in response to Cognitivism,
framed around metacognition
• Knowledge is actively constructed
Learning is
• A search for meaning by the learner
• Contextualized
• An inherently social activity
• Dialogic and recursive
• The responsibility of the learner
• Lev Vygotsky - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i3lv-DBh4w8
• Social Learning - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8I2hrSRbmHE
• Zone of Proximal Development

21. Social Constructivism in the Classroom
• Journaling
• Experiential activities
• Personal focus
• Collaborative cooperative learning

22. Critiques of Social Constructivism
• Suggests that knowledge is neither given nor
absolute
• Often seen as less rigorous than traditional
approaches to instruction
• Does not fit well with traditional age grouping
and rigid terms/semesters

23. Multiple Intelligences (MI)
• Grew out of Constructivism, framed around
metacognition
• H. Gardner (1983 to present) -
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s2EdujrM0vA
• All people are born with eight intelligences
• Enables students to leverage their strengths and
purposefully target and develop their weaknesses
1. Verbal-Linguistic
2. Visual-Spatial
3. Logical-Mathematical
4. Kinesthetic
5. Musical
6. Naturalist
7. Interpersonal
8. Intrapersonal

24. MI in the Classroom
• Delivery of instruction via multiple mediums
• Student-centered classroom
• Authentic Assessment
• Self-directed learning

25. Critiques of MI
• Lack of quantifiable evidence that MI exist
• Lack of evidence that use of MI as a curricular
and methodological approach has any discernable
impact on learning
• Suggestive of a departure from core curricula and
standards

26. Brain-Based Learning (BBL)
• Grew out of Neuroscience Constructivism
D. Souza, N. Caine G. Caine, E. Jensen (1980s to present)-
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-T9f50_uvlg
• 12 governing principles
1. Brain is a parallel processor
2. Whole body learning
3. A search for meaning
4. Patterning
5. Emotions are critical
6. Processing of parts and wholes
7. Focused attention peripheral perception
8. Conscious unconscious processes
9. Several types of memory
10. Embedded learning sticks
11. Challenge threat
12. Every brain is unique

27. BBL in the Classroom
• Opportunities for group learning
• Regular environmental changes
• A multi-sensory environment
• Opportunities for self-expression and making
personal connections to content
• Community-based learning

28. Critiques of BBL
• Research conducted by neuroscientists, not
teachers educational researchers
• Lack of understanding of the brain itself makes
brain-based learning questionable
• Individual principles have been scientifically
questioned

29. Connectivism
• Connectivism is a relatively new learning theory that suggests
students should combine thoughts, theories, and general
information in a useful manner. It accepts that technology is a major
part of the learning process and that our constant connectedness
gives us opportunities to make choices about our learning

31. Tools in Connectivism
The Technological pedagogical content
knowledge framework describes the kinds of
knowledge required by teachers for the
successful integration of technology in
teaching. It suggests that teachers need to
know about the intersections of technology,
pedagogy, and content.

32. TPACK
• Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) is the concept of transferring subject matter of teaching.
This happens with the application of multiple ways of teaching methods. The PCK used to deliver
core business of teaching, learning, curriculum, assessment, and reporting such as the conditions
that stimulate learning and the links among the curriculum, assessment and pedagogy.
• Technological Content Knowledge (TCK) have deep historical relationship and commonly used in
the field of medicine, archeology, history and physics. In this concept concentrate mainly on the
ways can digital technology use to increase the understand the subjects. Teachers required to
have capacity to teach more than one subject and they should have knowledge to handle specific
technologies to deliver knowledge effectively.
• Technological Pedagogical Knowledge (TPK) express how teaching and learning process can
change using technology. To develop TPK, the constrains need to understand well and required to
determine the affordances of technologies and disciplinary context within which they function is
required. TPK is important since most of the software programs such as Microsoft Office (Word,
Excel, Power point, MSN Messenger) designed to fulfill business requirements and Web based
technologies such as blogs and podcasts are designed for communication, entertainment and
social networking. Techers need to customized the technological tools developed for other
purpose, to meet the requirements of the pedagogical. Hence, TPK requires creative, forward
looking and open minded for uses of technology to make advancement of teaching and learning.
• TPACK is the highest level of knowledge compared to other three core components (content,
technology and pedagogy) expressed in this model. TPACK includes technology based teaching,
express concepts using technology, pedagogical techniques that use technologies in constructive
ways to teach content; knowledge of what makes concepts difficult or easy to learn and how
technology can help redress some of the problems that students face; knowledge of students’
prior knowledge and theories of epistemology; and knowledge of how technologies can be used
to build on existing knowledge to develop new epistemologies or strengthen old ones. In the
TPACK model content, technology, pedagogy and teaching/learning roles play individually and
together. To carry the successful teaching with technology, requires continuous creating,
maintaining and re-establishment of dynamic equilibrium in all components in the model.

