war, warfare, environment

2. WAR, WARFARE
AND
ENVIRONMENT
Presented by:
M.Phil (1st semester)
Usman Arshad (02)
Isma Haq (01)
Mehwish Jameel (04)
Sumaira Roshan (05)

4.  SPECIES
 HABITAT
 ECOSYSTEM
 COMMUNITY
 BIOSPHERE

5.  POLLUTION IN TERMS OF ENTROPY

14. TOXIC AGENTS
Presented by:
ISMA HAQ

15. OVERVIEW
¶ TOXIC CHEMICAL AGENTS
¶ BIOTOXINS
¶ INFECTIOUS AGENTS
¶ EXPLOSIVE SUBSTANCES

16. WEAPONS OF MASS DESTRUCTION
 Any weapon or device that is intended, or has the
capability, to cause death or serious bodily injury
to a significant number of people through the
release, dissemination, or impact of:
 Toxic or poisonous chemicals or their precursors
 A disease organism
 Radiation or radiactivity

17. CHEMICAL WARFARE HISTORY:
WORLD WAR I
Large-scale use of CW
 1915: Germans deployed
 150 tons chlorine gas
 15,000 wounded
 1,000 deaths
 Psychologically devastating
 High volatility limited usefulness

18. CHEMICAL WARFARE: WWI
1917: Germans used
 Sulfur mustard
 Artillery shells
 Many casualties
 Overwhelmed system
 <5% died
 High persistence
 Contaminated large areas

19. CHEMICAL TERRORISM:
IRAQI KURDS
 1988: Iraq bombed
their Kurds with mustard,
nerve and cyanide gas
 Over 5,000 died
75% women and children

20. CLASSES OF CHEMICAL AGENTS
Chemical
Agents
Lethal
Agents
Nerve Agents Blistering
Agents
Blood Agents Choking
Agents
Riot control
or tear gas

21. Dynamic Phase of Toxicity

22. POTENTIAL TERRORIST AGENTS
 Chlorine (Cl2)
 First military poison in World War I
 Strong oxidizer that forms acids and is especially
damaging to respiratory tissue
 10-20 ppm: Acute respiratory tract discomfort
 1000 ppm: Rapidly fatal
 Hydrogen cyanide (HCN)
 Highly toxic gaseous substance with potential for attack
through the atmosphere
 Cyanide binds with iron in the +3 oxidation state of
ferricytochrome oxidase enzyme preventing utilization of
O2 leading to rapid death

23. POTENTIAL TERRORIST AGENTS
 Hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
Colorless gas with a foul, rotten-egg odor
 As toxic as hydrogen cyanide and may kill even more rapidly
 1000 ppm: Rapid death from respiratory system
 Paralysis
 Nonfatal doses can cause excitement due to damage the
central nervous system; headache and dizziness may be
symptoms of exposure

24. CHEMICAL ATTACKS
Chemical-agent types
 Nerve agents
 Blister agents (vesicants)
 Blood agents (cyanide agents)
 Choking agents (pulmonary or lung-damaging agents)
 Riot control agents (irritants)
 Toxic industrial materials (normal hazardous
materials used for terrorist purposes)

25. CHEMICAL AGENTS:
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Exists as liquid, solid, vapor
 Depends upon agent, temperature and pressure
 Stored as liquid
 Dispersed as liquid, gas or aerosol
 Aerosol: particles suspended in gas
 Persistence: tendency to remain for long time
 Volatility: tendency to evaporate
 Smell: fruity, almonds, mustard, or no smell

26. NERVE AGENTS
 Attack the nervous system by
affecting the transmission of
impulses
• Inhibit acetylcholinesterase
 Routes of entry
 Inhalation
 Through the skin
 Symptoms
 Increased production of saliva
 Runny nose
 Feeling of pressure on the
chest

27. Ach
Ach
Acetylcholine (Ach)
Acetic acid
+
Choline
Cholinesterase
MUSCLE
NEURON

28. NERVE AGENT
BLOCKING ACETYLCHOLINESTERASE

29. NERVE AGENTS
 Tabun: Usually a low-volatility persistent chemical agent
that is taken up through skin contact and inhalation of the
substance as a gas or aerosol
 Sarin : Usually a volatile nonpersistent chemical agent
mainly taken up through inhalation
 Soman : Usually a moderately volatile chemical agent that
can be taken up by inhalation or skin contact
 Cyclohexyl sarin : A low-volatility persistent chemical
agent that is taken up through skin contact and inhalation of
the substance either as a gas or aerosol
 V-agent : A low-volatility persistent chemical agent that can
remain on material, equipment, and terrain for long periods

