AZMIR LATIF
M.TECH (Textile Chemistry)

Hazard is a term associated with a substance that is
likelihood to cause an injury in a given environment or
situation. Industrial hazard may be defined as any
condition produced by industries that may cause injury or
death to personnel or loss of product or property.
Industrial hazards consist of four principle hazards. This is because
industries employ many different processes involving a wide range
of different raw materials, intermediates, waste products and final
products. The hazards encountered are fire, explosion, toxic
release and environmental damage.
Types of Industrial Hazards
1. Chemical hazards
2. Physical hazards
3. Biological hazards

Fire: This is the most frequent of the hazards however the consequences
are generally less. The effect of fire on people usually takes the form of
skin burns and is usually dependant on the exposure time and the intensity
of the heat. Fire can also produce toxic fumes like Acrolein, Carbon
monoxide and Cyanides. Physical structures can be damaged either by the
intensity of the heat or combustion. It may also have an effect on essential
services like power and instrumentation which can cause an escalation of
the incident
Explosion: Explosions are usually heard from far away as a ‘bang’. This is
the result of a shock wave. This overpressure can kill people but usually the
indirect effects of collapsing buildings, flying glass and debris causes far
more loss of life and severe injuries. There are different types of explosions
which include gas explosions and dust explosions. Gas explosions occur
when a flammable gas mixes with air and is exposed to an ignition source.
Dust explosions occur when flammable solids, especially metals, in the
form of fine powders are intensively mixed with air and ignited.

Toxic/Chemical release: Sudden releases of toxic vapours have the
potential to cause death and severe injuries several miles from the release
point. They are carried by water and air. Their release into public sewage
systems, rivers, canals and other water courses, either directly or through
contaminated water used in fire fighting can result in serious threat to
public. The number of casualties depends on the weather conditions,
population density in the path of the cloud and the effectiveness of the
emergency arrangements.
Environmental Damage: As well as having the potential for causing
injury, loss of life and damage to property, the hazards of fire, explosion
and toxic releases may pose a severe threat to the environment. Release of
other substances, not directly toxic to humans can cause major pollution
problems. It is becoming increasingly recognized that damage to natural
resources such as plant and animal life can have serious long term
consequences. E.g. destruction of trees is increasing the effect of global
warming and extinction of animals are severely disrupting food webs and
causing an increase in pests.

Textile industries involve diverse operations including
fiber synthesis, weaving, manufacturing, dyeing and
finishing. Textile operations have been studied
extensively and found numerous health and safety issues
associated with the textile industry. They include:
chemical exposure from the processing and dyeing of
materials, exposure to cotton and other organic dusts,
musculoskeletal stresses and noise exposure.

The manual transfer of powder dyes from bulk
containers to smaller containers generates significant
amounts of dust. Worker exposure to dye dust through
breathing or skin contact can result in adverse health
effects such as occupational asthma, eczema and severe
allergic reactions. In addition, the National Institute for
Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) recognizes
certain dyes as potential occupational carcinogens.
Therefore, NIOSH recommends limiting dye dust
exposures to the lowest feasible concentrations to
prevent these health problems.

Workers in powder dye handling operations are often poorly
protected from dust exposures. NIOSH research has shown that
worker exposures to dye dust can be effectively reduced by as
much as 70% with the following combination of controls:
adequate ventilation, redesigned bulk containers and appropriate
work practices.
**VENTILATION: Semi downdraft ventilation booths are
recommended for use during the manual transfer of dyes. A
vertical air shower pushes airborne dust out of the worker’s
breathing zone, until the dust is captured and exhausted from the
work area. All task associated with the manual transfer of
powdered dyes (weighting, scooping etc.) should be performed
inside the booth under the air shower.

