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MOTIVATION,[object Object]
What are we going to cover,[object Object],What is motivation,[object Object],Nature / characteristics of motivation,[object Object],Classification of motivation,[object Object],What are motives,[object Object],Classification of motives ,[object Object],Theories of Work Motivation ,[object Object],Maslow's theory of need hierarchy,[object Object]
What are we going to cover,[object Object],Theories of Work Motivation,[object Object],Herzberg's two-factor theory,[object Object],Mc Gregor’s theory,[object Object],Vroom’s Expectancy theory,[object Object],Porter Lawler model,[object Object],Morale - Definition ,[object Object],Relationship with productivity ,[object Object],Morale Indicators,[object Object]
What is motivation?,[object Object],Motivation is a Latin word, which means to move.,[object Object],It is the willingness of an individual to respond to organisational requirements.,[object Object],Koontz O’Donnell defines it as “ a general term applying to the entire class of drives, desires, needs wishes & similar forces that induce an individual or a group of people at work.”,[object Object]
What is motivation?,[object Object],It can also be defined as “a willingness to expend energy to achieve a goal or a reward. It is a force that activates dormant energies & sets in motion the action of people. It is the function that kindles a burning passion for action among the human beings of an organisation.”,[object Object],Performance  =  Ability  x  Motivation,[object Object]
What is motivation?,[object Object],It is a process which starts with a physiological or psychological deficiency or need that activates or a drive that is aimed at a goal or incentive.,[object Object],Needs: are created when there is a deprivation or deficiency. Here, a physiological or psychological imbalance exists.,[object Object],Drives or motives: Drives are deficiencies with direction. They are action oriented & provide a thrust towards achieving an incentive or goal.,[object Object]
What is motivation?,[object Object],Incentive orgoal: Attaining an incentive will restore the balance. After achieving the goal, needs & drives will be reduced.,[object Object],Needs		     Drives    		 Incentive 			     or motives		 or Goal,[object Object]
Nature / characteristics of motivation,[object Object],Unending process: human wants keep changing & increasing.,[object Object],A psychological concept: deals with the human mind.,[object Object],Whole individual is motivated: as it is based on psychology of the individual.,[object Object]
Nature / characteristics of motivation,[object Object],Motivation may be financial or non-financial: Financial includes increasing wages, allowance, bonus, perquisites etc.,[object Object],Motivation can be positive or negative: positive motivation means use of incentives - financial or non-financial. Egs. of positive motivation: confirmation, pay rise, praise etc. Negative motivation means emphasizing penalties. It is based on force of fear. Eg. demotion, termination.,[object Object]
Nature / characteristics of motivation,[object Object],Motivation: motivation & job satisfaction are different. Motivation is goal-oriented behaviour. Job satisfaction is the outcome of job performance.,[object Object]
Classification of motivation,[object Object],Positive and negative,[object Object],Financial and non – financial,[object Object],Extrinsic and intrinsic: ,[object Object],Extrinsic motivation is available only after completion of the job. Eg. increase in wages, rest periods, holidays etc.,[object Object],Intrinsic motivation is available at the time of performance of a job. Eg. praise, recognition, delegation of authority & responsibility.,[object Object]
What are motives?,[object Object],A motive is an inner state that energizes, activates, or moves & directs, channels behaviour towards goals.,[object Object]
Classification of motives,[object Object],Motives can be classified as:,[object Object],Primary motives,[object Object],General motives,[object Object],Secondary motives,[object Object]
Classification of motives,[object Object],Primary motives: ,[object Object],Also called physiological / biological / unlearned motives. 2 criteria for the motive to be primary are that they should be unlearned & physiological.,[object Object],Eg. hunger, thirst, sleep, avoidance of pain, sex & material concern.,[object Object],Primary motives tend to reduce the tension or stimulation.,[object Object]
Classification of motives,[object Object],General motives: ,[object Object],Are ones which are unlearned but are not physiologically based.,[object Object],These needs induce the person to increase the amount of stimulation.,[object Object],Eg. curiosity, manipulation, activity & affection,[object Object]
Classification of motives,[object Object],Secondary motives: ,[object Object],These are the most important w.r.t. the study of O.B.,[object Object],A motive must be learned in order to be a secondary one.,[object Object],These drives are closely tied to the learning concepts, such as motives for power, achievement, affiliation referred to as n Pow, n Ach, n Aff.,[object Object],Security & status are also secondary motives.,[object Object]
Classification of motives,[object Object],Examples of key secondary needs:,[object Object],Need for Achievement:,[object Object],Doing better than competitors,[object Object],Attaining a difficult goal,[object Object],Solving a complex problem,[object Object],Need for power:,[object Object],Controlling people & activities,[object Object],Being in a position of authority over others,[object Object],Defeating an opponent ,[object Object]
Classification of motives,[object Object],Need for affiliation:,[object Object],Being liked by many people,[object Object],Working with people who are friendly & co-operative,[object Object],Participating in pleasant social activities,[object Object],Need for security:,[object Object],Having a secure job,[object Object],Having protection against illness & disability,[object Object],Avoiding tasks or decision with a risk of failure & blame,[object Object]
Classification of motives,[object Object],Need for status:,[object Object],Working for the right company in the right job,[object Object],Having a degree from the right university,[object Object],Having the right privileges,[object Object]
Theories of Work Motivation,[object Object],Maslow's theory of need hierarchy:,[object Object],Abraham Maslow, an American psychologist, viewed the motivation of human beings as arising from levels of hierarchy of needs.,[object Object],According to him, each one of us is a ‘wanting’ being.,[object Object]
Theories of Work Motivation,[object Object],His basic assumptions were: ,[object Object],All human needs cannot be satisfied, because, if one need is satisfied, another arises.,[object Object],A satisfied need does not motivate behaviour. eg. need for food motivates only till one gets food.,[object Object]
Theories of Work Motivation,[object Object],Some needs are innate (natural / inherent) eg. the need for food & water; while some are acquired from social experiences eg. need for social esteem.,[object Object],Human beings attempt to satisfy their needs in a specific order, based on hierarchy.,[object Object]
Theories of Work Motivation,[object Object],Maslow’s hierarchy of needs,[object Object],Self actualization       needs,[object Object],Esteem needs,[object Object],Social needs,[object Object],Safety & security needs,[object Object],Physiological needs,[object Object]
Theories of Work Motivation,[object Object],Maslow explained each level of hierarchy as follows: ,[object Object],Physiological needs: ,[object Object],These are necessary to sustain life. They include food, water, clothing, shelter. ,[object Object],These needs have the highest potency for motivation. ,[object Object],A person who lacks these will be motivated by these.,[object Object]
Theories of Work Motivation,[object Object],Safety needs:,[object Object],When physiological needs are reasonably satisfied, safety needs begin to manifest themselves.,[object Object],These needs include protection from physical dangers, such as fire or accident.,[object Object],Economic security, security of income against contingencies such as  sickness, injury, non-hostile working atmosphere are also safety needs.,[object Object]
Theories of Work Motivation,[object Object],Social needs:,[object Object],When physiological & safety needs are reasonably satisfied, social needs become important motivators.,[object Object],Man is a social being & wants to receive & give acceptance, friendship & affection.,[object Object],He feels the need for belonging, for being an accepted member of a formal or an informal group.,[object Object]
Theories of Work Motivation,[object Object],Esteem needs:,[object Object],When the first three needs are essentially satisfied, esteem needs become dominant.,[object Object],The person must feel important & must also receive recognition from others, as that recognition supports the feelings of personal worth.,[object Object],Thus feelings of self-esteem, self-confidence, prestige & power are produced which are related to enhancing competence, knowledge & achievement.,[object Object]
Theories of Work Motivation,[object Object],Self actualization needs:,[object Object],At the summit of the hierarchy is the need to realize one’s potentialities so as to satisfy what Maslow referred to as ‘the desire to become everything that one is capable of becoming.’,[object Object],Thus the person becomes interested in self-fulfillment, self-development, & creativity in the broadest sense of the term.,[object Object]
Theories of Work Motivation,[object Object],Criticisms of Maslow’s theory:,[object Object],Hierarchy cannot be regarded as rigid. For some people, the levels may not be clearcut & may tend to overlap.,[object Object],Some individuals may lack ambition & may remain at the primary levels of the hierarchy concerned only with physiological & safety needs.,[object Object]
Theories of Work Motivation,[object Object],The order suggested by Maslow may not be applicable to everybody.,[object Object],A single need cannot motivate an individual. There may be several & that too in combinations, existing.,[object Object],Hence the theory may not have universal validity.,[object Object]
To be continued …..,[object Object],Theories of Work Motivation,[object Object],Herzberg's two-factor theory,[object Object],Mc Gregor’s theory,[object Object],Vroom’s Expectancy theory,[object Object],Porter Lawler model,[object Object],Morale - Definition ,[object Object],Relationship with productivity ,[object Object],Morale Indicators,[object Object]
Motivation,[object Object]