30. BLISTERING AGENTS: TOXICITY
 Burn and blister the skin or any other
part of the body they contact
 Local damage:
 Easily enters skin, eyes,
respiratory tract
 Enhanced: moisture, heat, thin
skin
 Protease digestion in skin
 Dermal-epidermal junction
 vesicles, blister
 May be delayed 1-2 days
 Fluid does not contain vesicant
Sulfur /Nitrogen mustards, Phosgene
oxime, Phenyldichloroarsine etc.

31. BLOOD AGENTS
 Chemical agents that interfere with oxygen utilization at
the cellular level
 Types
 Arsine
 Hydrogen cyanide
 Cyanogen chloride

32. CHOKING AGENTS
 Chemicals that attack the lungs causing tissue
damage. These are also known as pulmonary
agents.
 Pulmonary agents: organohalides
 Phosgene, chlorine, ammonia
 Pulmonary agents
 Absorbed by inhalation
 Readily penetrates respiratory system
 Mucous membrane irritation
 Immediate eye, nose, airway irritation

33. Upper Airway
Irritation
Pulmonary
Irritation
Water
Solubility
HIGH
LOW
Hydrochloric Acid
Ammonia
Mustard Gas
Chlorine
Phosgene
Nitrogen Oxides
PULMONARY AGENTS: TOXICITY

34. RIOT CONTROL AGENTS
(IRRITATING AGENTS)
 Chemical compounds that temporarily make people
unable to function by causing immediate irritation to the
eyes, mouth, throat, lungs, and skin
 Types
 Chlorobenzylidene malononitrile (tear gas)
 Chloroacetophenone
 bromobenzylcyanide
 1-bromo-2-propanone

35. USING BIOLOGICAL AGENTS AS
BIOWEAPONS

36. BIOLOGICAL AGENTS AND
BIOTERRORISM
 Biological agents can be used as weapons in:
 Biocrimes
 Bioterrorism
 Biowarfare
 Definition: North Atlantic Treaty Organization
(NATO) defines a biological weapon as ;
“the provision of any infectious agent or toxin by
any means of delivery in order to cause harm to
humans, animals, or plants.”

37. THE FOLLOWING ARE DESIRABLE
CHARACTERISTICS FOR BIOLOGICAL AGENTS TO
BE USED FOR HARMFUL INTENT
 Generate high levels of panic among population
 Easy to obtain
 Inexpensive
 Easy to produce in mass quantities
 Lack of effective treatment
 Result in lengthy illness with prolonged care needed
 Long incubation periods
 Hard to diagnose
 High infectivity
 High mortality

38. Toxins from Biological Sources
Biotoxins
• Some of the most toxic substances known
Botulinum toxin
 From Clostridium botulinum bacteria growing in the absence of
oxygen and cause the disease BOTULISM
 As little as 1 millionth of a gram can be fatal to a human
 In principle, millions of people could be killed by the amount of
botulinum toxin carried in a terrorist’s pocket
 Binds with nerve terminals causing paralysis of the respiratory
muscles and death
Not transmitted person to person.

39. RICIN BIOTOXIN
 Ricin
Very stable proteinaceous
material extracted from castor
beans (Ricinus communis)
Injection of an amount about
the size of a pinhead can be
fatal
Failure of kidneys, liver, and
spleen along with massive
blood loss from the digestive
tract

40. INFECTIOUS AGENTS
CDC PRIORITY CATEGORIES
 June 1999 criteria for categories:
 Level of Public health impact
 Dissemination potential
 Potential to cause public fear and disruption
 Need for special public health preparedness
 These are divided ino three catagories by CDC
 Category A agents
 Category B agents
 Category C agents

41. CDC CATEGORY AAGENTS
 Agents that would have maximum impact on
population:
 Ease of dissemination
 Person-to-person transmission
 High mortality
 Bacteria
 Anthrax (Bacillus anthracis)
 Plague (Yersinia pestis)
 Tularemia (Francisella tularensis)
 Viruses
 Smallpox (Variola major)
 Viral Hemorrhagic Fevers (filoviruses, arenaviruses and
flaviviruses)