**BULK CONTAINERS: Most powder dyes are kept in drums that range
in height from 30 to 36 inches. When manually transferring dye from these
drums, many workers must lean forward and place their heads inside the
drum to scoop out dye near the bottom. In this position, the worker is
greatly exposed to airborne dye dust, even in a ventilated booth. Shorter
drums should be used to eliminate the need for workers to place their heads
inside the drum. Maintaining a space between the worker’s face and the top
of the drum enables the booth ventilation to capture the dust before it
reaches the worker’s breathing zone. Limiting the drum height to 25 inches
significantly reduces worker dust exposures.
**WORK PRACTICES: Workers should use slow, smooth movements
when handling dye to keep dust concentrations low. Dye transport distances
between the bulk and process containers should be kept to a minimum. The
height at which the dye is dropped into a container should also be kept to a
minimum. Workers should avoid skin contact with the dyes by using
protective clothing such as gloves long sleeved shirts and aprons.

OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health
Administration) Amends Cotton Dust Standard Following
Regulatory Review:
The occupational safety and Health Administration today
called for comment on its amendment to the cotton dust
standard, which adds an improved method of washing cotton
to other procedures already exempted from portions of the
rule.
Cotton dust is a dust present in the air during the handling or
processing of cotton. This dust may contain a mixture of
many substances including ground up plant matter, fiber,
bacteria, fungi, soil, pesticides, non-cotton matter and other
contaminants.

Exposure to cotton dust can mean serious health problems. The first symptoms
of disease is difficulty in breathing or perhaps a tightness across the chest
which is particularly noticeable on the first day back at work after a worker
has been off for a few days. Workers also cough up phlegm or mucous.
If exposure above the OSHA limit continues, workers may develop byssinosis,
also known as “brown lung” disease. While earlier breathing difficulties may
be reversible, damage at the advanced stages of the disease is permanent and
disabling. Workers who develop brown lung may have to retire early because
they are so short of breath they can not do their normal jobs or even carry out
simple tasks. Exposure to cotton dust also leads to increased risk of chronic
bronchitis and emphysema.
At the time the final standard was published, as many as 100,000 workers in
the cotton industry were at risk from cotton dust exposure. An estimated
35,000 individuals are disabled from byssinosis as a result of exposure to
cotton dust.

Worker Protection: To protect workers from disabling
respiratory diseases, employers are required to limit the amount
of respirable cotton dust in the air. The limits known as
permissible exposure limit are average exposures as measured
over an eight-hour work per day. For yarn manufacturing the
limit is 200 micrograms of cotton dust per cubic meter of air; for
textile waste houses 500 micrograms; for slashing and weaving
operations 750 micrograms; and for waste recycling and
garneting 1000 micrograms.
Cotton seed processing operations are covered by the standard
but there is no permissible exposure limit.

Dust Measurement: Employees must measure the workplace
cotton dust level at least every six months or whenever there
are any changes in equipment or work practices which might
increase the amount of cotton dust in the air. The cotton dust
must be measured with a vertical elutriator or an equivalent
instrument. Measurements must be representative of an eight
hour period and performed for each shift and in each work
area. Employers must explain the procedure to their workers
and permit them to observe the monitoring. They must notify
employees in writing of the findings with in five days after
measurement. If the levels are above OSHA standards,
employer must list in the notice to employees the steps they
will take to correct problems.

Dust Controls: Often employers can reduce dust levels by
adjusting dust control equipment, such as ventilation systems and
by cleaning and repairing the equipment regularly. An employer’s
dust control program must include at a minimum the following:
Cleaning floors with a vacuum or another method that cuts down
the spreading of dust;
Disposing of dust in such a way that as little dust scatters as
possible;
Using mechanical methods to stack, dump or otherwise handle
cotton or cotton waste, when possible;
Checking, cleaning and repairing dust control equipment and
ventilation systems. Compressed air may not be used to clean
clothing and floor and may only be used to clean equipment if no
other methods are possible and workers involved in the cleaning
wear respirators.