What are we going to cover,[object Object],Theories of Work Motivation – contd.,[object Object],Herzberg's two-factor theory,[object Object],Mc Gregor’s theory,[object Object],Vroom’s Expectancy theory,[object Object],Porter Lawler model – also imp, not written in syll.,[object Object],Morale - Definition ,[object Object],Effects of Morale ,[object Object],Relationship of morale with productivity ,[object Object],Morale Indicators,[object Object]
Theories of Work Motivation,[object Object],Herzberg's two-factor theory:,[object Object],Frederick Herzberg, in the late 1950s conducted a study on motivation. He and his associates used semi-structured interviews to elicit from 200 engineers & accountants in Pittsburgh area, the factors which satisfy or dissatisfy the workers.,[object Object]
Theories of Work Motivation,[object Object],His study revealed that factors responsible for job satisfaction are quite different from those responsible for job dissatisfaction.,[object Object],Certain factors give job satisfaction, but absence of these does not mean job dissatisfaction. It only means no job satisfaction.,[object Object],Similarly, certain factors cause job dissatisfaction, but absence of these does not mean job satisfaction. It only means no job dissatisfaction.,[object Object]
Theories of Work Motivation,[object Object],According to Herzberg, motivational factors are responsible for job satisfaction; and Hygiene or Maintenance factors are responsible for job dissatisfaction.,[object Object]
Theories of Work Motivation,[object Object],Motivational factors:,[object Object],The presence of these factors motivates workers & at the same time, absence of these does not cause dissatisfaction. ,[object Object]
Theories of Work Motivation,[object Object],Hygiene or Maintenance factors:,[object Object],The presence of these factors maintains motivation at zero level, but absence of these factors causes serious dissatisfaction. ,[object Object],In other words, presence of these factors prevents dissatisfaction.,[object Object],Maintaining motivation at zero level thus prevents negative motivation, hence they are called maintenance factors.,[object Object]
Theories of Work Motivation,[object Object],Motivators				Hygiene factors,[object Object],Achievement			Co. policy & admn.,[object Object],Work itself				Interpersonal relations	,[object Object],Recognition			Supervision,[object Object],Responsibility			Money,[object Object],Advancement			Job security,[object Object],Possibility of growth		Status,[object Object],						Working conditions,[object Object]
Theories of Work Motivation,[object Object],Herzberg’s framework is compatible with Maslow’s need hierarchy. Maslow’s lower order needs are analogous to Herzberg’s hygiene factors & his upper level needs correspond to Herzberg’s motivators.,[object Object],Herzberg’s theory was also challenged by the thought that there exists a tendency of people to attribute good results to their own effort & blame others for poor results.,[object Object]
Theories of Work Motivation,[object Object],Douglas Mc Gregor’s X & Y theory:,[object Object],Theory X :,[object Object],This theory assumes that most people prefer to be directed, are not interested in assuming responsibility & want safety above all.,[object Object],Accompanying this philosophy is the belief that work is inherently distasteful to most people & people are motivated by money & the threat of punishment.,[object Object]
Theories of Work Motivation,[object Object],Managers who accept Theory X assumptions, attempt to structure, control & closely supervise their subordinates.,[object Object],Theory Y:,[object Object],This theory assumes that people are not by nature lazy & unreliable. Man can be self-directed & creative at work, if properly motivated.,[object Object]
Theories of Work Motivation,[object Object],Managers who accept this theory, attempt to help their employees mature, by exposing them to progressively less control, allowing them to assume more self-control.,[object Object],Employees are able to achieve the satisfaction of social esteem & self-actualization needs with this kind of environment.,[object Object]
Theories of Work Motivation,[object Object]
Theories of Work Motivation,[object Object]
Theories of Work Motivation,[object Object]
Theories of Work Motivation,[object Object]
Theories of Work Motivation,[object Object],Vroom’s Expectancy theory:,[object Object],The model is built around the concepts of valence, instrumentality & expectancy & is commonly called VIE theory.,[object Object],By valence, Vroom means the strength of an individual’s preference for a particular outcome. ,[object Object]
Theories of Work Motivation,[object Object],Valence is positive when a person prefers attaining the outcome to not attaining it.,[object Object],Valence is zero when the individual is indifferent towards the outcome.,[object Object],Valence is negative when a person prefers not attaining the outcome to attaining it.,[object Object]
Theories of Work Motivation,[object Object],Another major input into the valence is the instrumentality of the first level outcome in obtaining a desired second level outcome.,[object Object],Eg. person would be motivated towards superior performance because of the desire to be promoted. The superior performance (first level outcome) is seen as being instrumental in obtaining a promotion (second level outcome).,[object Object]
Theories of Work Motivation,[object Object],Another important variable is Expectancy. It relates efforts to first level outcomes; while instrumentality relates first level & second level outcomes.,[object Object],So, expectancy is the probability (ranging from 0 to 1) that a particular action or effort will lead to a particular first level outcome.,[object Object],Instrumentality refers to the degree to which a first level outcome will lead to a desired second level outcome.,[object Object]
Theories of Work Motivation,[object Object],Strength of motivation to perform a certain act will depend on the algebraic sum of the products of the valences of outcome (which include instrumentality) times the expectancies.,[object Object],Motivational force F:,[object Object],F = ∑ Valence x Expectancy,[object Object]
Theories of Work Motivation,[object Object],VIE theory,[object Object],						Instrumentalities,[object Object],			Expectancy,[object Object],Second level,[object Object],First level		        outcomes,[object Object],				        outcomes,[object Object],				      			        Outcome 1 a,[object Object],				       Outcome 1			,[object Object],							        Outcome 1 b,[object Object],Motivational,[object Object],Force F						        Outcome 2 a ,[object Object],				       Outcome 2		        Outcome 2 b,[object Object],							        Outcome 2 c ,[object Object]
Theories of Work Motivation,[object Object],Eg. of VIE theory,[object Object],						Instrumentalities,[object Object],			Expectancy,[object Object],			that the         			        Second level,[object Object],workersFirst level		        outcomes,[object Object],will achieve    outcomes,[object Object],			the orgnal      			        Personal goals,[object Object],			goals	       Production		        i.e. money,	,[object Object],				       standard		        recognition,,[object Object],Motivation		       i.e. the 		        security,[object Object],Of				       organisational,[object Object],workers 		       goal	         ,[object Object]
Theories of Work Motivation,[object Object],This model can clarify the relationship between individual & organisational goals. Eg. suppose workers are given a certain standard of production.,[object Object],By measuring the worker’s output, mgt can determine how imp. their personal goals are, the instrumentality of the organisational goal in attaining their personal goals & the worker’s expectancies that their effort & ability will accomplish the organisational goals.,[object Object]
Theories of Work Motivation,[object Object],If the output is below standard, it may be that workers do not give high importance to the second level outcome; ,[object Object],or they may not see the first level outcome being instrumental in achieving the second level outcome;,[object Object],or they may think that their efforts will not accomplish the first level outcome.,[object Object],Anyone or a combination of these possibilities will result in low motivation, according to Vroom.,[object Object]
Morale,[object Object]
What is Morale?,[object Object],The dictionary meaning is mood & spirit. High morale means an enthusiastic, confident feeling with respect to individual or group achievement.,[object Object],In employment, morale refers to the participative attitudes towards achievement of organisational objectives. It means team spirit & togetherness of people for a common purpose. ,[object Object]
What is Morale?,[object Object],It is defined as the capacity of a group of people to pull together persistently (i.e. tirelessly, patiently) & consistently (again & again) in the pursuit of a common purpose.,[object Object]
What is Morale?,[object Object],It consists of 3 different aspects:,[object Object],Feeling of being accepted by one’s work group,[object Object],Sharing common goals with one’s group,[object Object],Having confidence in the desirability of these goals.,[object Object]
What is Morale?,[object Object],Individual & group morale:,[object Object],An individual’s morale is related with knowing one’s expectations & living up to them.,[object Object],It reflects the individual’s attitude towards life.,[object Object],Group morale reflects the group feeling – a group assessment of conditions – esprit de corps (team spirit),[object Object]
Effects of Morale,[object Object],Relationship of morale with productivity:,[object Object],There are various schools of thought on this concept.,[object Object],Some believe that high morale is related to high productivity & vice-versa.,[object Object],Some believe that morale is not related to productivity.,[object Object]
Effects of Morale,[object Object],Miller & Form have given 4 combinations of morale & productivity:,[object Object],High productivity – high morale,[object Object],Low productivity – high morale,[object Object],High productivity – low morale,[object Object],Low productivity – low morale,[object Object]
Effects of Morale,[object Object],High productivity – high morale: this situation occurs when group goals (pride in work group, group recognition) & individual goals (freedom on work, good wages, job interest) are satisfied leading to high motivation, high productivity & high morale.,[object Object]
Effects of Morale,[object Object],Low productivity – high morale: individual goals only are satisfied. Individual behaviour is determined by informal groups causing restriction of output, where supervisors lack technical & administrative skills & where workers lack adequate skills.,[object Object]
Effects of Morale,[object Object],High productivity – low morale: in this situation, supervisor is only able to increase productivity through his skills or planning ability by use of penalty (loss of pay or loss of job) rather than motivating the workers.,[object Object],Low productivity – low morale: occurs when opposite factors to situation 1 arise.,[object Object]
