SlideShare a Scribd company logo
1 of 46
Download to read offline
1
Ecotourism and Sustainable
Development in Kenya
By Robertson Ndegwa Ngunyi
罗伯特
Paper submitted for Ecotourism Final Exam
to
Sun Yat Sen University,
Doctorate in Tourism Management
School of Business, Department of Hotel and
Tourism Management
Professor Liu Yan
December, 2009
Keywords: Protected areas, Sustainability, Community Based Tourism,
Maasai, Safari
2
Ecotourism and Sustainable Development in Kenya
Robertson Ndegwa Ngunyi
Abstract
The purpose of this paper is to provide abridgment of the current state of affairs in
Kenya, critically examine the impacts and the challenges of ecotourism; investigate
the potential of ecotourism as a strategy for sustainable development and suggest
ways to improve Ecotourism in Kenya. What are the main challenges of Ecotourism?
What are the feasible benefits that can ecotourism bring? Lastly is Ecotourism in
Kenya sustainable?
The paper also attempts to discuss the Kenya’s SWOT analysis as an Ecotourism
destination, the protected areas including national parks and reserves, and some of the
organisations promoting ecotourism in Kenya. To further explain this, the paper has
used an Eco rating of lodges in Kenya by Ecotourism Kenya and given a case study of
an Eco rate lodge.
The writer has also discussed the implications and way forward for sustainable
tourism in Kenya.
3
Table of Contents
Page
1. Introduction 4
2. Ecotourism and sustainable Development 4
2.1. Meaning of ecotourism 4
2.2. Principles of Ecotourism 7
2.3. Sustainable tourism development 8
3. The growth of Ecotourism in Kenya 10
3.1. History of ecotourism in Kenya 10
3.2. Growth of Ecotourism in Kenya 11
3.3. Tourism trends in Kenya 14
3.4. Institution structure of Tourism in Kenya 16
3.5. Ecotourism and related organisations 17
4. Protected areas 18
4.1 Proportion of wildlife in protected areas 21
5. Impacts and challenges 22
5.1. Economic 22
5.2. Sociocultural 23
5.3. Environmental 24
5.4. Political 25
5.5. Kenya SWOT Analysis 26
6. Eco-Rating of Lodges in Kenya 28
6.1 Case Study of Eco rated Base Camp Lodge 29
6.2 Eco rated lodges in Kenya 31
7. Conclusion and discussions 33
References 36
Appendix 1 38
Appendix 2 45
4
1.0 Introduction
Over time, an increasing number of destinations have opened up and invested in
tourism development, turning modern tourism into a key driver for socio-economic
progress, through the creation of jobs and enterprises, infrastructure development, and
the export income earned (UNWTO 2009).
Tourism has become one of the major international trade categories. The overall
export income generated by international tourism including passengers transport
reached US$ 1.1 trillion in 2008, or US$ 3 billion a day (UNWTO 2009).
Tourism exports account for as much as 30% of the world’s exports of commercial
services and 6% of overall exports of goods and services. Globally, as an export
category, tourism ranks fourth after fuels, chemicals and automotive products. For
many developing countries it is one of the main income sources and the number one
export category, creating much needed employment and opportunities for
development (UNWTO 2009). Ecotourism and sustainable tourism development has
become the catch word today
2.0 Ecotourism and sustainable Development
2.1 Meaning of ecotourism
Although the origins of the concept of ecotourism are not certain, one of the first
sources to have contributed to the discourse appears to be Hetzer (1965), who
identified four pillars or principles of responsible tourism. These four pillars are
minimizing environmental impacts, respecting the host cultures, maximizing benefits
to local people, and maximizing tourist satisfaction (Blamey, 2001). Ecotourism
holidays demand was boosted by concrete evidence that consumers had shifted away
from mass tourism towards experiences that were more individualistic and enriching.
In addition, these experiences were claimed to be associated with a general search for
the natural component during holidays ( Kusler, 1991a,b; Hvenegaard,1994, Dowling,
1996). Currently there is no clear-cut consensus on the definition of ecotourism. The
meaning and use of the term are plagued by disagreements, confusion, and
propaganda (Weaver, 1999).The term ecotourism merged in the late 1980s as a direct
5
result of the world’s acknowledgement and reaction to sustainable practices and
global ecological practice (D. Dianatis, 1999).
Ecotourism was first defined as
“travelling to relatively undisturbed or uncontaminated natural areas with the
specific objective of studying, admiring, and enjoying the scenery and its wild
plants and animals, as well as existing cultural manifestation (both past and
present) found in these areas. ( Ceballos- Lascurain, 1987:14;1991a,b).”
Ecotourism definition by Ecotourism in Australia
“Ecologically sustainable tourism with a primary focus on experiencing natural
areas that fosters environmental and cultural understanding, appreciation and
conservation (Ecotourism Australia, 2003)”.
International Ecotourism Society (2004)
“Responsible travel to natural areas that conserve the environmental and
sustain the well-being of local people”.
Irrespective of unique perspectives and different definitions, there is considerable
consensus that ecotourism must be beneficial to local communities and have a
positive effect on protecting the environment (Buchsbaum, 2004). As the term
ecotourism has evolved, definitions have become more precise, with stronger ties to
principles of sustainable development (Blamey, 2001). Ecotourism’s perceived
potential as an effective tool for sustainable development is the main reason why
developing countries are now embracing it and including it in their economic
development and conservation strategies (Stem et al, 2003).
Figure 1 shows the relationship between Tourism, sustainable tourism development,
nature tourism, adventure tourism and ecotourism. Ecotourism here has been viewed
as a being the core of tourism with adventure tourism cutting across the different
sectors of tourism. Ecotourism is viewed as nature based tourism, sustainable and also
embracing adventure tourism. This model can be applied in many facet to show the
interrelations between the different sectors of the tourism industry locally, regionally,
nationally and internationally.
6
Figure 1. Relationship between Tourism, sustainable tourism development,
adventure tourism and ecotourism.
Source: Ecotourism Australia
Recent studies have argued that ecotourism should embrace more diverse field and be
holistic in approach. Ecotourism should satisfy three core criteria i.e. (1) attractions
should be predominantly nature based, (2) visitors interactions with those attractions
should be focused on learning or education, and (3) experience and product
management should follow principles and practices associated with ecological, socio-
cultural and economic sustainability, Blamey, 1997, 2001). Holland, Ditton and
Graefe (1998) and Zwirn, Pinsky and Rahr (2005) argue for potential of inclusion of
recreation angling as form of ecotourism. Novelli, Barnes and Humavindu argue that
trophy hunting should also be included into ecotourism. Ryan and Saward (2004) in
regard to captive aspect of ecotourism argue that zoos redesigned to mimic non-
captive habitat could too qualify as ecotourism. There is more debate on inclusion of
more cultural element in ecotourism and more recently inclusion of indigenous
ecotourism wherein its argued that centuries of co-existence between indigenous
people and their surrounding have profound blurred the boundaries between the
natural environment and culture ( Hinch, 1998, 2001; Nepal, 2004; Zeppel, 2006).
There has also been debate on inclusion of whale watching (Curtin, 2003; Hoyt&
Tourism
Sustainable Tourism Development
Nature Tourism
Ecotourism
Adventure tourism
7
Hvenegaard, 2002, Orams, 2002, 2005; Parsons, Lewardowski, & Luck, 2005) and
Antarctic tourist (Cloesen, 2003; Mason& Legg, 1999,; Stonehouse, 2001, Stewart
Kirby & Steel, 2006) inclusion of Bat-based ecotourism ( Pennisi, Holland, and Stein
(2004).
Ecotourism exist in both ‘soft’ and ‘hard’ dimension ( Laarman and Durst (1987).
Other concepts include the mass ecotourism concept by Weaver (2001b, 2005b) and
Kontogeorgopoulos (2004a).
Therefore, the definition of ecotourism can be further elucidated by understanding the
principles of ecotourism.
2.2 Key Principles of Ecotourism
Table 1. Principles of Ecotourism
Principle Details
1. Ecotourism Policy Performance and
Framework
Ecotourism operators make public
commitment to uphold the principles of
ecotourism and put and in place management
systems to ensure their performance
2. Natural Area Focus Ecotourism require a direct personal
experience of nature
3. Interpretation and Education Ecotourism provides opportunities to
experience nature and culture in ways that
lead to greater understanding, appreciation
and enjoyment. Ecotourism products provide
visitors
with the opportunity to receive
quality interpretive services.
4.Ecologically Compatible Infrastructure Ecotourism operations are developed
appropriately on the basis of ecological
sustainability and understanding of the
potential impacts
5. Ecologically Sustainable Practice The product employs ecologically sustainable
practices in its operations management to
ensure that its activities do not degrade the
environment
6. Contributing To Conservation Ecotourism shall provide tangible
contribution to conservation
7. Ecotourism Benefiting Local
Communities
Ecotourism shall provide ongoing
contributions to the local communities
8. Cultural Respect and Sensitivity An ecotourism product in both its
development and operation phases must be
respectful of, and sensitive to, local cultures.
To ensure cultural values are treated
appropriately, there is a need to consult with
local people so that their legitimate
aspirations are met and to allow presentation
of authentic cultural values.
9. Customer Satisfaction Ecotourism products meet or exceed
customer’s expectations.
10. Responsible Marketing Ecotourism products meet or exceed
8
customer’s expectations.
11. Minimal Impact Codes of Practice Ecotourism products have minimal impacts
on the natural, social and cultural
environment, and are undertaken in
accordance with a defined code of practice
Source: Ecotourism Australia
Ecotourism should follow the above principles so as to be sustainable in a given
tourist destination.
2.3 Sustainable Tourism Development
The concept of sustainability has its origins in the environmentalism that grew to
prominence in the 1970s. The explicit idea of sustainable development was first
highlighted by the International Union Today sustainable development has become an
international catch word and its import for the Conservation of Nature and Natural
Resources (IUCN,1980) in its World Conservation Strategy. The importance of the
sustainable development in the global development cannot be overemphasized. The
official use of the term “sustainable development” can be traced in 1987 when it
received an international recognition. In, 1987, the Bruntland Commission defined
sustainable development as;
“Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the
ability of the future generations to meet their own needs” (Our Common Future,
1987, p.43)
The concept has gained more popularity and has evolved much more than its original
definition. Internationally, it’s viewed in terms of multifaceted angle including social,
economic, and environmental aspects of development. Despite the criticisms aimed at
sustainable development, its principles are still very useful as tool for planning and
policy-making (Sirakaya, Jamal, and Choi, 2001).
A sustainable development triangle in Figure 2 exemplifies this concept as a balance
between the economy, the environment, and the society. All sides are interdependent