CODE DEFINITION
Skin: Prevent skin contact Wear appropriate personal protective clothing to
prevent skin contact.
Eyes: Prevent eye contact Wear appropriate eye protection to prevent eye
contact.
skin: When contaminated The worker should immediately wash the skin when it
becomes contaminated.
skin: Daily The worker should wash daily at the end of each work
shift, and prior to eating, drinking, smoking etc.
Remove: When wet or
contaminated
Work clothing that becomes wet or significantly
contaminated should be removed and replaced.
Remove: When wet (flam) Work clothing that becomes wet should be
immediately removed due to its flammability hazard (i.
e. for liquids with a flash point<100˚ F).
Change: Daily Workers whose clothing may have become
contaminated should change into uncontaminated
clothing before leaving the work premises.

Fire and Explosion:
The fire hazards found in a dye works are the flammable solvents used
in the processes and certain flammable dyestuff. Safe storage facilities
should be provided for both: properly designed store rooms
constructed of fire-resisting materials with a raised and ramped sill at
the doorway so that escaping liquid is contained within the room and
prevented from flowing to a place where it may be ignited. It is
preferable that stores of this nature be located outside the main factory
building. If large quantities of flammable liquids are kept in tanks
outside the building, the tank area should be mounded to contain
escaping liquid.
Similar arrangements should be made when the gaseous fuel used on
the singing machines are obtained from a light petroleum fraction.
The gas-making plant and the storage facilities for the volatile
petroleum spirit should preferably be outside the building.

Many factories use hypochlorite solution for bleaching; in
others the bleaching agent is gaseous chlorine or bleaching
powder which releases chlorine when it is changed into the
tank. In other case, workers may be exposed to dangerous
levels of chlorine, a skin and eye irritant and a dangerous
pulmonary tissue irritant causing delayed lung edema.
To limit the escape of chlorine into the workers
atmosphere, bleaching vats should be designed as closed
vessel provided with vents that limit the escape of chlorine
so that the relevant recommended maximum exposure
levels are not exceeded. Atmospheric chlorine levels
should be checked periodically to ensure that the exposure
limit is not being exceeded.

Sizing Hazards:
*Safety: At Eco textiles mills, no polyvinyl alcohol
(PVA) is used; the company requires its mills to use
potato starch or carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) which is
cellulose dissolved by an acid to become a liquid. It is
used in food and is chemically inert-and non-toxic and is
allowed under global organic Textile standard.
In sizing section 5-10 cubic meter effluent is exhaust per
day. It is responsible for 1-5% effluent generation.

In bleaching section 220-250 cubic meter effluent exhaust per
day.
It is responsible for 10-15% effluent generation.
Chlorine bleach is known to be extremely toxic to the
environment and to consumers, yet chlorine based chemicals
are still often used to bleach fabrics. In Eco textiles mills, the
bleaching method must be oxygen-based (hydrogen per oxide)
and the waste water is treated. In one mill, ozone, a very new
technology is used for bleaching.
This technology relies on cool water (rather than having to
maintain the fabric in a hot water bath for many hours and the
ozone breaks down into water and oxygen.

Many textile manufacturers use dyes that release aromatic amines
(e. g. Benzedrine, toluidine). Dye bath effluents may contain
heavy metals, ammonia, alkali salts, toxic solids and large
amount of pigments – many of which are toxic. About 40 percent
of globally used colorants contain organically bound chlorine, a
known carcinogen.
Natural dyes are rarely low impact, depending on the specific dye
and mordant used. Mordants (the substance used to “fix” the
color into the fabric) such as chromium are very toxic and high
impact. The large quantities of natural dyestuffs required for
dyeing typically equal to or double that of the fibers own weight,
make natural dyes prepared from wild plants and lichens very
high impact.

Eco textiles uses low impact reactive dyes in a
closed 100 P system. While they are the lowest
impact fiber reactive dyes available, the dyes
are by no means low impact. At best about 80
percent of the dyestuff stay on the fabric, while
the rest go down the drain (although the water
is contained and treated before returning to the
ecosystem).
Eco textiles dyes contain no heavy metals so
the dye house waste water treatment yields
pristine water.