Morale Indicators,[object Object],Organisation itself: goals, public reputation, organisational structure,[object Object],Nature of work: routine or specialised, stress,[object Object],Level of satisfaction: is determined by – opportunity for advancement, job security, opportunity to learn, use new ideas, co-operation of fellow employees, working hours, recognition, communication.,[object Object]
Morale Indicators,[object Object],Supervision received: high rate of turnover indicates a poor leadership.,[object Object],Perception of the self: Morale of employees who lack self-confidence or who suffer from a poor physical or mental health is generally low.,[object Object],Employee’s perception of past awards & future opportunities for rewards: whether fair, satisfactory,[object Object]
Morale Indicators,[object Object],Employee’s age: Earlier belief was that there exists a U shaped relation between age & morale – initially high, then low & again high.,[object Object],But, today it is believed that there is a direct relationship – high morale with high age, because of stability, serious attitude towards work, reliability, less absenteeism, sense of responsibility.,[object Object]
Morale Indicators,[object Object],Employee’s educational level & occupational level: ,[object Object],Inverse relation exists between educational level & morale. Higher the education, less satisfaction – because employee compares his attainment with others.,[object Object],But a high educational level gives the opportunity to be high in the ladder, hence satisfaction must be derived by the individual.,[object Object]
Morale Indicators,[object Object],Occupational level: also influences morale. Eg. executives are more satisfied than managers, managers are more satisfied than the subordinates etc.,[object Object]
To sum up…..,[object Object],A manager’s success depends on how well he can motivate his subordinates & boost their morale to give their best & also keep them satisfied.  ,[object Object],Motivation is one of the key tools for the success of any enterprise.,[object Object]
McClelland Achievement Motivation Theory,[object Object]
What is Motivation?,[object Object],The word 'motivation' comes from the Latin word meaning 'to move‘,[object Object],External motivation: bonus, work conditions (getting the office with the window) ,[object Object],An inner (self-motivation) or outer drive to meet a need or goal ,[object Object]
Why is Motivation Important?,[object Object],It is one of the three key elements in performance,[object Object],Performance = f {Ability x Motivation x Opportunity},[object Object],Ability refers to a natural talent to do something mental or physical ,[object Object],Motivation is not a stable individual characteristic. Motivation is not a trait. ,[object Object],Opportunity refers to the different situations that workers may find themselves in. ,[object Object]
McClelland's Achievement Motivation,[object Object],McClelland's Achievement Motivation Theory is based upon the idea that people have an achievement need. An achievement need is the need to be successful and to receive recognition for your success.,[object Object]
3 characteristics of people,[object Object],Need for Achievement - doing innovative, new, interesting and challenging things. ,[object Object],Need for Affiliation - the need for feedback / contact with others. ,[object Object],Need for Power - the need for responsibility, or to be responsible for others. ,[object Object]
McClelland's experiment,[object Object],-- The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) --,[object Object],	It consisted of showing individuals a series of pictures and asking them to give brief descriptions of what was happening in the pictures. The responses were analysed in terms of the presence or absence of certain themes. The themes McClelland and his associates were looking for revolved around the following motivators: achievement, affiliation and power.,[object Object]
THEMATICAPPERCEPTION TEST,[object Object],The Thematic Apperception Test or TAT is amongst the most widely used, researched, and taught psychological tests,[object Object],TAT was developed by the American psychologist Henry A. Murray and Christina D. Morgan at during the 1930s to explore the underlying dynamics of personality, such as internal conflicts, dominant drives and interests and motives. ,[object Object]
It uses a standard series of 31 provocative yet ambiguous pictures about which the subject must tell a story.,[object Object], A subject is asked questions such as: What dialogue might be carried on between characters? How might the "story" continue after the picture shown?,[object Object], For this reason, the TAT is also known as the 'picture interpretation technique'. ,[object Object]
Today, the TAT is widely used as a tool for research around areas of psychology such as dreams, fantasies and what motivates people to choose their occupation.,[object Object], Sometimes it is used in a psychiatric context to assess disordered thinking, in forensic examinations to evaluate crime suspects or to screen candidates for high-stress occupations.,[object Object]
THE NEXT FEW SLIDES WILL CONTAIN SOME PICTURES.,[object Object],THEIR MEANING WILL DIFFER FROM PERSON TO PERSON AS THEY WILL BE INTEPRETED ACOORDING TO INDIVIDUAL PERCEPTION,[object Object]
Motivation All Theory
Motivation All Theory
Motivation All Theory
Motivation All Theory
Achievement,[object Object],The need for achievement is characterised by the wish to take responsibility for finding solutions to problems, master complex tasks, set goals, get feedback on level of success.,[object Object]
THE NEED FOR ACHIEVEMENT (N-ACH),[object Object],	The n-ach person is 'achievement motivated' and therefore: ,[object Object],seeks achievement, ,[object Object],attainment of realistic but challenging goals, ,[object Object], advancement in the job.,[object Object], There is a strong need for feedback as to achievement and progress, accompained with a need for a sense of accomplishment.,[object Object]
Affiliation ,[object Object],The need for affiliation is characterised by a desire to belong, an enjoyment of teamwork, a concern about interpersonal relationships, and a need to reduce uncertainty. ,[object Object]
THE NEED FOR AFFILIATION (N-AFFIL),[object Object],The n-affil person is 'affiliation motivated',,[object Object],He has a need for friendly relationships and is motivated towards interaction with other people.,[object Object], The affiliation driver produces motivation and need to be liked and held in popular regard. ,[object Object],These people are team players.,[object Object]
Power (Influence),[object Object],The need for power is characterised by a drive to control and influence others, a need to win arguments, a need to persuade and prevail. ,[object Object]
THE NEED FOR AUTHORITY AND POWER (N-POW),[object Object],	The n-pow person is 'authority motivated'. This driver produces a need to be ,[object Object],influential, ,[object Object],effective ,[object Object],to make an impact.,[object Object], There is a strong need to lead and for their ideas to prevail. ,[object Object],There is also motivation and need towards increasing personal status and prestige.,[object Object]
TYPES OF POWER,[object Object],A persons need for power is of two types,[object Object],PERSONAL POWER,[object Object],	Those who need Personal Power want to direct others, which is often perceived as undesirable.,[object Object]
INSTITUTIONAL POWER,[object Object],Persons who need Institutional power or Social Power want to organise the efforts of others to further the goals of the organisation.,[object Object],Managers with high need for institutional power tend to be more effective managers as compared to those with high Personal Power.,[object Object]
Need for Achievement and Entrepreneurship,[object Object],McClelland further described the profile of an entrepreneur as someone high in achievement motivation and low in power motivation, while good managers have high power motivation and low achievement motivation.,[object Object]
Direction,[object Object],What Is Motivation?,[object Object],Intensity,[object Object],Persistence,[object Object]
Why Rewards Often Fail to Motivate,[object Object],[object Object]
Rewards lack an “appreciation effect”
Extensive benefits become entitlements
Counterproductive behavior is rewarded
Too long a delay between performance and rewards
Too many one-size-fits-all rewards
Use of one-shot rewards with a short-lived motivational impact
Continued use of demotivating practicessuch as layoffs, across-the-boardraises and cuts, and excessive executive compensation,[object Object]
Schedules of Reinforcement,[object Object],Schedule			Description,[object Object],Continuous		Reinforcer follows every response(CRF),[object Object],IntermittentReinforcer does not follow every response,[object Object],Fixed ratio (FR)A fixed number of responses must be			emitted before reinforcement occurs.,[object Object],Variable ratio (VR)A varying or random number of responses			must be emitted before reinforcement occurs.,[object Object],Fixed interval (FI)The first response after a specific period of			time has elapsed is reinforced,[object Object],Variable interval (VI)The first response after varying or randomperiods of time have elapsed is reinforced.,[object Object]
Maslow’s,[object Object],Hierarchy,[object Object],of Needs,[object Object],Self,[object Object],Esteem,[object Object],Social,[object Object],Safety,[object Object],Physiological,[object Object]
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory,[object Object],Hygiene Factors,[object Object],Motivational Factors,[object Object],[object Object]
 Rate of pay
 Company policies
 Working conditions
 Relations with others
 Job security
 Career Advancement
 Personal growth
 Recognition
 Responsibility
 AchievementJob Satisfaction,[object Object],0,[object Object],High,[object Object],High,[object Object],Job Dissatisfaction,[object Object]
Alderfer’s ERG Theory,[object Object],Existence,[object Object],Growth,[object Object],Relatedness,[object Object]
The Theory,[object Object],of Needs,[object Object],David,[object Object],McClelland,[object Object],Need for,[object Object],Achievement,[object Object],(nAch),[object Object],Need for,[object Object],Power,[object Object],(nPow),[object Object],Need for,[object Object],Affiliation,[object Object],(nAff),[object Object]
Intrinsic,[object Object],Motivators,[object Object],Extrinsic,[object Object],Motivators,[object Object],Cognitive Evaluation,[object Object]