and must co-exist to promote a successful long-term development
9
Figure 2 showing Sustainable Triangle (World Conservation Union, 2003)
An interesting thing is that most cited document on sustainable development, Our
Common Future, does not mention tourism at all (Wall, 1997, Wearing, 2001). In
tourism, there are multitude of definitions for sustainability and sustainable
development (Butler, 1999b; Page & Downling, 2002). The World Tourism
Organisation (WTO, 2001) defined sustainable tourism development as;
Sustainable tourism development meets the needs of the present tourists and
the host regions while protecting and enhancing opportunities for the future. It
is envisaged as leading to the management of all resources in such a way that
economic, social, and aesthetic needs can be fulfilled while maintaining
cultural integrity, essential ecological processes, biological diversity and life
support systems.
Sustainability, sustainable tourism and sustainable development are all well-
established terms that have been used loosely and often interchangeably in literature.
To get a unambiguous view of sustainable tourism, its imperative to understand the
guiding principles of sustainable tourism put forward (Blamey, 2001).
DEVELOPMENT
SUSTAINABLE
SUSTAINABLE
SUSTAINABLE
ECONOMY
THE ENVIRONMENT
HEALTH
OF
SOCIETY
10
Table 2. Principles of Sustainable Tourism (Blamey, 2001)
1. Using resources
sustainably
The conservation and sustainable use of resources natural,
social, cultural, is crucial and makes long-term business
sense
2. Reducing over
consumption and
waste
Reduction of over-consumption and waste avoids the costs
of restoring long-term environmental damage and
contributes to the quality of tourism
3. Maintaining
Biodiversity
Maintaining and promoting natural, social, and cultural
diversity is essential for long-term sustainable tourism, and
creates a resilient base for the industry
4.Integrating tourism
into planning
Tourism development which is integrated into a national and
local strategic planning framework and which undertakes
environmental impact assessments, increase the long-term
viability of tourism
5.Supporting local
economies
Tourism that supports a wide range of local economic
activities and which takes environmental costs and values
into account, both protects these economies and avoids
environmental damage
6. Involving local
communities
The full involvement of local communities in the tourism
sector not only benefits them and the environment but also
improves the quality of the tourism project
7. Consulting
stakeholders and the
public
Consultation between the tourism industry and local
communities organizations and institutions is essential if
they are to work alongside each other and resolve potential
conflicts of interest
8. Training Staff Staff training which integrates sustainable tourism into work
practices, along with recruitment of personnel at all levels,
improves the quality of the tourism product
9.Marketing tourism
responsibly
9. Marketing that provides tourists with full and responsible
information increases respect for the natural, social and
cultural environments of destination areas and enhances
customer satisfaction
10. Undertaking
research
Ongoing research and monitoring by the industry using
effective data collection and analysis is essential to help
solve problems and bring benefits to destinations, the
industry and consumers
3.0 The growth of Ecotourism in Kenya
3.1 History of ecotourism in Kenya
Africa has been at the forefront of evolution from nature- based tourism to ecotourism.
In the 1980’s, government facing dire prospects such as rhino extinction recognized
the fragility of the continent’s wildernesses and moved people like Kenya’s Maasai
off their lands to create national parks. This heightened the conflict over land between
people and wildlife. The new National Parks were ringed by resentful communities.
Unable to graze their herds alongside the wildlife, as they had done for centuries, they
turned to poaching and illicit hunting for the pot. Thus, it was important to bridge the
gap between the communities and the wildlife or ecotourism ventures. It’s only in
11
recent years that tourists and operators have ascribed a different role to local
communities in tourism, one based on both their right to benefit from tourism and the
priceless value for travellers of interactions with people and cultures. This has been
secret in enabling eco-tourism to help reconcile people and wildlife in their competing
claims for land. Having said this, the real history behind ecotourism is rooted in
Africa when people could go on eco-adventure tours based on hunting the local
wildlife. For a fee, a person could go on an interactive hunting safari where tourists
were allowed or rather, without being punished for, hunting elephants for ivory (and
sport) in addition to a wide array of other species like leopards, black rhinos and lions.
These species could not withstand thinning populations’ overtime. In the 1970s it
became clear that if these animal populations were not protected and poaching not put
to a stop, certain animals would surely become extinct. This realization and the
subsequent transformation in how Safaris and hunting trips were conducted in Eastern
Africa was a huge landmark in the history of how ecotourism came to be. That, and
by making poaching and hunting ivory illegal, was a huge step for environmentalists
and animal activists. By trying to protect those animals and the environment from the
unnecessary pressure tourists were bringing to the area, a large number of the ideals
within ecotourism were born. While environmentalists all over the world were aware
that this type of reckless hunting and tourism was having a negative effect on
ecosystems and animal populations, making the hunting of certain species illegal and
the mindful effort to rebuild populations through laws and government policies was
an integral step.
3.2 Growth of Ecotourism & sustainable tourism in Kenya
The history of tourism in Kenya dates back to pre-independence days.
It can be traced way back in 1898 when the earliest legislation on wildlife establishing
game reserves was enacted and published in the Gazette for the east African
protective of 1898.Other ordinances followed are the east Africa Bird protection
ordinances of 1903. In 1907, Game department was established to manage wildlife
and hunting throughout the protectorate the area that teemed with wildlife had already
started attracting a considerable number of professional and not so professional
hunters. This marked the beginning of tourism activities in Kenya. By 1930’S
overseas visitors had started coming to Kenya on big-game hunting expeditions as
12
well as in search of relaxation and solitude. These expeditions were famously referred
to in Local Swahili word as Safari, which later became a buzzword in travel and
tourism literature worldwide. As early as 1957, available statistics indicate that Kenya
had welcomed 38,000 visitors rising to 42,000 in 1961.In 1967, Kenya played host to
a total of 127,667 visitors bringing in K$ 12.5 Million (Ksh 250 million, that reflected
an annual growth rate of 20% since 1961)
Figure 3. International Arrivals Trend in Kenya
0
20,000
40,000
60,000
80,000
100,000
120,000
J
a
n
F
e
b
M
a
r
A
p
r
M
a
y
J
u
n
J
u
l
A
u
g
S
e
p
t
O
c
t
N
o
v
D
e
c
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
i. 2003 – 2004: TMRP (Sept 03-Mar 04) spurred the recovery phase of arrivals numbers.
ii. 2004 – 2005: Marketing programmes sustained through FAMs & marketing partnerships.
iii. 2005 – present: 100% of Kenya’s destination marketing carried out with only GoK
funding.
iv. 2005 – 2006: Recovery achieved; realigned focus to increasing yield alongside arrivals
growth maintenance.
v. 2006 – 2007: Inadequate funding: Leveraged industry contacts, MDR relationships for
“discounted” marketing.
The curve differential indicates that sustained marketing activities were more effective than
TMRP.Figure 3 shows the international tourist arrivals in Kenya from year 2002 to 2007 and also
monthly fluctuations of the tourists. 80% of tourism in the country is nature based or ecotourism.
Source: Kenya Tourist Board 2007
13
Figure 4. Tourist Arrivals and percentage share growth
USA
16%
Germany
1%
Italy
3%
Nordic
3%
Other
23%
India
1%
France
1%
Canada
5%
E. Europe
1%
China
3%
South Africa
4%
Spain
1%
Netherlands
1%
Australia
3%
UK
34%
i. Of the 91,703 incremental arrivals by September 2007, the share is split as above.
ii. The danger of an over-reliance on the UK and the USA is clear!
iii. Coincidentally, UK & USA were the only markets with substantive mktg. budgets.
iv. However Australia, South Africa, China, Canada and Nordic show potential,
despite their low bases.
The above figure shows international tourist arrivals by source market to Kenya, United
Kingdom leads as a generating market with 34%, USA 16%, China3% among others.
Source: Kenya Tourist Board 2007
14
3.3 Tourism Trends in Kenya
Tourism in Kenya has been on upward trend making the tourism industry the leading
foreign exchange earner in the economy. In year 2006, the tourism sector maintained
an upward growth despite many challenges facing the global economy. The
consolidated tourism earnings rose from Ksh 48.9 billion in 2005 to 56.2 billion in
2006 reflecting an increase of 14.9% International tourist arrivals grew by 8.2% form
1,479,000 in 2005 to 1,600,600 in 2006. The number of hotels bed-nights occupied
recorded a remarkable growth of 32.3% from 4,476, 600 in 2005 to 5,922,100 in
2006.Bed availability grew by 19.9% form 10,845,600 in 2005 to 13,003,500 in 2006.
The number of tourists who visited Parks and Reserves grew by 10.8%, from
2,132,900 in 2005 to 2,363,700 in 2006(UNWTO, 2007.
Declaration of Maasai Mara as one of the Seven Wonders of the World by an
American Travel magazine in November 2006 boasted the number of tourist arrivals
in the country. The number of local and international conference went up by 36.5%
and 12.4% respectively in year 2006 due to increased sensitization programmes,
seminars, meetings, conferences, congresses and policy & Strategies launches. The
growth can also be attributed to growing positive perception towards Kenya as
preferred tourist destination. The number of holiday makers stood at 1,087,500,
business travellers 226,200, transit travellers 137,200 and others at 149,800 in year
2006. The number of days spent by visitors on holidays increased from 13.4million in
2005 to 14.2million in 2006, representing 6% growth. The number of visitors on
business increased by 11% while on transit doubled. Overall, the visitors length of
stay expanded by 7.5% form 16million to 17.2 %.(GoK, 2007)
Tourism was exclusively centred on three geographical areas namely coastal area for
beach tourism, Nairobi for business or conferences and Maasailand for game viewing
and Safaris. The Kenyan coast recorded 54.5 % of the total bed-nights in 2006 from
50.8% in 2005. (GoK, 2007)
Kenya is one of the global leaders in community-based ecotourism, working with the
many local tribes to develop innovative ways to protect the environment and local
culture. A leader in innovative eco-lodges, Kenya has won many international eco-
lodge awards. Il N’gwesi and Tortillis Camp both won the British Airways Tourism
for Tomorrow award in recent years. Ol Donyo Wuas has also been a finalist for the
15
same award. Kenya is ahead of the ecotourism pack in other areas as well, planning to
be Africa’s first country to develop and use international criteria to rate eco-lodges
and tour operators. Started in October 1999 by Dr. David Western and Neel Inamdar,
Ecotourism Society of Kenya (ESOK) has completed the 'eco-ratings', giving Kenya’s
tourists an opportunity to choose a 3 star or a 4 star eco-lodge, based on
internationally accepted criteria. These criteria also provide Kenya’s eco-lodges and