33. Other Learning Theories of Note
• Andragogy (M. Knowles)
• Flow (M. Czikszentmihalyi)
• Situated Learning (J. Lave)
• Subsumption Theory (D. Ausubel)
• Conditions of Learning (R. Gagne)

34. Humanist
• All students are intrinsically motivated to self
actualize or learn
• Learning is dependent upon meeting a hierarchy of
needs (physiological, psychological and
intellectual)
• Learning should be reinforced.

36. The school environment for educational
policies

48. Composite Model

58. Student Engagement Strategies for a
Captivating Classroom
• Connect learning to the real world
• Engage with your students’ interests
• Fill “dead time”- “Dead time” is any point in a lesson where students are left without something to do. Fill these blank spaces
with low-order activities to hold students’ attention. These should be quick, easy, and require minimal follow-up
• Use group work and collaboration
• Encourage students to present and share work regularly
• Give your students a say
• Get your students moving
• Read the room - If you’re steadily losing students to doodling, off-topic chatter, and the pervasive “need to tear and ball up little
pieces of paper”, it’s time to shake things up
• Scaffold tasks with checkpoints
• Emphasize discovery and inquiry
• Ask good questions
• Allow for think time
• Shake things up
• Give brain breaks
• Be personable
• Encourage friendly competition
• Start lessons with introductory hooks
• Laugh together
• Use mixed media
• Gamify learning

59. Learner Demographics

60. TOOLS CAN FACILITATE THE TEACHING AND
LEARNING PROCESS
1) Shift the Focus in the Classroom
2) Organization of Course Content
3) Encourage Collaboration
4) Fast Feedback
5) Broaden the Horizon
6) Expand the Learning Environment
7) Teach at the Learner’s Own Pace
8) Tech Saves Time
9) Practice Makes Perfect
10) Express Yourself

62. Internal and External Stakeholders

64. Expectations and Needs of Learners

74. 8 Things Teachers Can Do to Help Students Succeed
• Set High Expectations
• Establish a Classroom Routine
• Practice the 'Daily Fives‘
• Continually Grow in Your Profession
• Help Students Climb Bloom's Taxonomy Pyramid
• Vary Your Instruction
• Show That You Care About Every Student
• Be Transparent and Ready to Help

75. How to Plan an Effective Lecture
• Be Flexible
• Set Goals
• Build in Assessments
• Plan Dynamic Lectures
• Provide Supports

88. Stakeholders’ Expectations and Needs

89. Stakeholders’
expectations and
Needs

90. Educational Organizations Expectation

94. Approaches to Engage Learners

107. 7 Points of Quality Education

110. How to provide quality Education?

111. Quality Management System in Education

112. Gap model of service quality

113. Gap model of service quality
• The provider gap 1: The listening gap
• Methods to capture information about customer expectations must be developed through marketing research. A lack of
upward communication can be one reason to the listening cap. Frontline employees who meet the customers, don’t bring
the information to the management level. From cultural point of you, if your business and employees are in the foreign
country, where problems are not spoken out so straight forward as we do in Finland, you need to find a new way to get
the needed information. Also a well-defined complaint handling procedure is important. Cultural training may be needed
for expatriates to handle face-to-face situations in the new country.
• The provider gap 2: The service design and standards
• Accurate perceptions and service design and customer-driven performance standards are necessary to delivering quality
service. Sometimes companies have difficulties in translating expectations into service quality specifications that
employees can understand and execute. Servicescape must meet the customer and employee needs. As mentioned
above, a fear of losing face in Asian countries may cause the situation where employees don’t admit if they haven’t
understood the instructions. Also a language barrier must be taken into account.
• The provider gap 3: The service performance gap
• The service performance gap means a difference between customer-driven service standards and actual service
performance by company employees. The firm must have systems, processes and people in place to ensure that service
delivery actually matches the design and standards. The standards must be backed up by appropriate resources (people,
systems, technology) and they must be effective. Employees should be measured and compensated based on their
performance. Companies need to take time in selecting employees and intermediaries. Many western companies have
faced surprising problems with service intermediaries (retailers etc.) abroad due to cultural issues.
• The provider gap 4: The communication gap
• The communication gap is a gap between delivery and providers external communications (promises made to customer
may be something the company cannot fulfill – empty promises must never be given). If employees who promote the
service do not fully understand the reality of service delivery, the communication fails. How to avoid communication
failures? Avoid overpromising, inadequate horizontal communication between sales and operations and inappropriate
prizing. Remember that too high price raises expectations (high-level quality is expected based on the high price).