The Job Characteristics Model,[object Object],Outcomes,[object Object],Critical,[object Object],psychological,[object Object],states,[object Object],Core job,[object Object],characteristics,[object Object],*High internal  work   motivation*High growth  satisfaction*High general  job satisfaction*High work  effectiveness,[object Object],*Experienced  meaningfulness of the  work*Experienced  responsibility for  outcomes of the work*Knowledge of the actual  results of the work  activities,[object Object],*Skill variety*Task identity*Task  significance*Autonomy*Feedback from  job,[object Object],            Moderators,[object Object],1. Knowledge and skill,[object Object],2. Growth need strength,[object Object],3. Context satisfactions,[object Object]
Approaches to Job Design,[object Object],1. The Mechanistic Approachfocuses on identifying the most efficient way to perform a job.  Employees are trained and rewarded to perform their jobs accordingly.,[object Object],2.  Motivational Approachesthese techniques (job enlargement, job rotation, job enrichment, and job characteristics) attempt to improve employees’ affective and attitudinal reactions and behavioral outcomes.,[object Object],3. Biological and Perceptual- Motor ApproachesBiological techniques focus on reducing employees’ physical strain, effort, fatigue, and health complaints. The Perceptual-Motor Approach emphasizes the reliability of work outcomes by examining error rates, accidents, and workers’ feedback about facilities and equipment.,[object Object]
Skills and Best Practices: Applying the Job Characteristics Model,[object Object],Diagnose the level of employee motivation and job. satisfaction and consider redesigning jobs when motivation ranges from low to moderate.,[object Object],Determine whether job redesign is appropriate in a given context.,[object Object],Redesign jobs by including employees’ input.,[object Object]
Equity Theory,[object Object],Ratio ,[object Object],Comparison*,[object Object],Employee’s,[object Object],Perception,[object Object],Outcomes A,[object Object],Inputs A,[object Object],Outcomes A,[object Object],Inputs A,[object Object],Outcomes A,[object Object],Inputs A,[object Object],Outcomes B,[object Object],Inputs B,[object Object],Outcomes B,[object Object],Inputs B,[object Object],Outcomes B,[object Object],Inputs B,[object Object],<,[object Object],Inequity (Under-Rewarded),[object Object],=,[object Object],Equity ,[object Object],>,[object Object],Inequity (Over-Rewarded),[object Object],*Where A is the employee, and B is a relevant other or referent.,[object Object]
$2,[object Object],1 hour,[object Object],$4,[object Object],2 hours,[object Object],= $2 per hour,[object Object],= $2 per hour,[object Object],Negative and Positive Inequity,[object Object],A. An Equitable Situation,[object Object],Other,[object Object],Self,[object Object]
B. Negative Inequity,[object Object],Self,[object Object],Other,[object Object],$2,[object Object],1 hour,[object Object],$3,[object Object],1 hour,[object Object],= $2 per hour,[object Object],= $3 per hour,[object Object],Negative and Positive Inequity (cont),[object Object]
$2,[object Object],1 hours,[object Object],$3,[object Object],1 hour,[object Object],= $1 per hour,[object Object],= $3 per hour,[object Object],Negative and Positive Inequity (cont),[object Object],C. Positive Inequity,[object Object],Other,[object Object],Self,[object Object]
Organizational Justice,[object Object],Distributive Justice:The perceived fairness of how resources and rewards are distributed.,[object Object],Procedural Justice:The perceived fairness of the process and procedures used to make allocation decisions.,[object Object],Interactional Justice:The perceived fairness of 			the decision maker’s 				behavior in the process of 			decision making.,[object Object]
Distributive,[object Object],Justice,[object Object],Procedural,[object Object],Justice,[object Object],Amount and,[object Object],Allocation,[object Object],of Rewards,[object Object],Perceived,[object Object],Fairness of the,[object Object],Distribution Process,[object Object],Research into Equity,[object Object]
Equity Sensitivity,[object Object],Equity Sensitivity is an individual’s tolerance for negative and positive equity.,[object Object],[object Object]
 Sensitives
 Entitleds,[object Object]
1. Effort-performance relationship ,[object Object],2. Performance-rewards relationship ,[object Object],3. Rewards-personal goals relationship ,[object Object],Expectancy Theory,[object Object],Individual,[object Object],Effort,[object Object],Individual,[object Object],Performance,[object Object],Organizational,[object Object],Rewards,[object Object],1,[object Object],2,[object Object],3,[object Object],Personal,[object Object],Goals,[object Object]
Vroom’s Expectancy Theory Concepts,[object Object],Expectancy:Belief that effort leads to a specific level of performance,[object Object],Instrumentality:A performance  outcome perception.,[object Object],Valence:The Value of a reward or outcome,[object Object]
Managerial Implications of Expectancy Theory,[object Object],Determine the outcomes employees value.,[object Object],Identify good performance so appropriate behaviors can be rewarded.,[object Object],Make sure employees can achieve targeted performance levels.,[object Object],Link desired outcomes to targeted levels of performance.,[object Object],Make sure changes in outcomes are large enough to motivate high effort.,[object Object],Monitor the reward system for inequities.,[object Object]
Organizational Implications of Expectancy Theory,[object Object],Reward people for desired performance, and do not keep pay decisions secret.,[object Object],Design challenging jobs. ,[object Object],Tie some rewards to group accomplishments to build teamwork and encourage cooperation.,[object Object],Reward managers for creating, monitoring, and maintaining expectancies, instrumentalities, and oucomes that lead to high effort and goal attainment.,[object Object],Monitor employee motivation through interviews or anonymous questionnaires.,[object Object],Accommodate individual differences by building flexibility into the motivation program.,[object Object]
Goal-Setting Theory,[object Object],Specificity,[object Object],Challenge,[object Object],Feedback,[object Object],Participation,[object Object],Commitment,[object Object],Self-efficacy,[object Object],Characteristics,[object Object],Culture,[object Object]
Insights from Goal-Setting Research,[object Object],[object Object]
Specific Difficult Goals Lead to Higher Performance for Simple Rather Than Complex Tasks.- Goal specificity pertains to the quantifiability of a goal.- Specific difficult goals impair performance on novel, complex   tasks when employees do not have clear strategies for   solving these types of problems.
Feedback Enhances The Effect of Specific, Difficult Goals.- Goals and feedback should be used together.,[object Object]
Goal Commitment and Monetary Incentives Affect Goal-Setting Outcomes.- Difficult goals lead to higher performance when employees  are committed to their goals.- Difficult goals lead to lower performance when employees are not committed to their goals.- Goal based incentives can lead to negative outcomes for employees in complex, interdependent jobs requiring cooperation.,[object Object]
An Integrative Model of Motivation,[object Object],High,[object Object],nAch,[object Object],Equity,[object Object],Comparison,[object Object],OO,[object Object],   IA       IB ,[object Object],Ability,[object Object],Opportunity,[object Object],Performance,[object Object],Appraisal Criteria,[object Object],Personal,[object Object],Goals,[object Object],Individual,[object Object],Performance,[object Object],Individual,[object Object],Effort,[object Object],Organization,[object Object],Rewards,[object Object],Reinforcement,[object Object],Performance,[object Object],Appraisal,[object Object],System,[object Object],Dominant,[object Object],Needs,[object Object],Goals Direct,[object Object],Behavior,[object Object]
Special Motivation Issues,[object Object],Professionals,[object Object],Contingent workers,[object Object],Diversified workforce,[object Object],Low-skilled service workers,[object Object],Highly repetitive tasks,[object Object]
MOTIVATION,[object Object]
What is motivation ?,[object Object],It is a result of interaction between the individual and the situation ,[object Object],The word “Motivation” has been derived from a Latin word “movere” meaning “to move”.,[object Object], Stephen Robbins defines motivation as “the process that accounts for an individual’s intensity, direction and persistence of effort towards attaining a goal”,[object Object]
What is motivation ?,[object Object], Intensity – ,[object Object], Direction – ,[object Object], Persistence – ,[object Object],How hard?,[object Object],Where are the efforts going ?,[object Object],How long?,[object Object]
What is motivation ?,[object Object],According to Fred Luthans “ motivation is a process that starts with physiological and psychological deficiency or need that activates a behavior or a drive that is aimed at a goal or incentive” ,[object Object], Needs : are created where there is physiological or psychological imbalance.,[object Object], Drives : or motives are set up to alleviate needs,[object Object], Incentives : are anything that will alleviate a need & reduce the drive.,[object Object]
Types of motives,[object Object],Primary Motives,[object Object], General Motives,[object Object], Secondary Motives,[object Object]
Primary Motives,[object Object],Primary Motives are unlearned and physiologically based.,[object Object], These motives not necessarily take precedence over general and secondary motive.,[object Object], E.g. Hunger, thirst, avoidance of pain, maternal concerns and physical needs.,[object Object]
General Motives,[object Object],General Motives are unlearned but not physiologically based.,[object Object], Unlike primary motives, they induce the amount of stimulation. ,[object Object], E.g. Curiosity, manipulation, activity and affection.,[object Object]
Secondary Motives,[object Object], Secondary Motives are learned and not physiologically based.,[object Object], E.g. Power, achievement, affiliation  security and status. ,[object Object]
Secondary Motive – Power motive,[object Object],Need for power,[object Object], Influencing people to change their attitudes or behavior ,[object Object], Controlling people and activities,[object Object], Being in a position of authority over others.,[object Object], Gaining control over information & resources,[object Object], Defeating an opponent or enemy. ,[object Object]
Secondary Motive – Achievement motive,[object Object],Need for achievement,[object Object], Doing better than competitors,[object Object], Attaining or surpassing a difficult goal,[object Object], Solving a complex problem,[object Object], Carrying out a challenging assignment successfully,[object Object], Developing a better way to do something.,[object Object]
Secondary Motive – Affiliation motive,[object Object],Need for affiliation,[object Object], Being liked by many people,[object Object], Being accepted as a part of the group / team,[object Object], Maintaining harmonious relations and avoiding conflicts,[object Object], Participating in pleasant social activities.,[object Object]