tour operators the tools they need to compete in the global market as one of the world’
top ecotourism destinations. Kenya also received an international ecotourism coup
when The International Ecotourism Society (TIES), representing an international
membership network that includes tour operators, academics, and government
officials in 110 countries, recognised East Africa’s reputation for strong ecotourism
practices and chose Nairobi as the venue for the International Year of Ecotourism
(IYE) Africa ecotourism conference.
The United Nations declared 2002 as the International Year of Ecotourism (IYE),
providing a forum for the world to understand the synergy between conservation,
cultural awareness and community benefits through tourism. In Kenya, the
environment and tourism have always been inextricably linked, and this is a truly
symbiotic relationship. Wildlife in particular has always served as one of Kenya
major tourist draw cards, and the resultant revenue has played a major role in the great
priority placed on wildlife preservation in Kenya. This is not just for the benefit of
foreign visitors- Eco-tourism means more than just preserving wildlife for visitors; it
also means protecting the world and its resources for the future benefit of Kenya.
Kenya’s dedication to eco-values sets it apart from many other African destinations.
Community based tourism and ecotourism is a growing sector, globally. It currently
accounts for 5% of the global tourism market and is growing at a rate of 20-30%
annually (WTO, 2008). Increasing numbers of tourists want to interact with local
communities and they want to stay in places that positively impact on both the
environment and the local population. Throughout Kenya there is growing awareness
of the benefits of community based tourism projects. Communities that have allowed
access to their land have seen their lifestyles improved through increased revenue
through wages, land leases and development funds. Many projects have built
boreholes, schools and clinics for the local community. There are a growing number
16
of community tourism projects in Kenya, ranging from Il Ngwesi and Tassia in the
Laikipia area, Sarara in Namunyak, Shompole in the Magadi region and Losikitok in
Amboseli. (ESOK, 2008). The projects range in scale from complete community
management to a partnership with an investor or trust who provides the capital to
build the guest accommodation and related tourist facilities. The community
provides the use of the land, through a lease and helps to ensure the protection of the
local wildlife. Community members are often employed and trained in the tourism
projects and benefit from wages, community development funds and involvement in
spin off enterprises. In Kenya, the community based tourism concept is just taking
root and there is a need to harness this product and direct it towards the market in a
more cohesive and systematic manner.
3.4 Institution structure of Tourism in Kenya
Figure 5. Organisation structure of Ministry of Tourism and Wildlife in
Kenya
Minister for Tourism
Assistant Ministers
Administration
Department
•Administration
•Public Relations
•CPU
•Personnel
•Accounts
•Finance
•Procurement
Department of
Tourism
•Licensing
•Product & Market
Development
•Research Desk
•Wildlife Desk
Parastatals
•Kenya Tourism
Development Corporation
•Kenya Tourist Board
•Kenya Utalii College
•Catering Training and
Development Levy Trustee
•Kenyatta International
Conferences Centre
•Kenya Wildlife Services
•Tourism Trust Fund
•Bomas of Kenya
Personal Secretary
Adopted: Ministry of Tourism in Kenya
17
3.5 Ecotourism related organisations in Kenya
3.5.1 National Environment Management Authority (NEMA)
The National Environment Management Authority (NEMA) was established under
the Environmental Management and Coordination Act (EMCA) No. 8 of 1999, as the
principal instrument of government in the implementation of all policies relating to
the environment.
Environmental Management and Coordination Act (EMCA), 1999
The enactment of EMCA, 1999 was a milestone in promoting sustainable
environmental management in the country. The Act provides for the harmonization
of about 77 sectoral statutes, which address aspects of the environment. Some sectoral
statutes have inadequate provisions for prosecution of environmental offenders, while
in some penalties are not sufficiently punitive to deter offenders. EMCA, 1999
provides an institutional framework and procedures for management of the
environment, including provisions for conflict resolution. environment, including
provisions for conflict resolution. Section 3 of EMCA, 1999 states that “Every person
in Kenya is entitled to a clean and healthy environment and has the duty to safeguard
and enhance the environment.” The Act is intended to ensure that our activities do
not compromise the capacity of the resource base to meet the needs of the present
generation as well as those of future generations (WCED, 1987)
3.5.2 Ecotourism Kenya
Ecotourism Kenya is a civil society organization that was founded in 1996 to promote
ecotourism and sustainable tourism practices in Kenya. Founded with enormous
industry support, the society was charged with the responsibility of providing the
required support for the development of ecotourism and sustainable tourism in the
country. Today, the society continues to pursue the vision of making Kenya’s tourism
sustainable, in terms of concern for the environment and the welfare of local
populations. As a membership organization, Ecotourism Kenya brings together
individuals, community based organizations (CBOs) and corporate organizations in a
forum where they can discuss the concept of ecotourism and use this knowledge to
improve practices in their respective fields.
18
3.5.3 Wildlife Clubs of Kenya (WCK)
Wildlife Clubs of Kenya (WCK) is a charitable, non-governmental organisation
formed in 1968 by Kenyan students. It was the first conservation education
programme of its kind on the continent of Africa. According to Dr. George
Schaller: ”WCK is the most effective grass-roots programme of its kind in all of
Africa.” WCK was elected to the UNEP’s Global 500 Honour Roll in 1986. WCK is
run by a 20-member council of Civil Servants, members of NGOs private citizens and
teachers. A national secretariat handles daily activities with the advice of an executive
committee of specialists in conservation education, business and public administration.
The National secretariat co-ordinates WCK’s numerous activities, sends out mobile
field units and education and education officers to schools, runs training workshops,
organises rallies and prepares club publications. Through Africa wide workshops,
WCK has stimulated a continental wildlife clubs movement. It has also helped spawn
clubs in Asia, Latin America and elsewhere in the third world.
WCK is now actively lobbying for conservation action. This has helped to bring about
a hunting and wildlife trophy ban in Kenya; increased tree planting and soil erosion
control activities; and vigorous conservation of natural resources.
After more than quarter century of service, WCK proudly looks back on one
fundamental achievement. It has helped educate over 1,000,000 young Kenyans and
placed many of them in positions of influence. The clubs’ intention now is to ensure
that this enormous membership and awareness leads to tangible conservation
successes.
4.0 Protected areas (Appendix 1)
Kenya’s tourism sector thrives on the natural resources and the scenic landscape.
According to the Ministry of Tourism and Wildlife, the country has 52 national parks
and 28 national reserves and 3 game sanctuaries that spread from the coast to Lake
Victoria in the western region. The game parks and reserves occupy about 9.5 percent
of the land surface. In particular the country is famed for its wild game and beautiful
scenery. It has been estimated that approximately 80 percent of the tourists who visit
Kenya are primarily interested in viewing wildlife (Filion et al. 1994). Other tourist
19
attractions include marine parks, mountains, the rift valley and lakes. Each of these is
unique and offers varied attractions.
Marine parks are renowned for the coral reefs, gardens and sea animals. The beaches
and lagoons offer opportunities for sunbathing, boat riding, and big game fishing.
Similarly, the inland lakes offer a variety of attractions. Lake Nakuru in the rift valley
is famed for flamingos; while Lake Victoria offers opportunity to see fresh water fish,
unique bird species, crocodiles and hippos. Other inland water attractions are
available in Lake Turkana, Bogoria and Naivasha. The Mountains are scenic and host
numerous species of wild game. In themselves the mountains such as Mt Kenya and
Mt Kilimanjaro offer excellent opportunities for climbing adventures, photography,
trekking and camping. Besides these, the country has some of the indigenous and
highly valued forests such as the Arabuko sokoke and kakamega, which are rich in
wildlife, including birds and insects that are beautiful to watch. (GoK 1995a).
The trend of visits to the national parks and game reserves are captured in the Table 3.
Table 3. Number of visitors to National parks and game reserves (000)
Park 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004
Nairobi 149.6 122.3 139.2 130.3 101.6 90.4 71.3 92.5
Nairobi Safari Walk - - - - 113.5 114.4 66.3 88.0
Animal orphanage 193.7 164.8 235.1 266.1 151.1 254.5 205.3 239.4
Amboseli 117.2 62.9 77.0 93.5 91.5 92.0 54.7 101.6
Tsavo West 88.6 54.9 61.0 78.6 78.7 76.3 62.6 92.7
Tsavo East 123.2 66.9 111.6 124.9 132.7 152.8 119.2 158.5
Aberdare 59.0 47.9 44.2 44.9 40.5 41.5 30.3 44.0
Lake Nakuru 132.1 111.0 189.1 193.3 209.4 229.8 193.6 257.0
Masai Mara 118.3 100.4 171.0 193.5 207.2 231.1 233.0 240.0
Hailer’s Park 86.8 77.9 96.4 92.6 87.2 87.0 99.9 101.2
Malindi Marine 27.0 13.7 23.9 35.7 26.5 29.8 22.8 27.5
Lake Bogoria 24.5 20.6 53.0 56.1 59.6 18.7 64.7 64.7
Meru 4.1 1.8 3.5 6.0 7.8 8.2 5.7 6.4
Shimba Hills 22.5 16.8 17.7 20.5 18.3 14.4 16.2 18.7
Mt. Kenya 14.8 10.2 22.7 11.5 26.3 27.9 25.5 27.7
Samburu 8.3 7.0 7.0 8.2 6.3 6.0 6.0 6.2
Kisite/Mpunguti 35.1 16.2 36.1 38.4 29.1 47.1 35.9 51.7
Watamu Marine 19.4 18.3 40.8 28.4 30.0 29.3 21.1 28.4
Hell’s Gate 47.2 57.1 72.7 74.0 73.0 60.9 75.1 38.9
Impala Sanctuary/
Kisumu
62.4 65.6 77.4 90.4 96.9 117.7 69.6 63.3
Others 15.5 13.9 19.8 20.1 17.4 11.0 30.5 30.3
TOTAL 1,364.5 1,079.4 1,533.4 1,644.4 1,650.3 1740.8 1509.3 1778.7
Source: Economic Survey 2005
20
Others parks include Mt.Elgon, Ol-Donyo Sabuk, Marsabit, Saiwa Swamp, Sibiloi,
Ruma, Mwea, Central Island, Nasolot and Kakamega
The numbers of tourist who visit the protected areas have been on increase. The Table
3. shows the number of visitors both domestic and international who entered various
protected zone in Kenya varying from National parks, reserves, marine parks,
sanctuaries in thousands from 1997 to 2004. The animal orphanage, Maasai Mara and
Lake Nakuru National parks are the most visited protected areas in Kenya. The
opening of Nairobi Safari walk has increased the number of visitors in Nairobi
protected area. This is a new concept of a modern Non-captive zoo where animals’
area almost in the jungle but visitors can view them while walking on the bridge.
Figure 6 Number of people visiting parks from year 1997 to 2004
1997, 1,364.50
1998, 1,079.40
1999, 1,533.40
2000, 1,644.40
2001, 1,650.30
2002, 1740.8
2003, 1509.3
2004, 1778.7
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
Figure 6 show the total number of people visiting some of the National Parks and
Reserves in Kenya for a period ranging from 1997 to 2004. There is clear evidence
that the number of people visiting the parks in Kenya has been increasing annually
from 1,079,400 in 1999 to 1,778,700 in year 2004. This can be associated with more
awareness and promotion of eco based tourism in Kenya
21