Printing is carried out on a roller printing machine. The dye or
pigment is thickened with starch or made into emulsion which, in
the case of pigment colors is prepared with an organic solvent.
The health hazards associated with this type of printing are the same
as those discussed above:
Solvent based pigment printing:
Solvent based printing system use large amount of solvents such
as mineral spirits in the thickening system. The major hazards are:
Flammability: The thickening systems contain up to 40% solvents
and are highly flammable.
Air emissions: Solvents in this print system will be flashed off
from the oven during dyeing and curing. Local environmental
regulation will dictate the permissible levels of volatile organic
compound (VOC) emissions that can be tolerated.

Aqueous-based pigment printing:
Pigment printing requires the use of a cross-linker to assist in the bonding of the
pigment to the fabric.
Formaldehyde has been found to be carcinogenic in mice but it has not yet been
conclusively associated with cancer in humans. It is classified as a group 2A
carcinogen, “probably carcinogenic to Human”, by the International Agency for
Research on Cancer (IARC).
To protect the local environment emission from the plant have to be monitored
to ensure that levels of formaldehyde do not exceed those stipulated by
applicable regulations.
Ammonia is often used as print-paste thickener. Care should be taken to handle
ammonia in a well ventilated area and to wear respiratory protection if
necessary.
Since all dyes and pigments used in printing are usually in liquid form, dust
exposure is not a hazard in printing as it is in dyeing.

One type of chemical finishing does not involve a
chemical reaction: the application of a softener or
a hand builder to modify the feel and texture of
the fabric, or to improve its sew ability. This
presents no significant Hazards except for the
possibility of irritation in skin and eye contact,
which can be prevented by the use of proper
gloves and eye protection.

Design and Pre-modification review: this involves proper layout,
facilities and material selection. Research should be done try to
substitute extremely toxic chemicals with safer ones. Less chemicals
should be stored; a reduction in inventory will
automatically mean less damage if an accident is to occur.
Chemical Risk Assessment: Chemicals are assessed based on
compatibility, flammability, toxicity, explosion hazards and storage.
Process Safety Management: HAZOP studies, reliability
assessment of process equipment, incorporating safety trips and
interlocks, scrubbing system, etc. should be done before effecting
major process changes. Management should try to develop a culture
of safety in industrial organizations

Safety Audits: Periodical assessment of safety
procedures and practices, performance of safety systems
and gadgets along with follow up measures should be
carried out.
Emergency Planning: A comprehensive risk analysis
indicating the impact of consequences and specific
written down and practiced emergency procedures along
with suitable facilities should be done. This can be done
by communities as well as national or regional
corporation authorities
Training: Proper training of employees and protective
services should be done.
Special times and escorts for dangerous vehicles

Public Cooperation on the road: the public should
cooperate with the police and any tankers and heavy duty
vehicles to avoid accidents and allow for the shortest possible
on road time for dangerous vehicles.
Public awareness: Everyone should be aware of potential
disasters and informed of protective and safety measures.
MSDS sheets should be readily available to the public.
Cautions must be placed to standout on dangerous household
and car care products.
Proper storage of hazardous Materials: All chemicals and
hazardous materials should be kept at proper storage
temperature and in locked cupboards away from children and
animals. Also, if reactive substances are stored, it should be
stored is a watertight container.

CONCLUSION
In the textile industry, dyeing, printing and finishing
operations present a mixture of old, generally small
establishment in which worker safety, health and welfare
are given little attention, and newer larger establishments
with ever improving technology in which, to the extent
possible, hazards control is built into the design of the
machinery. In addition to the specific hazards outline
above, such problems as substandard lighting, noise,
incompletely guarded machinery, lifting and carrying of
heavy and/or bulky objects, poor housekeeping and so on
remain ubiquitous. Therefore a well-formulated and
implemented safety and health program that includes the
training and effective supervision of workers is a
necessity.

AZMIR LATIF
M.TECH (Textile Chemistry)