Secondary Motive – Security motive,[object Object],Need for security,[object Object], Having a secure job,[object Object], Being protected against loss of income,[object Object], Having protection against illness or disability,[object Object], Avoiding tasks or decisions with a risk of failure and blame.,[object Object],Security is basically based on fear or loss of something.,[object Object]
Secondary Motive – Status motive,[object Object],Status is defined as “relative ranking” that a person holds in the group, organization or society.,[object Object], Status may be high or low ,[object Object]
Secondary Motive – Status motive,[object Object],Need for status ,[object Object], Having the right car and clothes,[object Object], Working for the right job and right company,[object Object], Having a degree from the right university,[object Object], Living in the right neighborhood and having the membership of the right club,[object Object], Having executive privileges.,[object Object]
THEORIES OF MOTIVATION,[object Object]
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs Theory.,[object Object], Herzberg’s two-factor theory.,[object Object], Victor Vroom’s theory.,[object Object], Porter and Lawler’s theory.,[object Object]
Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory,[object Object],It is based on the following propositions;,[object Object], Man is a wanting being,[object Object], Satisfied need is not a motivator,[object Object], The needs of a man has hierarchy or importance.,[object Object]
		Abraham Maslow’s 	    hierarchy of needs theory ,[object Object],Self,[object Object],Actualization,[object Object],Lower,[object Object], order needs,[object Object],Higher   order   needs,[object Object],Esteemneeds,[object Object],Social Needs,[object Object],Safety Needs,[object Object],Physiological Needs,[object Object]
Few weaknesses,[object Object], It states that lower level people are able to satisfy lower order needs and higher level people are able to satisfy higher order needs,[object Object], It ignores the fact that an act may be motivated by several needs and not any single need.,[object Object]
Fredrick Herzberg’s Two-factor Theory,[object Object],He conducted a motivational study on 200 accountants and engineers,[object Object], He made use of critical incident method for analyzing data,[object Object], Questions : ,[object Object], When did you feel particularly good about your job?,[object Object], When did you feel exceptionally bad about your job ?,[object Object]
Frederick Herzberg’s Two-factor Theory,[object Object],The good feelings = Job experience / job content,[object Object], The bad feelings = Job surroundings / job context,[object Object], Job content factors = Motivators,[object Object], Job context factors = Hygiene,[object Object]
  Hygiene Factors		Motivators,[object Object],Company policy and administration,[object Object],Supervision,[object Object],Salary ,[object Object],Interpersonal relationships ,[object Object],Working conditions.,[object Object],Achievement,[object Object],Recognition,[object Object],Work itself,[object Object],Responsibility,[object Object],Advancement.,[object Object],Hygiene factors prevent dissatisfaction, but do not ,[object Object],lead to satisfaction.,[object Object]
Few weaknesses,[object Object],There is always a question regarding the samples used by Herzberg,[object Object], Low-complexity job workers,[object Object], Age,[object Object], The varied situations may affect preferences for motivators.,[object Object]
Victor Vroom’s Expectancy theory of motivation,[object Object],[object Object]
the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and
on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual.
An employee will be motivated to exert high level of effort when
he/she believes that the effort will lead to a good performance appraisal; that a good appraisal will lead to organizational rewards such as a bonus, salary increments or promotion;
and that the rewards will satisfy the employee’s personal goals.,[object Object]
Weakness,[object Object],Like other theories, this too is a model that helps managers understand certain aspects of motivation,  but,[object Object], it does not give practical solutions to solve motivational problems.,[object Object]
EXTRINSIC,[object Object],[object Object]
Benefits
Promotions
Transfers
InsuranceINTRINSIC,[object Object],[object Object]
Achievement
Constant learning
Taking challenges,[object Object]
Chapter 4,[object Object],Motivating ,[object Object],Self and Others,[object Object]
Theories of Motivation,[object Object],What is motivation?,[object Object],How do needs motivate people?,[object Object],Are there other ways to motivate people?,[object Object],Do equity and fairness matter?,[object Object],How can rewards and job design motivate employees?,[object Object],What kinds of mistakes are made in reward systems?,[object Object]
What is Motivation?,[object Object],Motivation,[object Object],The processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal,[object Object]
Theory X and Theory Y,[object Object],Theory X,[object Object],Theory Y,[object Object]
Motivators,[object Object],Intrinsic,[object Object],Extrinsic ,[object Object]
Needs Theories of Motivation,[object Object],Basic idea:,[object Object],Individuals have needs that, when unsatisfied, will result in motivation ,[object Object],Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs,[object Object],Motivation-Hygiene theory,[object Object],Alderfer’s ERG theory,[object Object],McClelland’s Theory of Needs,[object Object]
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs,[object Object],Physiological,[object Object],Safety,[object Object],Social,[object Object],Esteem,[object Object],Self-actualization,[object Object]
Exhibit 4-1 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs,[object Object],Self-,[object Object],actualization,[object Object],Esteem,[object Object],Social,[object Object],Safety,[object Object],Physiological,[object Object]
Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory,[object Object],Hygiene factors - necessary, but not sufficient, for healthy adjustment,[object Object],Extrinsic factors; context of work,[object Object],Motivators - the sources of satisfaction,[object Object],Intrinsic factors; content of work,[object Object]
Comparison of Satisfiers and Dissatisfiers,[object Object],Source: Reprinted by permission of Harvard Business Review. An exhibit from Frederick Herzberg, “One More Time: How Do You Motivate Employees?” Harvard Business Review 81, no. 1 (January 2003), p. 90. Copyright © 1987 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College; all rights reserved. ,[object Object]
Criticisms of Motivation-Hygiene Theory,[object Object],The procedure that Herzberg used is limited by its methodology,[object Object],The reliability of Herzberg’s methodology is questioned,[object Object],Herzberg did not really produce a theory of motivation,[object Object],No overall measure of satisfaction was used,[object Object],The theory is inconsistent with previous research,[object Object]
Alderfer’s ERG Theory,[object Object],Existence,[object Object],Relatedness,[object Object],Growth,[object Object]
McClelland’s Theory of Needs,[object Object],Need for Achievement,[object Object],Need for Power,[object Object],Need for Affiliation,[object Object]
Exhibit 4-4 Summarizing the Various Needs Theories,[object Object],Alderfer,[object Object],Herzberg,[object Object],Maslow,[object Object],McClelland,[object Object],Self-Actualization,[object Object],Need for Achievement,[object Object],Growth,[object Object],Motivators,[object Object],Esteem,[object Object],Need for Power,[object Object],Relatedness,[object Object],Affiliation,[object Object],Hygiene,[object Object],Need for Affiliation,[object Object],Factors,[object Object],Security,[object Object],Existence,[object Object],Physiological,[object Object]
Summary: Hierarchy of Needs,[object Object],Maslow,[object Object],Herzberg,[object Object],Alderfer,[object Object],McClelland,[object Object]
Summary: Impact of Theory,[object Object],Maslow,[object Object],Herzberg,[object Object],Alderfer,[object Object],McClelland,[object Object]
Summary: Support and Criticism of Theory,[object Object],Maslow,[object Object],Herzberg,[object Object],Alderfer,[object Object],McClelland,[object Object]
Process Theories of Motivation,[object Object],Look at the actual process of motivation,[object Object],Expectancy theory,[object Object],Goal-setting theory,[object Object]
Expectancy Theory,[object Object],The theory that individuals act depending on whether their effort will lead to good performance, whether good performance will be followed by a given outcome, and whether that outcome is attractive to them.,[object Object]
Expectancy Relationships,[object Object],The theory focuses on three relationships:,[object Object],Effort-performance relationship ,[object Object],Performance-reward relationship ,[object Object],Rewards-personal goals relationship ,[object Object]
Exhibit 4-5 How Does Expectancy Theory Work?,[object Object],My professor offers me $1 million if I memorize the textbook by tomorrow morning.,[object Object],Expectancy,[object Object],Instrumentality,[object Object],Valence,[object Object],Effort      Performance Link,[object Object],Performance      Rewards Link,[object Object],Rewards      Personal Goals Link,[object Object],No matter how much effort ,[object Object],My professor does not look,[object Object],There are a lot of wonderful things,[object Object],I put in, probably not possible,[object Object],like someone who has $1 million,[object Object], I could do with $1 million,[object Object],to memorize the text in 24 hours,[object Object],E=0,[object Object],I=0,[object Object],V=1,[object Object],Conclusion: Though I value the reward, I will not be motivated to do this task.,[object Object]
Exhibit 4-6 Steps to Increasing Motivation, Using Expectancy Theory,[object Object],Improving Instrumentality,[object Object],Improving Expectancy,[object Object],Improving Valence,[object Object],Increase the individual,[object Object],’,[object Object],s belief that ,[object Object],Improve the ability of the,[object Object],Make sure that the reward is,[object Object],performance will lead to reward,[object Object],individual to perform,[object Object],meaningful to the individual,[object Object],•,[object Object], Observe and recognize performance,[object Object],•,[object Object], Make sure employees have skills ,[object Object],•,[object Object], Ask employees what rewards they,[object Object],•,[object Object], Deliver rewards as promised,[object Object],   for the task,[object Object],   value,[object Object],•,[object Object], Indicate to employees how previous,[object Object],•,[object Object], Provide training,[object Object],•,[object Object], Give rewards that are valued,[object Object],   good performance led to greater,[object Object],•,[object Object], Assign reasonable tasks and goals,[object Object],   rewards,[object Object]