42. EXPOLOSIVE SUBSTANCES
 Small amount of explosives can
bring down aircraft.
 Many kinds of explosives have
been developed for illegal
purposes.
 Ammonium nitrate fertilizer
with fuel oil
 Types
 Gunpowder
 Nitroglycerine
 TNT (2,4,6-trinitrotoluene)
 PETN ( pentaerythritol
tetranitrate)

43. Nuclear Weapons

44. Nuclear Weapons
 “ The nuclear bomb is the most anti- democratic, anti-
human, outright evil thing that man has ever made.”
 A nuclear weapon is so powerful that one single
weapon explosives can be capable of destroying or
seriously disabling an entire city., outright evil
thing at man has ever made…

45. Nuclear Weapons History
 The Nuclear weapons were symbols of military and
national powers.
 The first nuclear weapon was created by the United
States.
 While the first weapons were developed mainly out of
fear that Germany they would first develop them, they
were eventually used against the Japanese cities of
Hiroshima Nagasaki in August 1945.
 The Soviet Union developed that tested their first
nuclear weapon in 1949.

46. History Cont…
 The USA and USSR wanted to develop weapons
powered by nuclear fusion during the 1950s.
 During the 1960s, it became possible for nuclear
weapons to be delivered anywhere in the world.
 Other nations also developed nuclear weapons,
including the United Kingdom, France, and China, india,
south africa, pakistan.
 There was a “nuclear club” which wanted to attempt to
limit the spread of nuclear proliferation to other nations.

47. History Cont…
 Nuclear proliferation is still going on, with Pakistan
testing their first weapon in 1998, and the state of North
Korea claiming to have developed nuclear weapons in
2004.
 In 2005, there were at least 29,000 nuclear weapons held
by at least seven countries, though 96% of these are in
the possession of just two the United States and the
Russian Federation.

48. Nuclear Fission
 A nuclear reaction in which an atomic nucleus
splits into fragments.
 Fission occurs readily in U-235 and Pu-239
when bombarded with neutrons.
 The sum of the product masses is less than the
mass of the original atom.
 The lost mass is converted directly into energy.

49. Nuclear Fusion
 The combination of two nuclei to form a single
atom.
 The product’s mass is less than the mass of the
original atoms.
 Fusion occurs most readily in a combination of
the hydrogen isotopes deuterium and tritium.
 Temperature in the millions of degrees is
required to initiate fusion.

50. Weapon Designs
 Gun-triggered fission
 Implosion-triggered fission
 Fusion Bombs

51. Gun-triggered
 This is the simplest form of nuclear weapon.
 A bullet of U-235 is propelled by explosives into a U-
235 sphere.
 This is the type of bomb that destroyed the Japanese
city of Hiroshima.

52. Gun-triggered

53. Implosion-triggered
 A sub critical sphere of plutonium is surrounded by
explosives, when the explosives detonate they create a
shockwave which compresses the core.
 This method can be used with both U-235 and Pu-239.
 To properly compress instead of blowing it apart, it is
necessary to use explosive lenses, which create a concave
shockwave that fits the surface of the core.

54. Implosion Triggered

55. Teller-Ulam Bomb
 The first true fusion bomb design.
 Utilizes a fission weapon to provide the necessary
energy to cause fusion.
 The massive amount of X-rays released by the
fission, which travel much faster than the actual
explosion, are contained by a thick tamper and used
to provide the heat to initiate a fusion reaction
before the explosion has a chance to blow apart the
bomb.

56. Teller-Ulam Bomb

57. Teller-Ulam Bomb

58. The Effects
 Standard Nuclear weapons emit approximately 50%
of their total energy as blast energy, 35% as thermal
energy, and 15% as radiation.
 The actual effects of the weapon vary greatly
depending on the yield, and the detonation point.
 Detonation in the upper atmosphere can create
massive EMPs, severely damaging many electronics.
 Surface Detonation results in blast and thermal
damage, and large amounts of fallout.
 Subterranean detonation results in large shockwaves,
but minimizes most of the effects, provided the blast
does not break the surface

59. Atomic bombing of Hiroshima and
Nagasaki
 The United States Army Air Force dropped two atomic
bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
on August 6 and August 9, 1945 during World War II.
 At least 120,000 people died immediately from the
attacks.
 Thousands of people died years after from the effects of
nuclear radiation.