114. A Total Quality Management (TQM) Model for
Educational Programme (6Ps Model)

115. A Total Quality Management (TQM) Model for
Educational Programme (6Ps Model)
• The 6Ps Model provides a holistic and integrated approach to manage the quality of educational programme in
higher education. It begins with the environmental scanning of external factors, an analysis of stakeholders'
needs and internal capabilities and resources of the university with the objective of determining the “Purpose”
in satisfying stakeholders satisfaction and outcomes.
• The facilitators and learners are the “People” at the centre of the process. The facilitators comprises both
content and context experts. The content experts need to consider the characteristics of the learners so that
relevant programme and place can be created for effective teaching and learning. While the context experts
provide services to support the teaching and learning.
• The “Programme” needs to be developed with the “purpose” and “people” in mind. Learning outcomes,
curriculum, teaching and learning strategies and assessment have to be constructively aligned for effective
learning and the achievement of the learning outcomes.
• The “Place” provides the relevant learning space (physical and virtual), learning environment (social and
psychological) and learning resources (materials, technology, etc.) to facilitate effective teaching and learning.
• The “Process” encompasses internal and external quality assurance, evaluation and feedback, benchmarking,
continuous improvement and review.
• The last "P" is "Promotion" which involves the marketing, branding, pricing and advertising of a programme.

116. Framework to develop quality in education

117. Why quality is so important for an
organization?

118. What is TQM?
TQM approach in education involves not only
achieving high quality but also influencing all
segments of the educational process:
organization, management, interpersonal
relations, material and human resources, etc.
Applying the approach described above,
quality becomes total (integral).

128. Roles and Responsibilities of Teaching Staff
• Teaching.
• Plan and teach lessons to the classes they are assigned to within the context of the school’s plans, curriculum and schemes of work.
• Assess, monitor, record and report on the learning needs, progress and achievements of assigned pupils.
• Participate in arrangements for preparing pupils for external examinations.
• Whole school organisation, strategy and development.
• Contribute to the development, implementation and evaluation of the school’s policies, practices and procedures in such a way as to support
the school’s values and vision.
• Work with others on curriculum and/or pupil development to secure co-ordinated outcomes.
• Supervise and, so far as practicable, teach any pupils where the person timetabled to take the class is not available to do so. This is subject to
the requirement that teachers should be required to provide cover only rarely.
• Health, safety and discipline.
• Promote the safety and wellbeing of pupils.
• Maintain good order and discipline amongst pupils.
• Management of staff and resources.
• Direct and supervise support staff assigned to them and, where appropriate, other teachers.
• Contribute to the recruitment, selection, appointment and professional development of other teachers and support staff.
• Deploy resources delegated to them.
• Professional development.
• Participate in arrangements for the appraisal and review of their own performance and, where appropriate, that of other teachers and
support staff.
• Participate in arrangements for their own further training and professional development and, where appropriate, that of other teachers and
support staff, including induction.
• Communication.
• Communicate with pupils, parents and carers.
• Working with colleagues and other relevant professionals.
• Collaborate and work with colleagues and other relevant professionals within and beyond the school.
• Out-of-school Activities
• According to the Department for Education, relevant bodies (ie those which decide the school’s pay policy) should decide whether to make
payments to teachers who participate in learning activities that take place out of school hours. These activities should require the teacher to
exercise professional judgment or skills

132. IMPORATANCE OF ASSESSMENTS

139. Why standardized approaches to teaching are
damaging?
• Standardized teaching may be more measurable – but it limits
teacher development and creativity
• There's so much going on in a classroom and it's a cognitively
complex activity

140. 5 approaches of effective teaching
• The five major approaches are Constructivist, Collaborative,
Integrative, Reflective and Inquiry Based Learning