Goal-Setting Theory,[object Object],The theory that specific and difficult goals lead to higher performance.,[object Object],Goals tell an employee what needs to be done and how much effort will need to be expended.,[object Object],Specific hard goals produce a higher level of output than does the generalized goal of “do your best.”,[object Object]
How Does Goal Setting Motivate?,[object Object],Goals:,[object Object],Direct attention,[object Object],Regulate effort,[object Object],Increase persistence,[object Object],Encourage the development of strategies and action plans,[object Object],Chapter 4, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition                                                                                       4-177,[object Object],Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada,[object Object]
Goals Should Be SMART,[object Object],For goals to be effective, they should be SMART:,[object Object],Chapter 4, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition                                                                                       4-178,[object Object],Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada,[object Object]
Exhibit 4-7 Locke’s Model of Goal Setting,[object Object],Chapter 4, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition                                                                                       4-179,[object Object],Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada,[object Object],Directing attention,[object Object],Regulating effort,[object Object],Goals,[object Object],T,[object Object],ask,[object Object],motivate,[object Object],performance,[object Object],by .  . .,[object Object],Inc,[object Object],r,[object Object],easing persistence,[object Object],Encouraging the development,[object Object],of strategies and action plans,[object Object],Source: Adapted from E. A. Locke and G. P. Latham, A Theory of Goal Setting and Task Performance (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1980). Reprinted by permission of Edwin A. Locke. ,[object Object]
Contingency Factors in Goal Setting,[object Object],Self-efficacy,[object Object],An individual’s belief that he or she is capable of performing a task.,[object Object],Chapter 4, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition                                                                                       4-180,[object Object],Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada,[object Object]
Management by Objectives,[object Object],A program that encompasses,[object Object],Specific goals,[object Object],Participative decision-making,[object Object],Explicit time period,[object Object],Performance feedback,[object Object]
XYZ Company,[object Object],Overall,[object Object],Organizational,[object Object],Objectives,[object Object],     Divisional  ,[object Object],  Objectives ,[object Object],Consumer Products,[object Object],Division,[object Object],Industrial Products,[object Object],Division,[object Object],Departmental,[object Object],  Objectives ,[object Object],Sales,[object Object],Production,[object Object],Marketing,[object Object],Develop,[object Object],Customer,[object Object],Service,[object Object],Research,[object Object],Individual,[object Object],  Objectives ,[object Object],Cascading,[object Object],Objectives,[object Object]
Responses to the Reward System,[object Object],Equity Theory,[object Object],Fair Process,[object Object]
Equity Theory,[object Object],Main points,[object Object],Individuals compare their job inputs and outcomes with those of others and then respond so as to eliminate any inequities.,[object Object],Equity theory recognizes that individuals are concerned not only with the absolute amount of rewards for their efforts, but also with the relationship of this amount to what others receive.,[object Object]
Exhibit 4-7 Equity Theory,[object Object],Ratio of Output to Input,[object Object],Person 1’s,[object Object],   Perception,[object Object],Person 1,[object Object],Inequity, underrewarded,[object Object],Person 2,[object Object],Person 1,[object Object],Equity,[object Object],Person 2,[object Object],Person 1,[object Object],Inequity, overrewarded,[object Object],Person 2,[object Object]
Responses to Inequity,[object Object],Change Inputs,[object Object],Change Outcomes ,[object Object],Adjust Perceptions of Self ,[object Object],Adjust Perceptions of Others,[object Object],Choose a Different Referent ,[object Object],Leave the Field,[object Object]
Fair Process and Treatment,[object Object],Historically, equity theory focused on:,[object Object],Distributive justice,[object Object],However, equity should also consider,[object Object],Procedural justice,[object Object]
Fair Process and Treatment,[object Object],Distributive Justice,[object Object],Procedural Justice,[object Object],Interactional Justice,[object Object]
Motivators,[object Object],Intrinsic,[object Object],Extrinsic ,[object Object]
Four Key Rewards to Increase Intrinsic Motivation,[object Object], Choice,[object Object], Competence,[object Object], Meaningfulness,[object Object], Progress,[object Object]
Exhibit 4-9 Building Blocks for Intrinsic Rewards,[object Object],Leading for Competence,[object Object],Leading for Choice,[object Object],• Knowledge,[object Object],• Delegated authority,[object Object],•,[object Object],T,[object Object],rust in workers,[object Object],• Positive feedback,[object Object],• Security (no punishment) for honest mistakes,[object Object],• Skill recognition,[object Object],• Challenge,[object Object],• A clear purpose,[object Object],• Information,[object Object],• High, non-comparative standards,[object Object],Leading for Progress,[object Object],Leading for  Meaningfulness,[object Object],• A collaborative climate,[object Object],• A noncynical climate,[object Object],• Clearly identified passions,[object Object],• Milestones,[object Object],• An exciting vision,[object Object],• Celebrations,[object Object],• Access to customers,[object Object],• Relevant task purposes,[object Object],• Whole tasks,[object Object],• Measurement of improvement,[object Object],Source: Reprinted with permission of the publisher. From Intrinsic Motivation at Work: Building Energy and Commitment. Copyright © K. Thomas. Berrett-Koehler Publishers Inc., San Francisco, CA. All rights reserved. www.bkconnection.com. ,[object Object]
Variable-Pay Programs,[object Object],A portion of an employee’s pay is based on some individual and/or organizational measure of performance.,[object Object],Individual-based,[object Object],Group-based,[object Object],Organizational-based,[object Object]
Exhibit 4-11 Comparing Various Pay Programs,[object Object]
Designing Motivating Jobs,[object Object],Job Characteristic Model (JCM) is a model that identifies five core job dimensions and their relationship to personal and work outcomes.,[object Object],Job Enrichment,[object Object]
JCM – Core Job Dimensions,[object Object],Skill variety,[object Object],Task identity,[object Object],Task significance,[object Object],Autonomy,[object Object],Feedback,[object Object]
JCM – Critical Psychological States,[object Object],Experienced meaningfulness,[object Object],Experienced responsibility for outcomes,[object Object],Knowledge of the actual results,[object Object]
Exhibit 4-12 – Examples of High and Low Job Characteristics,[object Object],Skill Variety,[object Object],Task Identity,[object Object],Task Significance,[object Object],Autonomy,[object Object],Feedback,[object Object]
Exhibit 4-13 The Job Characteristics Model,[object Object],Core job,[object Object],Personal and ,[object Object],Critical,[object Object],dimensions,[object Object],work outcomes,[object Object],psychological states,[object Object],Skill variety,[object Object],Experienced,[object Object],High internal,[object Object],Task identity,[object Object],meaningfulness,[object Object],work motivation,[object Object],Task significance,[object Object],of the work,[object Object],High-quality,[object Object],Experienced,[object Object],work performance,[object Object],responsibility,[object Object],Autonomy,[object Object],for outcomes,[object Object],High satisfaction,[object Object],of the work,[object Object],with the work,[object Object],Knowledge of the,[object Object],Low absenteeism,[object Object],Feedback,[object Object],Source: J. R. Hackman, G. R. Oldham, Work Design (excerpted from pages 78-80). Copyright © 1980 by Addison-Wesley Publishing Co. Reprinted by permission of Addison-Wesley Longman. ,[object Object],actual results of,[object Object],and turnover,[object Object],the work activities,[object Object],Employee growth-,[object Object],need strength,[object Object]
Beware the Signals That Are Sent By Rewards,[object Object],Often reward systems do not reflect organizational goals:,[object Object],Individuals are stuck in old patterns of rewards and recognition.,[object Object],Organizations don’t look at the big picture.,[object Object],Management and shareholders focus on short-term results.,[object Object]
We hope for:,[object Object],[object Object]
 Innovative thinking and risk taking
 Development of people skills
 Employee involvement and empowerment
 High achievement
 Long-term growth
 Commitment to total quality
 CandorBut we reward:,[object Object],[object Object]
 Proven methods and no mistakes
 Technical achievements and accomplishments
 Tight control over operations, resources
 Another year’s efforts
 Quarterly earnings
 Shipment on schedule, even with defects
 Reporting good newsExhibit 4-10Management Reward Follies,[object Object]
Why Do Managers Engage in Reward Follies?,[object Object],Stuck in old patterns of rewards and recognition,[object Object],Don’t look at the big picture,[object Object],Focus on short-term results,[object Object]
Caveat Emptor: Apply Motivation Theories Wisely,[object Object],Motivation Theories Are Culture-Bound,[object Object],Canada and US rely on extrinsic rewards more than other countries.,[object Object],Japan and Germany rarely use individual incentives.,[object Object],China is more likely to give bonuses to everyone.,[object Object]
Can We Just Eliminate Rewards?,[object Object],Alfie Kohn suggests that organizations should focus less on rewards, more on creating motivating environments:,[object Object],Abolish Incentives.,[object Object],Re-evaluate Evaluation.,[object Object],Create Conditions for Authentic Motivation.,[object Object],Encourage Collaboration.,[object Object],Enhance Content.,[object Object],Provide Choice.,[object Object]