Figure 7. Map National Parks, National Reserves, Marine Parks and Marine
Reserves in Kenya
Source: Google Maps
The Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS) manages the national parks, while the game
reserves are under local councils. The KWS is a state corporation that is responsible
for conserving the natural resources and ensuring that they commercially benefit the
country.
22
4.1 Proportions of wildlife according to conservation status
The significance of the various categories of protected and non-protected areas to
conservation can also be assessed by comparing the proportions of wildlife in each
category (Table 4).
Table 4. Percentages of wildlife found in areas of differing conservation
status averaged for the 1990s
Conservation Status Wildlife totals Percent of all wildlife
National Parks 83,633 10
Maasai Mara National Reserve 214,045 25
All Nationally Protected Areas 297,678 35
Privately Protected Areas 334,263 40
Nationally and Privately Protected
Areas
631,941 75
Remaining populations (non-
protected areas)
214,711 25
Total National Population 846,652 100
Source: African Conservation Centre,2006
National parks account for approximately 10% of all Kenya’s wildlife and national
parks and reserves for 35% of the total. Maasai Mara alone accounts for 25% of the
national total, underscoring its singular importance to Kenya’s protected area system.
The privately protected areas account for 40% of all wildlife, four times the figure of
the national parks and more than all nationally protected areas combined. Taken
together, all protected areas (national parks, national reserves and privately protected
areas) account for75% of all wildlife. David Western, Samantha Russell, and
Kamweti Mutu(2006)
5.0 Impacts and challenges
5.1 Economic
Tourism as part of country’s economic growth strategy, has potential to contribute
significantly to the socioeconomic aspirations of people living in the tourist
destinations ( Alavi and Yasin, 2000). Wunder(2000) argues that economic incentives
for the nature conservation are imperative, and without local communities’
cooperation, conservation programs cannot succeed. Thus, balancing the social,
ecological and economic aspects of tourism is a prerequisite for sustainability. By
some accounts, ecotourism has created only meagre economic benefits for
communities (Kinnaird and O’Brien, 1996). Leakage of profits from local to outside
23
operators has been a major problem( Honey, 1999; Lindberg, 1994). Ideally
ecotourism encourages natural resource conservation in return for local and national
economic benefits, in addition to offering local, national and international tourists an
opportunity to enjoy and learn about nature while respecting local culture (Brandon,
1996; Davenport et al., 2002; Emmons, 1991; Honey, 1999). Furthermore, training
local guides to lead visitor education programmes can provide income for local
residents and increase visitor environmental awareness (Paaby & Clark, 1995; Weiler
& Ham, 2002). Ecotourism, while promoting the conservation of natural areas that are
tourist destinations, can provide economic revenues through entrance fees,
employment of local residents of the park area, and tourist expenditures. Projects can
generate foreign exchange and provide economic benefits to remote areas (Fennell,
1999). Ecotourism initiatives can attract investment capital for community
infrastructure development, often including improved local social and educational
services (Barnes et al., 1992). Initially, ecotourism does not require large capital
investments, since ecotourists typically are willing to tolerate basic conditions and
facilities. Park-based ecotourism often affects local community residents. Several
attitudinal studies have been conducted to assess local opinions about conservation
and tourism efforts in places such as South Africa (Infield, 1988), Tanzania
(Newmark et al., 1993), Malawi (Mkanda & Munthali, 1994), Belize (Hartup, 1994),
Ecuador (Fiallo & Jacobson, 1995), Nepal (Mehta & Kellert, 1998), and Madagascar
(Peters, 1999).
In Kenya most of the local communities are directly and indirectly benefiting from
tourism earnings although many locals are employed at lower cadres in the lodges.
The biggest challenge of economic benefits of tourism in Kenya is financial leakage
because most of the lodges are owned by foreign investors.
5.2 Sociocultural
Ecotourism, in general can contribute to the disintegration of local communities social
and cultural structure (Stem et al.,; Boo, 1999). The cultural and socio ethos must be
well understood in order for ecotourism to be sustainable. Ecotourism thrives upon
the support of the local communities. Culture can be incorporated into planning and
24
marketing of ecotourism destinations and products (Wearing, 2001). According to
Boo (1990), ecotourists are more likely to appreciate local tradition, customs and
cuisine than other market segment. One serious impact of ecotourism is that it can
lead to the ‘commodification’ of culture. When people and their customs become
marketable commodities, this can lead to erosion of culture and community cohesion
(Stem et al, 2003). Another problem associated with tourist is involution of culture
(WTO, 2003) where local people do not want to change their ways of life so as to
attract tourist, thus contributing to underdevelopment. Another problem associated
with tourism is breaking up of social cohesive forces, disappearance of traditions and
culture, artefacts, songs, ceremonies, norms, taboos in a tourist destination. Kenya has
been equally adversely affected by the impacts of tourism. The Maasai culture has
been commoditised, disintegration of some cultures, overcrowding in some attractions
thus causing resentment by the local people. Due to the fact that tourism pays more,
many people have abandoned the other industries to reap the benefits of the tourism
boom thus causing social imbalance. Another major problem is increase in crime,
prostitution, use of drugs and other negative things that are associated with tourism.
Divorce cases are on increase, lesbianism; homo sexual trends are also on rise.
5.3 Environmental
The global tourism industry depends heavily on the conservation sector to establish
and maintain the protected areas that provide many of the world’s prime tourist
attractions, including publicly funded access, infrastructure, and facilities (Fennell,
1999; Weaver, 2001; Eagles and McCool, 2002, Newsome et al., 2002). In making
use of these areas, tourism industry produces a number of negative environmental
impacts, and these increase funds required for resources and visitor management
(Liddle,1997; Weaver,2001; Buckly and King,2003.Tourism can sometimes make a
positive contribution to conservation by: establishing private protected areas;
lobbying for World Heritage, National parks and other public protected areas;
improving protection of existing reserves; and replacing higher-impacts users by other
industry sectors in areas of high conservation value, either public or privately owned,
which are not protected (Newsome et al .,2002, Eagles and McCool;2002;
Buckley,2003a.
25
5.4 Political
Politics have a lot of influence on the destinations policy framework and
implementation. As Weinberg et al (2002) have noted many problems associated with
ecotourism development are fixable and knowable; the challenges remain political.
Specifically, communities exist in larger political systems and often lack the capacity
to control broader economic effects. Communities with stronger networks and social
capital may be better prepared to overcome these political challenges. The Kenyan
government has created an enabling environment for ecotourism to thrive. It works
closer with NGOs, International organisation like UNEP which has its Head Quarters
in Nairobi Kenya. The government has formed organisations like NEMA to conduct
environmental impact assessment, environmental audit to the existing properties.
Having said this, there are challenges that are associated with bad government
policies like giving of water catchment areas and forests for farming activities to gain
political mileage. At the moment there is a huge debate on future of Maasai Mara, one
of the ‘seventh natural wonder of the world’ due to deforestation in Mau forests and
distribution of land by politicians to their communities and political supporters.
Maasai Mara carries about 75% of wildlife in protected areas in Kenya.
Table 5. showing tourism direct and indirect impacts (Weaver 1998:21)
Environmental impacts
Direct benefits Direct costs
• provides incentive to protect
environment, both formally
(protected areas)and
informally
• provides incentive for
restoration and conversion of
modified habitats
• ecotourist actively assisting
in habitat enhancement
(donations, policing,
• maintenance, etc.)
danger that environmental carrying capacities
will be unintentionally exceeded, due
to:
• .rapid growth rates
• . difficulties in identifying, measuring and
monitoring impacts over a long period
• idea that all tourism induces stress
Indirect benefits Indirect costs
• Exposure to ecotourism
fosters broader commitment
to environmental well-being
• Space protected because of
ecotourism provide various
environmental benefits
• Fragile areas maybe exposed to less benign
forms of tourism (pioneer function)
• My foster tendencies to put financial value,
depending upon attractiveness
26
Economic impacts
Direct benefits Direct costs
• Revenues obtained directly
from ecotourist
• Creation of direct
employment opportunities
• Strong potential for linkages
with other sectors of the local
economy
• Stimulation of peripheral
rural economies
• Start-up expenses (acquisition of land,
establishment of protected areas, superstructure,
infrastructure)
• Ongoing expenses (maintenance of
infrastructure, wages)
Indirect benefits Indirect costs
• Indirect revenues from
ecotourism(high multipliers
effect)
• Tendency of ecotourist to
patronise culture and heritage
attractions as add-ons
• Economic benefits from
sustainable use of protected
areas and inherent existence
• Revenue uncertainties to in situ nature if
consumption
• Revenue leakages due to imports, expatriate or
non-local participation, etc
• Opportunity cost
• Damage to crops by wildlife
Sociocultural impacts
Direct benefits Direct costs
• Ecotourism accessible to
broad spectrum of the
population
• Aesthetic/ spiritual element
of experience
• Foster environmental
awareness among ecotourist
and the local people
• Intrusion upon local and possibly isolated
cultures
• Displacement of local cultures by parks
• Imposition of elite alien value system
• Erosion of local control (foreign experts, in-
migration of job seekers)
Indirect benefits Indirect costs
• Optional and existence
benefits
• Potential resentment and antagonism of locals
• Tourist opposition to aspects of local
culture( e.g. hunting, slash-burn, agriculture).
Source: Weaver (1998:21)
5.5 Kenya SWOT Analysis
SWOT analysis is a tool for auditing an organization or a country and its environment.
SWOT stands for strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats. Strengths and
weaknesses are internal factors. Opportunities and threats are external factors.
27
Figure 9. SWOT Analysis symbiotic relationships
Table 6. Kenya’s SWOT analysis
Strengths Weaknesses
• Abundant wildlife • Lack of clear guidelines on ecotourism
• Haven for birds • Lack of policy framework and
implementation
• Good climate all year around • Poor private- public relationship
• Excellent location • High percentage of Foreign investors in
ecotourism
• Hospitable people • Lack of funds for local people
• Maasai Mara • Poor marketing of eco products
• Rich culture and history • Lack of government incentives
• Head quarters for UNEP • Poor infrastructure and super structures
• Sun, sea, surf and sand • Only 10% of wildlife live protected area