141. Collaborative

142. Integrative

143. Reflective Learning

144. Inquiry Based Learning

145. Force field analysis
• Kurt Lewin's Force Field Analysis is a powerful strategic tool used to
understand what's needed for change in both corporate and personal
environments.
• The goal of a force field analysis is to collaboratively engage diverse
stakeholders to diagram the current and desired future states of the
initiative, what is driving the initiative towards goal achievement, and
barriers that have/will prevent progress

160. Benchmarking
• Benchmarking in education occurs when measurable standards are set for
learning. For example, benchmarks might be set for the concepts that must
be mastered in each grade. They might also be used to see where a
particular student, class, or even school ranks in comparison to others.
• The following are some of the potential areas of benchmarking in
education:
•learning strategies;
•e-learning;
•knowledge management;
•learning/teaching evaluation methods;
•learning resources;
•teaching methodologies;
•training methods and strategies; and
•learning technologies

161. Lean Management
• Lean for education is an improvement approach that encourages all
school and district employees to identify and solve problems that
prevent students and others who benefit from education from
achieving the highest quality outcomes possible.

162. Lean Management
• Lean offers a set of tools and techniques overarching principles for thinking
about organizational improvement.
• While the method is fundamentally about achieving efficiency and quality, it
also emphasizes the importance of relationships.
• Service providers (teachers and administrators) must know what their
customers (students and parents) need and value in order to deliver the best
product.
• Likewise, managers and frontline workers must have close working
relationships with each other to effectively solve problems together.
• Lean organizations know that there is always something that can be
improved, and they conduct iterative, rapid cycles of learning.
• At the heart of the model is the Plan-Do-Check-Act (PDCA) cycle. PDCA
cycles are built around the idea of gemba, a Japanese term signifying the
importance of going to the actual workplace to directly observe conditions
and ask questions.

164. Deming cycle
• In education, it is a means for ensuring that schools and programs are
constantly being improved upon.
• The PDSA cycle is one system that schools might use to ensure
continuous improvement. It is sometimes referred to as the Deming
cycle.
• PDSA is an acronym for plan, do, study, and act (or adjust)

165. Continuous Improvement
• Continuous improvement is one promising approach that public education
can use on its path to improved outcomes
• The term “continuous improvement” is used across industries to describe a
process or approach to problem solving that represents an ongoing effort to
improve outcomes (American Society for Quality, n.d.).
• In education, continuous improvement can refer to a school, district, or
other organization’s ongoing commitment to quality improvement efforts
that are evidence-based, integrated into the daily work of individuals,
contextualized within a system, and iterative (Park et al., 2013).
• At the classroom level, continuous improvement may refer to using timely,
accurate data to regularly inform and improve teacher practice.
• At a school or district level, continuous improvement may refer to ongoing
efforts to improve operational practices and processes related to efficiency,
effectiveness, and student outcomes.

166. Models in Continuous Improvement
• In all cases, continuous improvement involves a cyclical approach to
problem solving: it allows relevant actors to reflect on their work,
identify problem areas, pilot potential solutions to those problems,
observe and evaluate interventions, and adapt interventions based
on data collected (Flumerfelt & Green, 2013; Schmoker, 2006).
• There are multiple continuous improvement models built on this
same basic cycle, including Plan, Do, Study, Act (PDSA); Sig Sigma
(DMAIC); Lean; Results-Oriented-Cycle of Inquiry (ROCI); and Data
Wise (Park et al., 2013).

167. Sig Sigma (DMAIC)
• DMAIC is the problem-solving approach that drives Lean Six Sigma. It's a five-
phase method—Define, Measure, Analyze, Improve and Control
• DMAIC refers to a data-driven improvement cycle used for improving, optimizing
and stabilizing business processes and designs. The DMAIC improvement cycle is
the core tool used to drive Six Sigma projects. However, DMAIC is not exclusive to
Six Sigma and can be used as the framework for other improvement applications.

168. Continuous improvement process
• Establish a need to improve
• Determine current performance
• Obtain commitment
• Define the improvement objective
• Organize the diagnostic resources
• Carry out research
• Analysis cause of current performance
• Define and test solutions
• Produce improvement plans
• Overcome resistance to change
• Implement changes
• Controls to hold new levels of performance and repeat process