Putting It All Together,[object Object],What we know about motivating employees in organizations:,[object Object],Recognize individual differences.,[object Object],Employees have different needs.,[object Object],Don’t treat them all alike.,[object Object],Spend the time necessary to understand what’s important to each employee.,[object Object],Use goals and feedback.,[object Object],Allow employees to participate in decisions that affect them.,[object Object],Link rewards to performance.,[object Object],Check the system for equity.,[object Object]
Summary and Implications ,[object Object],What is Motivation?,[object Object],Motivation is the process that accounts for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward reaching the goal.,[object Object],How do needs motivate people?,[object Object],All needs theories of motivation propose a similar idea: individuals have needs that, when unsatisfied, will result in motivation.,[object Object]
Summary and Implications,[object Object],Are there other ways to motivate people? ,[object Object],Process theories focus on the broader picture of how someone can set about motivating another individual. Process theories include expectancy theory and goal- setting theory (and its application, management by objectives).,[object Object],Do equity and fairness matter?,[object Object],Individuals look for fairness in the reward system. Rewards should be perceived by employees as related to the inputs they bring to the job.,[object Object]
Summary and Implications,[object Object],5.	How can rewards and job design motivate employees?,[object Object],Recognition helps employees feel that they matter. Employers can use variable-pay programs to reward performance. Employers can use job design to motivate employees. Jobs that have variety, autonomy, feedback, and similar complex task characteristics tend to be more motivating for employees. ,[object Object],6.	What kinds of mistakes are made in reward systems?,[object Object],Often reward systems do not reward the performance that is expected. Also, reward systems sometimes do not recognize that rewards are culture-bound.,[object Object]
Summary,[object Object],Need Theories,[object Object],Be aware that individuals differ in their levels and types of needs,[object Object],Goal Setting Theory,[object Object],Clear and difficult goals lead to higher levels of employee productivity.,[object Object],Expectancy Theory,[object Object],Offers a relatively powerful explanation of employee productivity, absenteeism, and turnover. ,[object Object]
Summary,[object Object],Equity Theory,[object Object],Strongest when predicting absence and turnover behaviours.,[object Object],Weakest when predicting differences in employee productivity.,[object Object],Cognitive Evaluation Theory,[object Object],When you give extrinsic rewards for behaviour that had been previously intrinsically rewarded this can result in a decrease in the overall level of motivation.,[object Object]
Chapter 4,[object Object],Motivating ,[object Object],Self and Others,[object Object]
Motivating Self and Others,[object Object],Questions for Consideration,[object Object],1. What is motivation?,[object Object],2.  How do needs motivate people?,[object Object],3.  Are there other ways to motivate people?,[object Object],4.  Do equity and fairness matter?,[object Object],5.  Are there tips for motivating people for different goals?,[object Object],6.  How do you motivate for individual differences?,[object Object],7.  What kinds of mistakes are made in reward systems?,[object Object],8.  Do motivational theories work the same in every country?,[object Object],9.  Could rewards be overrated?,[object Object]
What is Motivation?,[object Object],Motivation,[object Object],The processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal,[object Object],Intensity: how hard a person tries,[object Object],Direction: where effort is channeled,[object Object],Persistence: how long effort is maintained,[object Object]
Theory X and Theory Y,[object Object],Theory X,[object Object],The assumption that employees dislike work, will attempt to avoid it, and must be coerced, controlled, or threatened with punishment if they are to perform.,[object Object],Theory Y,[object Object],The assumption that employees like work, are creative, seek responsibility, and can exercise self-direction and self-control.,[object Object]
Motivators,[object Object],Intrinsic,[object Object],A person’s internal desire to do something, due to such things as interest, challenge, and personal satisfaction. ,[object Object],Extrinsic ,[object Object],Motivation that comes from outside the person, such as pay, bonuses, and other tangible rewards. ,[object Object]
Needs Theories of Motivation,[object Object],Basic idea:,[object Object],Individuals have needs that, when unsatisfied, will result in motivation ,[object Object],Maslow’s hierarchy of needs,[object Object],Herzberg’s two factor theory (motivation-hygiene theory),[object Object],Alderfer’s ERG theory,[object Object],McClelland’s theory of needs,[object Object]
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs,[object Object],Physiological,[object Object],Includes hunger, thirst, shelter, sex and other bodily needs,[object Object],Safety,[object Object],Includes security and protection from physical and emotional harm,[object Object],Social,[object Object],Includes affection, belongingness, acceptance, and friendship,[object Object]
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs,[object Object],Esteem,[object Object],Includes internal esteem factors such as self-respect, autonomy, and achievement; and external esteem factors such as status, recognition, and attention,[object Object],Self-actualization,[object Object],The drive to become what one is capable of becoming; includes growth, achieving one’s potential, and self-fulfilment,[object Object]
Exhibit 4-1 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs,[object Object],Self-,[object Object],actualization,[object Object],Esteem,[object Object],Social,[object Object],Safety,[object Object],Physiological,[object Object]
Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory,[object Object],Hygiene factors - necessary, but not sufficient, for healthy adjustment,[object Object],Extrinsic factors; context of work,[object Object],Company policy and administration	,[object Object],Unhappy relationship with employee's supervisor,[object Object],Poor interpersonal relations with one's peers,[object Object],Poor working conditions,[object Object]
Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory,[object Object],Motivators - the sources of satisfaction,[object Object],Intrinsic factors; content of work,[object Object],Achievement,[object Object],Recognition,[object Object],Challenging, varied or interesting work,[object Object],Responsibility,[object Object],Advancement,[object Object]
Exhibit 4-2 Contrasting Views of Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction,[object Object],Traditional view,[object Object],Dissatisfaction,[object Object],Satisfaction,[object Object],Herzberg's view,[object Object],Motivators,[object Object],No Satisfaction,[object Object],Satisfaction,[object Object],Hygiene Factors,[object Object],Dissatisfaction,[object Object],No dissatisfaction,[object Object]
Criticisms of Motivation-Hygiene Theory,[object Object],The procedure that Herzberg used is limited by its methodology,[object Object],The reliability of Herzberg’s methodology is questioned,[object Object],Herzberg did not really produce a theory of motivation,[object Object],No overall measure of satisfaction was used,[object Object],The theory is inconsistent with previous research,[object Object]
Alderfer’s ERG Theory,[object Object],Existence,[object Object],Concerned with providing basic material existence requirements,[object Object],Relatedness,[object Object],Desire for maintaining important interpersonal relationships,[object Object],Growth,[object Object],Intrinsic desire for personal development,[object Object]
McClelland’s Theory of Needs,[object Object],Need for Achievement,[object Object],The drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive to succeed,[object Object],Need for Power,[object Object],The need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise,[object Object],Need for Affiliation,[object Object],The desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships,[object Object]
Exhibit 4-4 Summarizing the Various Needs Theories,[object Object],Alderfer,[object Object],Herzberg,[object Object],Maslow,[object Object],McClelland,[object Object],Self-Actualization,[object Object],Need for Achievement,[object Object],Growth,[object Object],Motivators,[object Object],Esteem,[object Object],Need for Power,[object Object],Relatedness,[object Object],Affiliation,[object Object],Hygiene,[object Object],Need for Affiliation,[object Object],Factors,[object Object],Security,[object Object],Existence,[object Object],Physiological,[object Object]
Summary: Hierarchy of Needs,[object Object],Maslow: Argues that lower-order needs must be satisfied before one progresses to higher-order needs. ,[object Object],Herzberg: Hygiene factors must be met if person is not to be dissatisfied. They will not lead to satisfaction, however. Motivators lead to satisfaction. ,[object Object],Alderfer: More than one need can be important at the same time. If a higher-order need is not being met, the desire to satisfy a lower-level need increases. ,[object Object],McClelland: People vary in the types of needs they have. Their motivation and how well they perform in a work situation are related to whether they have a need for achievement, affiliation, or power.,[object Object]
Summary: Impact of Theory,[object Object],Maslow: Enjoys wide recognition among practising managers. Most managers are familiar with it.,[object Object],Herzberg: The popularity of giving workers greater responsibility for planning and controlling their work can be attributed to his findings. Shows that more than one need may operate at the same time.,[object Object],Alderfer: Seen as a more valid version of the need hierarchy. Tells us that achievers will be motivated by jobs that offer personal responsibility, feedback, and moderate risks.,[object Object],McClelland: Tells us that high need achievers do not necessarily make good managers, since high achievers are more interested in how they do personally. ,[object Object]
Summary: Support and Criticism of Theory,[object Object],Maslow: Research does not generally validate the theory. In particular, there is little support for the hierarchical nature of needs. Criticized for how data were collected and interpreted.,[object Object],Herzberg: Not really a theory of motivation: Assumes a link between satisfaction and productivity that was not measured or demonstrated.,[object Object],Alderfer: Ignores situational variables.,[object Object],McClelland: Mixed empirical support, but theory is consistent with our knowledge of individual differences among people. Good empirical support, particularly on needs achievement. ,[object Object]