• Quality beaches • Only 9.5% of land is protected area
• Coral reef and corals •
• Abundant marine life
• Quality local cuisine
• Panoramic scenery
• Eco rating of lodges in Kenya
Opportunities Threats
• East Africa cooperation • Green washing
• Take advantage of UNEP, WWF • Poaching & Hunting
• Use international media house who have
Africa HQ in Kenya
• Community resentment
• Promote ‘Green Movement’ • Commodification of culture
• Use Athletes to promote Eco ventures • Involution of culture
• Take advantage of CITES on Kenyan • Propensity to loose cultural ethos and
28
elephants socio milieu
• Use of Queen visit in Treetops for
promoting ecotourism
• Un coordinated development in eco
destinations
• Take advantage of Americas President
Kenya roots for creating global
ecotourism awareness
• Overcrowding in some parks and
reserves
• Promote UNESCO protected sites • Illegal fishing
• Use of Indigenous Knowledge for
ecotourism
• Competition from other eco destinations
• Use of Dolphins in South Coast for
promotion
•
• Internet and website information •
• Eco labelling and International
Certification of Eco products
•
6.0 Eco rating programme in Kenya
The Community Outreach Program is one among the key program areas of
Ecotourism Kenya. The aim of the program is threefold:
• to integrate communities and community-based tourism into
mainstream tourism in Kenya;
• to build capacity for local people to more effectively engage with
tourism issues;
• to explore ideas for tourism involvements in their areas.
The ultimate goal is for an equitable distribution of the benefits that accrue from
community-based tourism enterprises involving
• Community mobilization; participatory trainings, seminars, workshops and
sharing of information through the quarterly newsletter and monthly e-
letter;
• Community advisory services on product development, packaging,
fundraising, etc;
• Promotion of community based, owned and/ or managed tourism
enterprises.
Ecotourism Kenya has realized that many community-based tourism enterprises exist
in the country, and are at various stages of development. Database of the field visits,
surveys and contacts with other organizations engaged in community development
work in Kenya. There are 101 communities in ecotourism based activities in Kenya.
29
6.1 Case Study of Eco rated Lodge Base Camp
Eco-rating Scheme Award Gold
Facilities
The main camp has 16 tents (consisting of 32 beds).
Activities
Day game drives, nature walks, tree-planting
Sustainable tourism measures
Outstanding & Replicable Tourism Practices
i. The Maasai Brand, an initiative that seeks to improve and promote traditional
handicrafts made by women’s groups in the Talek region of Maasai mara. It is
an initiative that promotes cultural conservation, gender sensitivity, capacity
building and local income generation. It recorded an income of about Ksh. 2
million in 2006 for these women.
ii. Evidence of high investment in conservation and community support. The
director noted that for the first five years, Basecamp did not make a profit as
all monies went into these efforts.
iii. Use of “Maasai grammar” to explain culture. In guest rooms for instance, coat
hangers, beds, linen, furniture and other furnishings have made use of Maasai
designs or parts, as a way of encouraging visitors to learn more about the
Maasai culture
iv. Winning international recognition in sustainable tourism, including 2005 First
Choice Responsible Tourism Award for Best Practice in Protected Areas.
Responsible/ Best Tourism Practices
i. Extensive use of local material, including deadwood, and labor for
construction. Most structures are constructed in a way that they can be
dismantled and taken away safely, leaving no footprint.
ii. Environmental conservation: Use of a tree-top wildlife viewing post has
reduced the need for game drives
iii. Extensive use of solar energy and use of energy saving LED bulbs. The solar
water heaters are ISO-certified and have been chosen because of their energy
30
efficiency character. Even the communication system is powered by solar
energy.
iv. Uses an efficient kuni booster from Botto Solar at the staff quarters
v. Have a solar cooker at the kitchen area, as a demonstration to the local
community on efficient technologies available
vi. Practices garbage separation and composting. Has clean and well-fenced
garbage disposal and composting areas.
vii. Grey water from every tent is collected and re-used to water plants in the
compound
viii. Use of dry toilets
ix. Has supported the planting of an estimated 25,000 trees since 2000, as part of
restoring vegetation along the river near Basecamp. This has been done jointly
with the local community.
x. A percentage of bed night goes to an education fund that mainly supports girl-
child education; estimated to have given Ksh 140,000 in 2006. Basecamp is
also supporting a masters student at Moi University.
xi. Of the 43 staff, 95% are local, including 10 women.
Source:http://www.ecotourismkenya.org
31
Table 7. Eco rated lodges in Kenya
Amboseli Porini Camp
6 tents, each with a double and a single bed, solar lights, ensuite shower and
flush toilets.
Baobab Beach Resort
Basecamp Masai Mara
The main camp has 16 tents (consisting of 32 beds)
Bateleur Camp
9 twin bed tents with shingle roofs, wooden doors, hard wood doors and a
private verandah
Campi ya Kanzi
14 guests are accommodated in six luxury tented cottages and the Hemingway
and Simba suites.
Chada Katavi
Elephant Pepper Camp
Elsa’s Kopje
9 stone/thatch en suite cottages and an open bar, lounge, dining room &
swimming pool.
Fundu Lagoon Resort
Greystoke Mahale
Il Ng'wesi Lodge
Joy's Camp
Keekorok Lodge
Kicheche Mara Camp
The camp is a classic, intimate, luxury bush camp, completely unfenced.
Kichwa Tembo
40 Hemmingway-style safari tents, all with en suite bathrooms and private
verandah.
Kilima Camp
Kizingo Lodge
6 bandas built from local mangrove poles and palms.
Koija Starbeds
4 tents with eight beds. Has two doubles and one family room with flush loo &
shower
Loisaba Kiboko Starbeds
32
4 double rooms with 8 beds
Loisaba Lodge 6 rooms
Mara Porini Camp
6 tents (or 12 beds) of a mobile style camp with no permanent construction
above the ground.
Ol Seki Mara Camp
6 double tents elected on platforms (to minimize their impact on the
enviroment).
Ol Tukai Lodge
80 chalet style twin rooms with private bathrooms and verandahs, a three
bedroomed exclusive private.
Olonana Camp
12 luxury bush pavilions with private bathrooms and terraces, swimming pool,
gourmet cuisine.
Porini Lion Camp
6 tents of a mobile style camp.
Sand Rivers Selous
Sarova Shaba
85 charlet rooms, 4 junior suites and 1 honeymoon suite. The rooms are made of
local wood & grass
Saruni Safari Camp
6 cottages for 12 guests, grass thatched and made from local wood
Siana Springs
Tassia Lodge
7 bandas consisting of five double bedrooms and one twin bedroom. There is a
children’s bunk.
Source:http://www.ecotourismkenya.org
33
7.0 Conclusions and discussions
Kenya is moving in the right direction towards sustainability although much has to be
done to achieve this goal of tourism that can benefit the local communities, protect the
environment and be economically viable. Although the government is aware of the
potentiality of tourism to alleviate poverty and propel economic growth, there has
been a laxity in many fields leading to unsustainability of tourism in Kenya. The
government has not come up with policy framework which would act as guiding
policy for enactment of principles for ecotourism. There is overlapping of
responsibilities due to lack of harmonised ecotourism ventures and government
departs. According to Wearing, 2001, neglect of conservation and quality of life
issues threatens the very basis of local populations and the viable and sustainable
tourism industry) Wearing, 2001,p 407).
There has to be a balance between the protected area and non protected areas. In
Kenya only 10% of the wildlife lives in protected area thus exposing them to poachers
and hunters (David Western, Samantha Russell and Kamweti Mutu, 2006). Further
more according to the Ministry of Tourism and Wildlife, only 9.5% of Kenya land is
demarcated for protection of flora and fauna. There is need to increase this percentage
either way through the establishment of community ranches, private parks like in
Costa Rica which have been very successful (Bernardo Duha,2004).
Nairobi, Kenya is the head office of United Nations Environmental Programmes
UNEP, thus the country can use the resources availed by UNEP to promote
sustainable tourism.
At the coastal region, where Kenya has high quality beaches, ‘soft ‘ecotourism can be
encouraged so as to reap economic benefits while protecting the environment.
Kenya is also world renowned for its ‘Greenbelt Movement’ which its proponent
Professor Wangari Mathai won a Nobel Prize in conservation of environment. Kenya
has too a good footing on CITES having pioneered for banning of sale on ivory task
from elephants and rhino horns. A positive outcome of ecotourism is by no means
assured and depends on how development is planned and implemented (Place, 1998).
Finding solutions for ecotourism in Kenya is unique. Ecotourism plans should be
34
innovative, flexible, adaptive, strategic and implementable so as to address the
diversity of the Kenyan ecotourism products.
Another area that needs a lot of attention is use of Indigenous knowledge where it is
argued that centuries of co-existence between indigenous people and their
surrounding have profoundly blurred the boundaries between natural environment and
culture (Hinch, 1998, 2001; Nepal, 2004; Zeppel, 2006). Kenya has rich cultural
heritages which in some area have been for centuries used to protect the flora and
fauna. There sacred trees and forest in Kenya which have for centuries been under the
management of the local communities through their local traditions and taboos. Some
trees like ‘mugumo tree’ is a sacred tree which is highly protected. Kenya has ‘Kaya
forests’ along the Coastal region which are protected by the local people through
customs and beliefs. The Kenya government has recognised the conservation of
indigenous forests by the local people and have allowed them to manage and protect
some of these forests. The United Nations Cultural Agency Unesco’s World Heritage
Committee, meeting for its 32nd session in Canada’s Eastern City of Quebec, has
added 12 new World heritage sites covering a swath of civilization from 10,000-year-
old agriculture in Papua New Guinea to 20th-century social housing in Berlin. Most
important for the African heritage scene, the Committee approved and added to the
UNESCO World Heritage List two new sites on the continent - Mauritius’ Le Morne
cultural landscape and Kenya’s Mijikenda Kaya Forests.(2008 UNESCO)
Kenya
Ecotourism Kenya has also come up with the rating of eco lodges in Kenya but its
important also to link those ratings with internationally acceptable Certification and
getting the right eco labels based on Australian mode. There should be deliberate
effort to adhere to the principles of sustainable tourism and for ecotourism so as to
move in the right direction.
Tour Operators are also taking advantage of ecotourism and there has been increase in
Greenwashing campaigns. The government must crack the whip so as to standardize
the eco products by working hand in hand with International organisations and NGOs.
The political elite must also deter from using public land for political gain, a case
where water catchment areas are distributed to political supporters. Private and public
35
partnership would be the right direction for Kenya so as to ensure equitable
distribution of resources from tourism industry.
On commodification of culture, assimilation locals in management of tourism
enterprises would create pride in upholding their cultural values and hence reduce