169. Educational Change and Development

190. Ideological foundations of education
• The word “Ideology” (Late 18th century, from French ideologic, literally
“Science of Ideas), is defined as a closely organized system of beliefs, values,
and ideas forming the basis of a social, economic, educational or political
philosophy or programme. It is also defined as a set of beliefs values, and
opinions that shapes the way an individual or a group such as a social class
thinks, acts, and understands the world.
• The adoption of an ideology is as necessary for a society as food for living
beings. The survival of a society with distinction among the nations of the
world totally depends on the ideology of that society. If a society has no
ideology it cannot survive as a distinct nation.
• The ideology of a nation or society greatly affects almost all aspects of the life
of those who comprise that society or nation. Education is also affected by the
ideology of the nation.
• Ideological foundations of education help in framing the aim and methods of
teachers training. They also help in the selection of purposeful and reasonable
content for learners. They also facilitate comparison with the world
contemporary ideologies.
• In a Muslim country like Pakistan the ideology should be based on the teaching
of Quran and Sunnah. It should stress on democracy, social justice and equality.
The educational system should be based this ideology.

196. National Curriculum changes
• Ed. Ministry to introduce new school curriculum next year
• The Education Ministry is to introduce a new school curriculum for
several grades from next year.
• The new curriculum will be introduced for Grades 1, 2, 6, 8 and 10.
• A pilot project on the new curriculum will be trialed at 215
government schools in the country from May 1, Education Reforms,
Open Universities & Distance Promotion State Ministry Secretary
Upali Sedera said. The curriculum will be introduced for these grades
across all government schools from 2023, Dr Sedera added.
• The curriculum of all other grades too will change from 2024. As
such, by 2024, students from grades 1-13 will be studying under the
new curriculum.
• The new curriculum is known as the “Skill Oriented Authentic Module
Curriculum.”

204. The Professional Standards for Teachers

210. Benefits for students
• Simply put, both students with and without disabilities learn more. Many studies
over the past three decades have found that students with disabilities have
higher achievement and improved skills through inclusive education, and their
peers without challenges benefit, too (Bui, et al., 2010; Dupuis, Barclay, Holms,
Platt, Shaha, & Lewis, 2006; Newman, 2006; Alquraini & Gut, 2012).
• For students with disabilities (SWD), this includes academic gains in literacy
(reading and writing), math, and social studies — both in grades and on
standardized tests — better communication skills, and improved social skills and
more friendships.
• Their peers without disabilities also show more positive attitudes in these same
areas when in inclusive classrooms. They make greater academic gains in reading
and math. Research shows the presence of SWD gives non-SWD new kinds of
learning opportunities. One of these is when they serve as peer-coaches. By
learning how to help another student, their own performance improves. Another
is that as teachers take into greater consideration their diverse SWD learners,
they provide instruction in a wider range of learning modalities (visual, auditory,
and kinesthetic), which benefits their regular ed students as well.

213. Modular or unit-based education
• Modules are components of education and training programmes.
• Units are a set of learning outcomes (knowledge, skills and/or
competences)

215. Flexible Education
• Flexible education systems enable learners to move within and across education,
training and employment. Flexibility means that young people can adapt their
learning pathway as they go along, to suit their interests and abilities.
• In systems that lack flexibility, it is difficult for young people to make transitions
from one learning pathway to another. They may find that they are restricted to
their original choice, even if they have realised that this choice isn’t right for
them. This can be a factor leading them to dropping out.
• Flexibility in the delivery and timing of learning opportunities means that young
people who have other demands on their time can continue to work towards
their chosen qualification, or can return to learning if they have already dropped
out.
• Young people facing barriers to learning or who have had to interrupt their
education may benefit from an extended period to complete their studies, the
possibility to attend courses on a part-time basis, or an alternative teaching
method (e.g. online learning).
• If systems are not permeable, it can be difficult for young people to progress, for
example from Vocational Education and Training (VET) to higher education (HE).
This can be a barrier to long-term career progression. It can also reinforce
negative perceptions of VET as a ‘second class’ option to general education.

219. Why holistic education is important?

222. Knowledge Transfer
• Knowledge transfer refers to sharing or disseminating of knowledge
and providing inputs to problem solving.
• In organizational theory, knowledge transfer is the practical problem
of transferring knowledge from one part of the organization to
another.

226. What works in online distance
Teaching and Learning?

227. Sources
• facultyweb.anderson.edu/jhaukerman/Learning20The
ory.ppt
• Matthew D. Laliberte www.nercomp.org/data/media/A
20Brief20History20of20Learning20Theory.ppt
• Michael A. Lorber, Ph.D. www.learningtechnologies.
ac.uk/.../PROJECT/resources/Learning20Theory/Reso
urces/learning20theories.ppt
• www.dcs.bbk.ac.uk/selene/reports/SeLeNe1.2.ppt