Process Theories of Motivation,[object Object],Look at the actual process of motivation,[object Object],Expectancy theory,[object Object],Goal-setting theory,[object Object]
Expectancy Theory,[object Object],The strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual.  ,[object Object]
Expectancy Relationships,[object Object],The theory focuses on three relationships:,[object Object],Effort-performance relationship ,[object Object],The perceived probability that exerting a given amount of effort will lead to performance.,[object Object],Performance-reward relationship ,[object Object],The degree to which the individual believes that performing at a particular level will lead to a desired outcome.,[object Object],Rewards-personal goals relationship ,[object Object],The degree to which organizational rewards satisfy an individual’s personal goals or needs and are attractive to the individual.,[object Object]
Exhibit 4-5 How Does Expectancy Theory Work?,[object Object],My professor offers me $1 million if I memorize the textbook by tomorrow morning.,[object Object],Expectancy,[object Object],Instrumentality,[object Object],Valence,[object Object],Effort      Performance Link,[object Object],Performance      Rewards Link,[object Object],Rewards      Personal Goals Link,[object Object],No matter how much effort ,[object Object],My professor does not look,[object Object],There are a lot of wonderful things,[object Object],I put in, probably not possible,[object Object],like someone who has $1 million,[object Object], I could do with $1 million,[object Object],to memorize the text in 24 hours,[object Object],E=0,[object Object],I=0,[object Object],V=1,[object Object],Conclusion: Though I value the reward, I will not be motivated to do this task.,[object Object]
Exhibit 4-6 Steps to Increasing Motivation, Using Expectancy Theory,[object Object],Improving Instrumentality,[object Object],Improving Expectancy,[object Object],Improving Valence,[object Object],Increase the individual,[object Object],’,[object Object],s belief that ,[object Object],Improve the ability of the,[object Object],Make sure that the reward is,[object Object],performance will lead to reward,[object Object],individual to perform,[object Object],meaningful to the individual,[object Object],•,[object Object], Observe and recognize performance,[object Object],•,[object Object], Make sure employees have skills ,[object Object],•,[object Object], Ask employees what rewards they,[object Object],•,[object Object], Deliver rewards as promised,[object Object],   for the task,[object Object],   value,[object Object],•,[object Object], Indicate to employees how previous,[object Object],•,[object Object], Provide training,[object Object],•,[object Object], Give rewards that are valued,[object Object],   good performance led to greater,[object Object],•,[object Object], Assign reasonable tasks and goals,[object Object],   rewards,[object Object]
Goal-Setting Theory,[object Object],The theory that specific and difficult goals lead to higher performance.,[object Object],Goals tell an employee what needs to be done and how much effort will need to be expended.,[object Object],Specific goals increase performance,[object Object],Difficult goals, when accepted, result in higher performance than do easy goals,[object Object],Feedback leads to higher performance than does nonfeedback.,[object Object],Specific hard goals produce a higher level of output than does the generalized goal of “do your best.”,[object Object],The specificity of the goal itself acts as an internal stimulus.,[object Object]
Management by Objectives,[object Object],A program that encompasses,[object Object],Specific goals,[object Object],Participative decision-making,[object Object],Explicit time period,[object Object],Performance feedback,[object Object]
Responses to the Reward System,[object Object],Equity Theory,[object Object],Fair Process,[object Object]
Equity Theory,[object Object],Main points,[object Object],Individuals compare their job inputs and outcomes with those of others and then respond so as to eliminate any inequities.,[object Object],Equity theory recognizes that individuals are concerned not only with the absolute amount of rewards for their efforts, but also with the relationship of this amount to what others receive.,[object Object]
Exhibit 4-7 Equity Theory,[object Object],Ratio of Output to Input,[object Object],Person 1’s,[object Object],   Perception,[object Object],Person 1,[object Object],Inequity, underrewarded,[object Object],Person 2,[object Object],Person 1,[object Object],Equity,[object Object],Person 2,[object Object],Person 1,[object Object],Inequity, overrewarded,[object Object],Person 2,[object Object]
Equity Comparisons,[object Object],Self-inside,[object Object],Self-outside,[object Object],Other-inside,[object Object],Other-outside,[object Object]
Responses to Inequity,[object Object],Change Inputs,[object Object],Change Outcomes ,[object Object],Adjust Perceptions of Self ,[object Object],Adjust Perceptions of Others,[object Object],Choose a Different Referent ,[object Object],Leave the Field,[object Object]
Fair Process and Treatment,[object Object],Historically, equity theory focused on:,[object Object],Distributive justice,[object Object],However, equity should also consider,[object Object],Procedural justice,[object Object]
Fair Process,[object Object],Distributive Justice,[object Object],Perceived fairness of the amount and allocation of rewards among individuals,[object Object],Procedural Justice,[object Object],Perceived fairness of the process used to determine the distribution of rewards,[object Object],Interactional Justice,[object Object],The quality of the interpersonal treatment received from another,[object Object]
Motivating to Show People Matter,[object Object],Employee Recognition Programs,[object Object],Programs that use multiple sources and recognizes both individual and group accomplishments.,[object Object],Linking Programs and Reinforcement Theory,[object Object],Consistent with reinforcement theory, rewarding a behaviour with recognition immediately following that behaviour is likely to encourage its repetition.,[object Object],Employee Recognition Programs in Practice,[object Object],In contrast to most other motivators, recognizing an employee’s superior performance often costs little or no money, making them highly attractive to industry.,[object Object]
Variable Pay Programs,[object Object],A portion of an employee’s pay is based on some individual and/or organizational measure(s) of performance.,[object Object],Individual-based,[object Object],Piece-rate wages, bonuses,[object Object],Workers are paid a fixed sum for each unit of production completed.,[object Object],Group-based,[object Object],Gainsharing: an incentive plan where improvements in group productivity determine the total amount of money that is allocated.,[object Object]
Variable Pay Programs,[object Object],Organizational-based,[object Object],Profit-sharing: organization wide programs that distribute compensation based on some established formula designed around a company’s profitability.,[object Object],Employee stock ownership plans (ESOPs): company-established benefit plans in which employees acquire stock as part of their benefits.,[object Object]
Exhibit 4-8 Comparing Various Pay Programs,[object Object]
Variable-Pay Programs,[object Object],Linking variable-pay plans and expectancy theory,[object Object],Evidence supports the importance of this linkage, especially for operative employees working under piece-rate systems.,[object Object],Group and organization wide incentives reinforce and encourage employees to sublimate personal goals for the best interests of their department or organization.,[object Object]
Rewards for Other Types of Performance,[object Object],Commissions beyond sales,[object Object],Customer satisfaction and/or sales team outcomes, such as meeting revenue or profit targets.,[object Object],Leadership effectiveness,[object Object],Employee satisfaction, or how the manager handles his or her employees.,[object Object],New goals,[object Object],All employees who contribute to specific organizational goals, such as customer satisfaction, cycle time, or quality measures.,[object Object]
Rewards for Other Types of Performance,[object Object],Knowledge workers in teams,[object Object],Performance of knowledge workers and/or professional employees who work on teams.,[object Object],Competency and/or skills,[object Object],Abstract knowledge or competencies—for example, knowledge of technology, the international business context, customer service, or social skills.,[object Object]
Motivating Specific Groups,[object Object],Professionals,[object Object],Contingent workers,[object Object],Low-skilled service workers,[object Object],Unionized employees,[object Object],Public sector employees,[object Object]
Motivating Professionals,[object Object],How  are “professionals” different?,[object Object],Receive a great deal of “intrinsic” satisfaction from their work.,[object Object],Strong and long-term commitment to their field of expertise,[object Object],Well paid/ Chief reward is work itself.,[object Object],Value support,[object Object],More focused on work as central life interest.,[object Object]
Motivating Professionals,[object Object],How do we motivate professionals?,[object Object],Provide challenging projects,[object Object],Give them autonomy in follow interests and structure work.,[object Object],Reward with educational opportunities.,[object Object],Recognize their contributions.,[object Object]
Motivating Contingent Workers,[object Object],No simple solutions to motivating contingent workers.,[object Object],Contingent or temporary workers have little or no job security/stability, therefore they don’t identify with the organization or display the commitment of permanent employees.,[object Object],Contingent or temporary workers are typically provided with  little or no health care, pensions, or similar benefits.,[object Object]
Motivating Contingent Workers,[object Object],Greatest motivating factor is the opportunity to gain permanent employment.,[object Object],Motivation is also increased if the employee sees that the job he or she is doing for the firm can develop salable skills.,[object Object]
Motivating Low-Skilled Service Workers,[object Object],Many 15- to 24-year-olds have “McJobs” with pay levels near minimum wage,[object Object],To motivate,[object Object],Employees want more respect,[object Object],Make jobs more appealing,[object Object],Raise pay levels,[object Object],Find unusual ways to motivate:,[object Object],Flexible work schedules,[object Object],Broader responsibility for inventory, scheduling, and hiring,[object Object],Creation of a “family” atmosphere among employees,[object Object]

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Motivation All Theory