commodification. Although tourism should not try to change the ways of life of the
people in a destination, locals should also learn from the tourist so as to develop
without abandoning their cultural heritage. (Todaro,1997:16 ) emphasized that
development is a’ multi-dimensional process involving major changes in social
structure, popular attitudes, and national institutions, as well as the acceleration of
economic growth, reduction of inequality and eradication of poverty’ . Tourism,
through its face-to-face contact between the host and visitors and the ‘demonstration
effect’, often introduces new ideas, values and lifestyles and new stimuli for both
economic and social progress (Liu. Z, 2003).
There are no clear guidelines on how the local benefit from tourism earning, so its
important for government to come up with a guiding policy and have percentages of
foreign investors versus locals, earnings, employment. The government should also
make funds available for the local communities to invest more in tourism industry.
Although Kenya is moving in the right direction to sustainable tourism more research
is vital so as to provide data which can be used for planning and policy formulation.
36
37
References
Amanda Strongza and Javier Gordillo
2008, Community Views of Ecotourism, Annals of Tourism Research Vol.
35:No. 2 448-468
Blamey, R.K
2001, Principles of Ecotourism. In David B. Weaver(Ed), Encyclopaedia
of Ecotourism (447-461). New York: CABI Publishing
Boo, E
1990, Ecotourism- The Potentials and Pitfalls (Vol.1). Lancaster:
Wickersham printing company
Brandon, K
1996, Ecotourism and Conservation: A Review of Key Issues. Washington,
DC: The World Bank
Buckley, R
2001, Environmental Impacts. In David Weaver(Ed) The Encyclopaedia of
Ecotourism ( 379-394). ). New York: CABI Publishing
Central Bureau of Statistics, Kenya Ministry of Planning and National
Development, 2006. Economic Survey. Government Printer
David B. Weaver, Laura J. Lawton
2007, Twenty years on: The state of contemporary ecotourism research.
Tourism Management 28
David Western, Samantha Russell and Samuel Mutu
2006, The Status of Wildlife in Kenya’s Protected and Non-protected areas
Dimitrios Diamantis
1999, The Concept of Ecotourism: Evolution and trends, Current Issues in
Tourism. Vol. 2 No. 2&3
Ecotourism Society of Kenya website www.esok.org accessed on 2009
December, 03.
Honey, M
1999, Ecotourism and Sustainable Development. Who owns the Paradise?
Island Press, Washington DC
Lindberg, K
2001, Economic Impacts, In D.B Weaver Encyclopaedia of Ecotourism
(363-378), New York: CABI Publishing
38
Liu, Z
2003, Sustainable Tourism development: a critic. Journal of Sustainable
Tourism, 11(6), 459-475
Ministry of Tourism in Kenya
2008, Accessed 2009, December 04 http://www.tourism.go.ke/
National Environmental Management Authority Website Accessed in 2009,
December 03 .http://www.nema.go.ke/
Nature World of Kenya, Website Accessed in 2009 December, 07.
2009 http://www.nationalparks-worldwide.info/kenya.htm
Our Common Future (1987). World Commission on Environment and
Development. Oxford: Oxford University Press
Ralf Buckley
2004, Partnerships in Ecotourism: Australian Political Frameworks.
International Journals of Tourism Research 6, 75-83
Sirakaya,et al
2001. Developing indicators for Destination Sustainability. In D.B Weaver
Encyclopaedia of Ecotourism (411-432), New York: CABI Publishing
Stem, et al
2003. How “Eco” is sustainable? A comparative Case Study of Ecotourism
in Costa Rica. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 11(4).
UNWTO
2009, World Tourism Highlight, UNWTO Publication
UNTWO
2008, World Tourism Barometer, UNWTO Publication
WIKIPEDIA Free Encyclopaedia Accessed on 2009, December, 03
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SWOT_analysis
Wunder, S.
2000. Ecotourism and economic incentives-an empirical approach.
Ecological Economics, 32, 465-479
39
Appendix 1
Protected area in Kenya by management and hectareage
Area Management type
Size in
hectares
IUCN
Category
Arabuko Sokoke Nature Reserve 4,332
South-Western Mau Nature Reserve 43,032 III
Loita Hills Cloud Forest Site 20,000
Ndoto Mountains Cloud Forest Site 10,000
Karisia Hills Cloud Forest Site 29,000
Mathews Range Cloud Forest Site 24,000
Mount Nyiro Cloud Forest Site 18,000
Namuluku Forest Reserve 10 IV
Imbirikani Group Ranch Private Reserve 128,485
Nanyungu Forest Reserve 22
Ururu Forest Reserve 438
Ol Jogi Rhinoceros S Private Reserve 7,284
Utunene Forest Reserve 174
Kalimani Forest Reserve 192
Sokta Hill Forest Reserve 170 III
Nduluni-kalani Forest Reserve 106
Tumeya Forest Reserve 577
Tulimani Forest Reserve 328
Mbulia Group Ranch Private Reserve 15,783
Muringato Nursery Forest Reserve 24 II
Kaptaroi Forest Reserve 318 II
Kioo Forest Reserve 44 II
Momandu Forest Reserve 144 II
Mosegem Forest Reserve 205 II
Kapchorua I Forest Reserve 141 II
Mtarakwa Forest Reserve 110 II
Nairobi Arboretum Forest Reserve 30 III
Nyeri Hill Forest Reserve 200
ADC Mutura Ranch Private Reserve 25,637
Sekenwo Forest Reserve 863
Kabiok Forest Reserve 14
Tutwoin Forest Reserve 11
40
Kitumbuuni Forest Reserve 74
Tarda Emali Ranch Private Reserve 850
Kisima Farm Rumuruti Private Reserve 17,806
Kinyo Forest Reserve 339 III
Kilala Forest Reserve 161
Kyai Forest Reserve 109 II
Magumo North Forest Reserve 240 II
Ntugi Forest Reserve 1,386
Kijabe Hill Forest Reserve 740
Lisa Ranch Private Reserve 2,233
West Molo Forest Reserve 277
Kilungu Forest Reserve 145
Galana Ranch Private Reserve 647,484
Leroghi Forest Reserve 91,794 VI
Laikipia Ranching Private Wildlife Sanctuary 16,187
Colcheccio Ltd Private Reserve 26,305 II
Wanga Forest Reserve 95
Braemar Farm Private Reserve 1,821
Western Mau Forest Reserve 22,748
Karura Forest Reserve 1,045 II
Mount Londiani Forest Reserve 30,152
Ol-bolossat Forest Reserve 3,269 II
Aberdare National Park 76,619
Kiunga Marine National Reserve 25,000
Bisanadi National Reserve 60,600
Kipkunurr Forest Reserve 15,892
Mutharanga Forest Reserve 293
Nyambeni Forest Reserve 5,454
Lake Bogoria National Reserve 10,705
Shaba National Reserve 23,910
Ngamba Forest Reserve 1,141
Katimok Forest Reserve 2,019
Diani-Chale Marine National Reserve 7,500
Kapolet Forest Reserve 1,625 Ia
Kiambu Forest Reserve 149 II
Kakamega Forest Reserve 17,838
Mutito Forest Reserve 1,975
41
Maji Mazuri Forest Reserve 7,809
Losai National Reserve 180,680
Marmanet Forest Reserve 22,644 IV
Dagoretti Forest Reserve 774
Masai Mara National Reserve 151,000 II
Ngong Hills Forest Reserve 3,081
Njuguni Forest Reserve 1,987
Ngong Road Forest Reserve 1,039
Kiptaberr Forest Reserve 12,801
South Turkana National Reserve 109,100
Ndotos Range Forest Reserve 93,205
Saimo Forest Reserve 727
Southern Mau Forest Reserve 128
Loitokitok Forest Reserve 766
Kyemundu Forest Reserve 147 III
Mpunguti Marine National Reserve 1,100
Mataa Forest Reserve 48 Ia
Kaisungor Forest Reserve 1,089 Ia
Tana River Primate National Reserve 16,900 UA
Mailuganji Forest Reserve 1,685 UA
Mwachi Forest Reserve 381
Kapkanyar Forest Reserve 5,764
Mukogodo Forest Reserve 29,931
Gonja Forest Reserve 861
South Laikipia Forest Reserve 3,500
Lelan Forest Reserve 14,516 UA
Kikingo Forest Reserve 1,203 IV
Tsavo East National Park 1,174,700
Tsavo West National Park 906,500
Samburu National Reserve 16,500
Kieiga Forest Reserve 573
Munguni Forest Reserve 189
Meru National Park 87,044
Kapchemutwa Forest Reserve 8,874 II
Maralai Game Sanctuary 500 III
Nuu Forest Reserve 25,32 III
Metkei Forest Reserve 1958
42
Malindi Marine National Park 630
Kaptagat Forest Reserve 12,985 IV
Maragoli Forest Reserve 470 IV
Upper Imenti Forest Reserve 10,402 Ia
Katende Forest Reserve 933
Kabarak Forest Reserve 1,395
Witu Forest Reserve 4,002
Embobut Forest Reserve 21689 IV
Makuli-nguuta Forest Reserve 1676 IV
Ngaia Forest Reserve 4314 Ia
North Kitui National Reserve 74500 UA
Londiani Forest Reserve 106 UA
Transmara Forest Reserve 34457 IV
Kasigau Forest Reserve 202 IV
Mumbaka Forest Reserve 444 IV
Kamiti Forest Reserve 171 IV
Nyeri Forest Reserve 1214 Ia
Marenji Forest Reserve 1519 IV
Mrima Forest Reserve 390 V
Kisite Marine National Park 2800
Kessop Forest Reserve 1971
Mount Elgon Forest Reserve 73089
Kipipiri Forest Reserve 5077
Molo Forest Reserve 915 III
Mutejwa Forest Reserve 1318 III
Makongo-kitui Forest Reserve 2447 III
Mkongani West Forest Reserve 1408 III
Longonot National Park 5200 III
Ololua Forest Reserve 639 UA
Uaso Narok Forest Reserve 1966 III
Rahole National Reserve 127000 UA
Mombasa Marine National Park 1000
Kikuyu Escarpment Forest Reserve 37619
Kapsaret Forest Reserve 1008
Taressia Forest Reserve 375
Kimojoch Forest Reserve 762
North Nandi Forest Reserve 11345
43
Sekhendu Forest Reserve 804
Namanga Hill Forest Reserve 11904
Mukobe Forest Reserve 747 UA
Kijege Forest Reserve 3303 II
Buffalo Springs National Reserve 13100 III
Kitalale Forest Reserve 2070 III
Buda Forest Reserve 670 III
Sogotio Forest Reserve 3555
Kenze Forest Reserve 189
Bunyala Forest Reserve 808 IV
Ndare Forest Reserve 5627 Ia
Thuuri Forest Reserve 732
Thunguru Hill Forest Reserve 554
Matthews Range Forest Reserve 97392 II
Mount Nyiru Forest Reserve 45496
Marsabit Forest Reserve 15778
Shimba Hills National Reserve 19251
Turbo Forest Reserve 10814
Muguga Forest Reserve 225
Jombo Forest Reserve 887
Malaba Forest Reserve 721
Ngai Ndethya National Reserve 21209
Kibwezi Forest Reserve 5850
Kiagu Forest Reserve 1361
Lusoi Forest Reserve 268 II
Hell's Gate National Park 6800
Timau Forest Reserve 295
Mwea National Reserve 6803
Timboroa Forest Reserve 5813 II
Kitondu Forest Reserve 1093
Central Island National Park 500
Mkongani North Forest Reserve 1165 IV
Lugari Forest Reserve 2193 II
Embakasi Forest Reserve 591 II
Northern Tinderet Forest Reserve 26285 II
Eastern Mau Forest Reserve 66067
Lariak Forest Reserve 4988
44
Perkerra Catchment Forest Reserve 4414
Bahati Forest Reserve 10101
Kerrer Forest Reserve 2241
Dodori National Reserve 87739
Ol Donyo Sabuk National Park 1842 III
Mau Narok Forest Reserve 851 Ia
Nairobi National Park 11721
Eburu Forest Reserve 8736
Kipkabus (Elg-Marak) Forest Reserve 6760
Kerio Valley National Reserve 6570
Nasolot National Reserve 19400
Chepalungu Forest Reserve 4977
Leshau Forest Reserve 198 II
Kierera Forest Reserve 777 II
Nakuru Forest Reserve 631 II
Chemorogok Forest Reserve 1338 II
Arawale National Reserve 53324
Chyulu National Park 47090
Nzaui Forest Reserve 1001
Ruma National Park 12000 III
Aberdares Forest Reserve 103316 III
Tinderet Forest Reserve 28167 V
Kora National Park 178780 Ia
Boni National Reserve 133900 IV
Menengai Forest Reserve 5737 III
South Island National Park 3880 III
Watamu Marine National Park 12500 IV
Chemurokoi Forest Reserve 3979 IV
Ol-arabel Forest Reserve 9738 IV
Mount Kenya Forest Reserve 199538
South Kitui National Reserve 183300 II
Rumuruti Forest Reserve 6551 Ia
Nthangu Forest Reserve 845
Lake Nakuru National Park 18800
Gogoni Forest Reserve 824 UA
Sibiloi National Park 157085 II
South Nandi Forest Reserve 19568 IV
45
Ol-pusimoru Forest Reserve 17258 II
Amboseli National Park 39206 II
Kilombe Hill Forest Reserve 1534 II
Kipkabus (Uasin/Gishu) Forest Reserve 5827
Source: Nature Worldwide on Kenya.
46
Appendix 2
List of abbreviations
IUCN, International Union for Conservation of Nature
GoK, Government of Kenya
UNWTO, United Nations World Tourism Organisation
WTO, World Tourism Organisation
IYE, International Year of Ecotourism
TIES, International Ecotourism Society
ESOK, Ecotourism Society of Kenya
CPU, Computer Processing Unit
NEMA, National Environmental Management Authority
EMCA, Environmental Management and Coordination Act
WCED, World Commission on Environment and Development
CBO, Community Based Organisations
KWS, Kenya Wildlife services
UNEP, United Nations Environment Programme
ISO, International Organization for Standardization
LED light bulbs cost effective for lighting
UNESCO, United Nations Scientific and Cultural Organisation