60. Hiroshima and Nagasaki Cont…
 The role of bombings in Japan’s was to make them surrender.
 The U.S. believed that the bombing ended the war sooner.
 In Japan, the general public tends to think that the bombings were
needless as the preparation for the surrender was in progress.
 The survivors of the bombings are called hibakusha, a Japanese
word that literally translates to “bomb-affected people.”

61. Aftermath Attack On Japan
 The nuclear attacks on Japan
occurred during hot weather.
 So it was more effected
toward the people.
 Many people were outside
and wearing light clothing's.
 This lady's skin is burned in a
patterns corresponding to the
dark patterns of her kimono.
 The dark sections of clothing
absorbed more heat and burnt
her to her flash.
 So basically darker cloths
would make it worst.

62. Aftermath Cont…
 This was the effect of Nagasaki it left a
heavy destruction at high blast.
 This bomb created a smoke that would
basically harm people.
 The smokestacks happen from the open at
the top.
 The blast was so powerful it ruin almost
most of the country.

64. GREEN CHEMISTRY
It has become obvious that, to the extent possible , systems are
needed that are inherently non-polluting and sustainable.
Starting in 1990s this need have been approached through a
system known as green chemistry.
So we can define green chemistry as,
The sustainable, safe, non-polluting practice of chemical science
and manufacturing in a manner that consumes minimum
amounts of materials and energy while producing little or no
waste material.
The single best way that chemical science can avoid the terrorist
threats is to follow the percepts of green chemistry. This is so
because green chemistry is safe chemistry and sustainable
chemistry.

65. Need of Green Chemistry
Green chemistry to mitigate terrorist threats
• Uses the safest possible chemicals as safely as possible
• Minimizes the accumulation of hazardous chemicals and eliminates
hazardous chemical wastes
• Better detection of hazardous materials

66. Need of Green Chemistry
• Effective substitute materials to reduce potential for “resource
blackmail”
• Sustainable energy sources to reduce “energy blackmail” such as
supplies of petroleum and natural gas
• Biochemistry and recombinant DNA science to enable the
development of better vaccines against pathogenic biological
warfare agents and antidotes to chemical and biological toxins

67. Safest possible chemicals
 The use of alternative reaction conditions for
green chemistry such as
 Use of solvents that have a reduced impact on
human health and the environment.
 Increase the selectivity and reduced wastes
and emission.
 Use of green catalysts that permit the use of
less toxic reagents.

68. DETECTING HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES
• Residues of TNT, RDX, and PETN explosives detected by
sophisticated instruments including ion mobility spectrometers and
chemiluminecence sensors
• Nuclear quadrupole resonance (NQR) may be useful to detect
explosives because it responds to nitrogen, which all major
explosives contain
• Canine olfactory detection (dog’s nose). It is most sensitive
method, and consist of use of dogs to sniff odors of substances at
very low levels.

69. Detecting threats
 Immunological methods
 Biochemical and nucleic acid based methods
 Cell culture and tissue based methods
 Stand alone detectors

70. Immunological Methods
 These methods are based upon powerful and specific
immune responses of animals towards foreign agents.
 These are used for the detection of
 Microbial cells and spores
 Viruses and toxins
 Chemical agents

71. Nucleic acid detection
 This involves the production of multiple copies of DNA
from biological agents can be very sensitive and specific
for detecting infectious agents such as;
 Bacillus anthracis
 Cryptosporidium parvum

72. Cell culture and tissue based methods
 These techniques have long been used to quantify
bacteria such as;
 Fecal coliform bacteria in water.
These techniques combined with biochemical,
microscopy and staining can be used to reliably identify
bacteria.

73. Stand alone detectors
 Mass spectrometry is the most well established and
suitable of the purely instrumental techniques.
 Mass spectra is very useful in identifying specific
chemical species, such as those used in chemical attacks.

74. GREEN CHEMISTRY TO COMBAT TERRORISM
Safe and sustainable green chemistry can help combat terrorism
• Hazardous substances that might be stolen or diverted for use in
attacks are not made or used in large quantities
• Materials and processes that are likely to result in violent reactions,
fires, high pressures, and other extreme conditions are avoided
• Potentially hazardous auxiliary substances and flammable materials
are avoided
• Minimizes energy consumption, thereby reducing energetic, high-
temperature processes that might be susceptible to sabotage

75. Conclusion
 To make green chemistry our sustainable future, we have
to introduce the “THINK GREEN CULTURE” among
our youngsters.
 Let us make chemical pollution prevention our motto and
protect the environment.