More Related Content

What's hot

What's hot (20)

Ecotourism
EcotourismEcotourism
Ecotourism
 
Sustainable tourism
Sustainable tourismSustainable tourism
Sustainable tourism
 
Sustainable Tourism Development Presentation
Sustainable Tourism Development PresentationSustainable Tourism Development Presentation
Sustainable Tourism Development Presentation
 
eco-tourism
eco-tourismeco-tourism
eco-tourism
 
Ecotourism
EcotourismEcotourism
Ecotourism
 
Ecotourism and its perspects in kerala
Ecotourism and its perspects in keralaEcotourism and its perspects in kerala
Ecotourism and its perspects in kerala
 
Eco tourism chapter 1
Eco tourism chapter 1Eco tourism chapter 1
Eco tourism chapter 1
 
Ecotourism (Introduction)
Ecotourism (Introduction)Ecotourism (Introduction)
Ecotourism (Introduction)
 
Planning in eco tourism
Planning in eco tourismPlanning in eco tourism
Planning in eco tourism
 
Sustainable tourism
Sustainable tourismSustainable tourism
Sustainable tourism
 
Ecotourism
EcotourismEcotourism
Ecotourism
 
Sustainable tourism planning and development
Sustainable tourism planning and developmentSustainable tourism planning and development
Sustainable tourism planning and development
 
Sustainable Tourism
Sustainable TourismSustainable Tourism
Sustainable Tourism
 
Ecotourism
EcotourismEcotourism
Ecotourism
 
ECOTOURISM-MANAGEMENT-2.docx
ECOTOURISM-MANAGEMENT-2.docxECOTOURISM-MANAGEMENT-2.docx
ECOTOURISM-MANAGEMENT-2.docx
 
Dubai eco-tourism
Dubai eco-tourismDubai eco-tourism
Dubai eco-tourism
 
SUSTAINABLE TOURISM AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
SUSTAINABLE TOURISM AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENTSUSTAINABLE TOURISM AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
SUSTAINABLE TOURISM AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
 
Eco tourism project paper
Eco tourism project paperEco tourism project paper
Eco tourism project paper
 
Nature and Scope of Sustainable Tourism
Nature and Scope of Sustainable TourismNature and Scope of Sustainable Tourism
Nature and Scope of Sustainable Tourism
 
Sustainable tourism
Sustainable tourismSustainable tourism
Sustainable tourism
 

Similar to Ecotourism and sustainable development in kenya paper final

InTechRole_of_ecotourism_in_sustainable_development_.pdf
InTechRole_of_ecotourism_in_sustainable_development_.pdfInTechRole_of_ecotourism_in_sustainable_development_.pdf
InTechRole_of_ecotourism_in_sustainable_development_.pdfSGB Media Group
 
Ecotourism In South American Countries Essay
Ecotourism In South American Countries EssayEcotourism In South American Countries Essay
Ecotourism In South American Countries EssayBuy A Paper Singapore
 
11.special interest tourism
11.special interest tourism11.special interest tourism
11.special interest tourismAlexander Decker
 
Tourism and mgmnt
Tourism and mgmntTourism and mgmnt
Tourism and mgmntMadhav
 
ecotourism evs project
ecotourism evs projectecotourism evs project
ecotourism evs projectMiras Sayyad
 

Similar to Ecotourism and sustainable development in kenya paper final (20)

Taking A Look At Ecotourism
Taking A Look At EcotourismTaking A Look At Ecotourism
Taking A Look At Ecotourism
 
InTechRole_of_ecotourism_in_sustainable_development_.pdf
InTechRole_of_ecotourism_in_sustainable_development_.pdfInTechRole_of_ecotourism_in_sustainable_development_.pdf
InTechRole_of_ecotourism_in_sustainable_development_.pdf
 
Ecotourism Essay
Ecotourism EssayEcotourism Essay
Ecotourism Essay
 
Tourism Planning
Tourism PlanningTourism Planning
Tourism Planning
 
Ecotourism In Malaysia
Ecotourism In MalaysiaEcotourism In Malaysia
Ecotourism In Malaysia
 
What Is Ecotourism
What Is EcotourismWhat Is Ecotourism
What Is Ecotourism
 
Essay About Ecotourism
Essay About EcotourismEssay About Ecotourism
Essay About Ecotourism
 
Essay About Ecotourism
Essay About EcotourismEssay About Ecotourism
Essay About Ecotourism
 
Socio-Cultural Impact Of Eco-Tourism
Socio-Cultural Impact Of Eco-TourismSocio-Cultural Impact Of Eco-Tourism
Socio-Cultural Impact Of Eco-Tourism
 
What Is Ecotourism
What Is EcotourismWhat Is Ecotourism
What Is Ecotourism
 
Essay On Ecotourism
Essay On EcotourismEssay On Ecotourism
Essay On Ecotourism
 
Ecotourism In South American Countries Essay
Ecotourism In South American Countries EssayEcotourism In South American Countries Essay
Ecotourism In South American Countries Essay
 
The Causes And Positive Effects Of Ecotourism
The Causes And Positive Effects Of EcotourismThe Causes And Positive Effects Of Ecotourism
The Causes And Positive Effects Of Ecotourism
 
Special interest tourism
Special interest tourismSpecial interest tourism
Special interest tourism
 
11.special interest tourism
11.special interest tourism11.special interest tourism
11.special interest tourism
 
The Pros And Cons Of Ecotourism
The Pros And Cons Of EcotourismThe Pros And Cons Of Ecotourism
The Pros And Cons Of Ecotourism
 
Tourism and mgmnt
Tourism and mgmntTourism and mgmnt
Tourism and mgmnt
 
Positive And Negative Effects Of Ecotourism
Positive And Negative Effects Of EcotourismPositive And Negative Effects Of Ecotourism
Positive And Negative Effects Of Ecotourism
 
Spiri paper
Spiri paperSpiri paper
Spiri paper
 
ecotourism evs project
ecotourism evs projectecotourism evs project
ecotourism evs project
 

Ecotourism and sustainable development in kenya paper final

  • 1. 1 Ecotourism and Sustainable Development in Kenya By Robertson Ndegwa Ngunyi 罗伯特 Paper submitted for Ecotourism Final Exam to Sun Yat Sen University, Doctorate in Tourism Management School of Business, Department of Hotel and Tourism Management Professor Liu Yan December, 2009 Keywords: Protected areas, Sustainability, Community Based Tourism, Maasai, Safari
  • 2. 2 Ecotourism and Sustainable Development in Kenya Robertson Ndegwa Ngunyi Abstract The purpose of this paper is to provide abridgment of the current state of affairs in Kenya, critically examine the impacts and the challenges of ecotourism; investigate the potential of ecotourism as a strategy for sustainable development and suggest ways to improve Ecotourism in Kenya. What are the main challenges of Ecotourism? What are the feasible benefits that can ecotourism bring? Lastly is Ecotourism in Kenya sustainable? The paper also attempts to discuss the Kenya’s SWOT analysis as an Ecotourism destination, the protected areas including national parks and reserves, and some of the organisations promoting ecotourism in Kenya. To further explain this, the paper has used an Eco rating of lodges in Kenya by Ecotourism Kenya and given a case study of an Eco rate lodge. The writer has also discussed the implications and way forward for sustainable tourism in Kenya.
  • 3. 3 Table of Contents Page 1. Introduction 4 2. Ecotourism and sustainable Development 4 2.1. Meaning of ecotourism 4 2.2. Principles of Ecotourism 7 2.3. Sustainable tourism development 8 3. The growth of Ecotourism in Kenya 10 3.1. History of ecotourism in Kenya 10 3.2. Growth of Ecotourism in Kenya 11 3.3. Tourism trends in Kenya 14 3.4. Institution structure of Tourism in Kenya 16 3.5. Ecotourism and related organisations 17 4. Protected areas 18 4.1 Proportion of wildlife in protected areas 21 5. Impacts and challenges 22 5.1. Economic 22 5.2. Sociocultural 23 5.3. Environmental 24 5.4. Political 25 5.5. Kenya SWOT Analysis 26 6. Eco-Rating of Lodges in Kenya 28 6.1 Case Study of Eco rated Base Camp Lodge 29 6.2 Eco rated lodges in Kenya 31 7. Conclusion and discussions 33 References 36 Appendix 1 38 Appendix 2 45
  • 4. 4 1.0 Introduction Over time, an increasing number of destinations have opened up and invested in tourism development, turning modern tourism into a key driver for socio-economic progress, through the creation of jobs and enterprises, infrastructure development, and the export income earned (UNWTO 2009). Tourism has become one of the major international trade categories. The overall export income generated by international tourism including passengers transport reached US$ 1.1 trillion in 2008, or US$ 3 billion a day (UNWTO 2009). Tourism exports account for as much as 30% of the world’s exports of commercial services and 6% of overall exports of goods and services. Globally, as an export category, tourism ranks fourth after fuels, chemicals and automotive products. For many developing countries it is one of the main income sources and the number one export category, creating much needed employment and opportunities for development (UNWTO 2009). Ecotourism and sustainable tourism development has become the catch word today 2.0 Ecotourism and sustainable Development 2.1 Meaning of ecotourism Although the origins of the concept of ecotourism are not certain, one of the first sources to have contributed to the discourse appears to be Hetzer (1965), who identified four pillars or principles of responsible tourism. These four pillars are minimizing environmental impacts, respecting the host cultures, maximizing benefits to local people, and maximizing tourist satisfaction (Blamey, 2001). Ecotourism holidays demand was boosted by concrete evidence that consumers had shifted away from mass tourism towards experiences that were more individualistic and enriching. In addition, these experiences were claimed to be associated with a general search for the natural component during holidays ( Kusler, 1991a,b; Hvenegaard,1994, Dowling, 1996). Currently there is no clear-cut consensus on the definition of ecotourism. The meaning and use of the term are plagued by disagreements, confusion, and propaganda (Weaver, 1999).The term ecotourism merged in the late 1980s as a direct
  • 5. 5 result of the world’s acknowledgement and reaction to sustainable practices and global ecological practice (D. Dianatis, 1999). Ecotourism was first defined as “travelling to relatively undisturbed or uncontaminated natural areas with the specific objective of studying, admiring, and enjoying the scenery and its wild plants and animals, as well as existing cultural manifestation (both past and present) found in these areas. ( Ceballos- Lascurain, 1987:14;1991a,b).” Ecotourism definition by Ecotourism in Australia “Ecologically sustainable tourism with a primary focus on experiencing natural areas that fosters environmental and cultural understanding, appreciation and conservation (Ecotourism Australia, 2003)”. International Ecotourism Society (2004) “Responsible travel to natural areas that conserve the environmental and sustain the well-being of local people”. Irrespective of unique perspectives and different definitions, there is considerable consensus that ecotourism must be beneficial to local communities and have a positive effect on protecting the environment (Buchsbaum, 2004). As the term ecotourism has evolved, definitions have become more precise, with stronger ties to principles of sustainable development (Blamey, 2001). Ecotourism’s perceived potential as an effective tool for sustainable development is the main reason why developing countries are now embracing it and including it in their economic development and conservation strategies (Stem et al, 2003). Figure 1 shows the relationship between Tourism, sustainable tourism development, nature tourism, adventure tourism and ecotourism. Ecotourism here has been viewed as a being the core of tourism with adventure tourism cutting across the different sectors of tourism. Ecotourism is viewed as nature based tourism, sustainable and also embracing adventure tourism. This model can be applied in many facet to show the interrelations between the different sectors of the tourism industry locally, regionally, nationally and internationally.
  • 6. 6 Figure 1. Relationship between Tourism, sustainable tourism development, adventure tourism and ecotourism. Source: Ecotourism Australia Recent studies have argued that ecotourism should embrace more diverse field and be holistic in approach. Ecotourism should satisfy three core criteria i.e. (1) attractions should be predominantly nature based, (2) visitors interactions with those attractions should be focused on learning or education, and (3) experience and product management should follow principles and practices associated with ecological, socio- cultural and economic sustainability, Blamey, 1997, 2001). Holland, Ditton and Graefe (1998) and Zwirn, Pinsky and Rahr (2005) argue for potential of inclusion of recreation angling as form of ecotourism. Novelli, Barnes and Humavindu argue that trophy hunting should also be included into ecotourism. Ryan and Saward (2004) in regard to captive aspect of ecotourism argue that zoos redesigned to mimic non- captive habitat could too qualify as ecotourism. There is more debate on inclusion of more cultural element in ecotourism and more recently inclusion of indigenous ecotourism wherein its argued that centuries of co-existence between indigenous people and their surrounding have profound blurred the boundaries between the natural environment and culture ( Hinch, 1998, 2001; Nepal, 2004; Zeppel, 2006). There has also been debate on inclusion of whale watching (Curtin, 2003; Hoyt& Tourism Sustainable Tourism Development Nature Tourism Ecotourism Adventure tourism
  • 7. 7 Hvenegaard, 2002, Orams, 2002, 2005; Parsons, Lewardowski, & Luck, 2005) and Antarctic tourist (Cloesen, 2003; Mason& Legg, 1999,; Stonehouse, 2001, Stewart Kirby & Steel, 2006) inclusion of Bat-based ecotourism ( Pennisi, Holland, and Stein (2004). Ecotourism exist in both ‘soft’ and ‘hard’ dimension ( Laarman and Durst (1987). Other concepts include the mass ecotourism concept by Weaver (2001b, 2005b) and Kontogeorgopoulos (2004a). Therefore, the definition of ecotourism can be further elucidated by understanding the principles of ecotourism. 2.2 Key Principles of Ecotourism Table 1. Principles of Ecotourism Principle Details 1. Ecotourism Policy Performance and Framework Ecotourism operators make public commitment to uphold the principles of ecotourism and put and in place management systems to ensure their performance 2. Natural Area Focus Ecotourism require a direct personal experience of nature 3. Interpretation and Education Ecotourism provides opportunities to experience nature and culture in ways that lead to greater understanding, appreciation and enjoyment. Ecotourism products provide visitors with the opportunity to receive quality interpretive services. 4.Ecologically Compatible Infrastructure Ecotourism operations are developed appropriately on the basis of ecological sustainability and understanding of the potential impacts 5. Ecologically Sustainable Practice The product employs ecologically sustainable practices in its operations management to ensure that its activities do not degrade the environment 6. Contributing To Conservation Ecotourism shall provide tangible contribution to conservation 7. Ecotourism Benefiting Local Communities Ecotourism shall provide ongoing contributions to the local communities 8. Cultural Respect and Sensitivity An ecotourism product in both its development and operation phases must be respectful of, and sensitive to, local cultures. To ensure cultural values are treated appropriately, there is a need to consult with local people so that their legitimate aspirations are met and to allow presentation of authentic cultural values. 9. Customer Satisfaction Ecotourism products meet or exceed customer’s expectations. 10. Responsible Marketing Ecotourism products meet or exceed
  • 8. 8 customer’s expectations. 11. Minimal Impact Codes of Practice Ecotourism products have minimal impacts on the natural, social and cultural environment, and are undertaken in accordance with a defined code of practice Source: Ecotourism Australia Ecotourism should follow the above principles so as to be sustainable in a given tourist destination. 2.3 Sustainable Tourism Development The concept of sustainability has its origins in the environmentalism that grew to prominence in the 1970s. The explicit idea of sustainable development was first highlighted by the International Union Today sustainable development has become an international catch word and its import for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN,1980) in its World Conservation Strategy. The importance of the sustainable development in the global development cannot be overemphasized. The official use of the term “sustainable development” can be traced in 1987 when it received an international recognition. In, 1987, the Bruntland Commission defined sustainable development as; “Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of the future generations to meet their own needs” (Our Common Future, 1987, p.43) The concept has gained more popularity and has evolved much more than its original definition. Internationally, it’s viewed in terms of multifaceted angle including social, economic, and environmental aspects of development. Despite the criticisms aimed at sustainable development, its principles are still very useful as tool for planning and policy-making (Sirakaya, Jamal, and Choi, 2001). A sustainable development triangle in Figure 2 exemplifies this concept as a balance between the economy, the environment, and the society. All sides are interdependent and must co-exist to promote a successful long-term development
  • 9. 9 Figure 2 showing Sustainable Triangle (World Conservation Union, 2003) An interesting thing is that most cited document on sustainable development, Our Common Future, does not mention tourism at all (Wall, 1997, Wearing, 2001). In tourism, there are multitude of definitions for sustainability and sustainable development (Butler, 1999b; Page & Downling, 2002). The World Tourism Organisation (WTO, 2001) defined sustainable tourism development as; Sustainable tourism development meets the needs of the present tourists and the host regions while protecting and enhancing opportunities for the future. It is envisaged as leading to the management of all resources in such a way that economic, social, and aesthetic needs can be fulfilled while maintaining cultural integrity, essential ecological processes, biological diversity and life support systems. Sustainability, sustainable tourism and sustainable development are all well- established terms that have been used loosely and often interchangeably in literature. To get a unambiguous view of sustainable tourism, its imperative to understand the guiding principles of sustainable tourism put forward (Blamey, 2001). DEVELOPMENT SUSTAINABLE SUSTAINABLE SUSTAINABLE ECONOMY THE ENVIRONMENT HEALTH OF SOCIETY
  • 10. 10 Table 2. Principles of Sustainable Tourism (Blamey, 2001) 1. Using resources sustainably The conservation and sustainable use of resources natural, social, cultural, is crucial and makes long-term business sense 2. Reducing over consumption and waste Reduction of over-consumption and waste avoids the costs of restoring long-term environmental damage and contributes to the quality of tourism 3. Maintaining Biodiversity Maintaining and promoting natural, social, and cultural diversity is essential for long-term sustainable tourism, and creates a resilient base for the industry 4.Integrating tourism into planning Tourism development which is integrated into a national and local strategic planning framework and which undertakes environmental impact assessments, increase the long-term viability of tourism 5.Supporting local economies Tourism that supports a wide range of local economic activities and which takes environmental costs and values into account, both protects these economies and avoids environmental damage 6. Involving local communities The full involvement of local communities in the tourism sector not only benefits them and the environment but also improves the quality of the tourism project 7. Consulting stakeholders and the public Consultation between the tourism industry and local communities organizations and institutions is essential if they are to work alongside each other and resolve potential conflicts of interest 8. Training Staff Staff training which integrates sustainable tourism into work practices, along with recruitment of personnel at all levels, improves the quality of the tourism product 9.Marketing tourism responsibly 9. Marketing that provides tourists with full and responsible information increases respect for the natural, social and cultural environments of destination areas and enhances customer satisfaction 10. Undertaking research Ongoing research and monitoring by the industry using effective data collection and analysis is essential to help solve problems and bring benefits to destinations, the industry and consumers 3.0 The growth of Ecotourism in Kenya 3.1 History of ecotourism in Kenya Africa has been at the forefront of evolution from nature- based tourism to ecotourism. In the 1980’s, government facing dire prospects such as rhino extinction recognized the fragility of the continent’s wildernesses and moved people like Kenya’s Maasai off their lands to create national parks. This heightened the conflict over land between people and wildlife. The new National Parks were ringed by resentful communities. Unable to graze their herds alongside the wildlife, as they had done for centuries, they turned to poaching and illicit hunting for the pot. Thus, it was important to bridge the gap between the communities and the wildlife or ecotourism ventures. It’s only in
  • 11. 11 recent years that tourists and operators have ascribed a different role to local communities in tourism, one based on both their right to benefit from tourism and the priceless value for travellers of interactions with people and cultures. This has been secret in enabling eco-tourism to help reconcile people and wildlife in their competing claims for land. Having said this, the real history behind ecotourism is rooted in Africa when people could go on eco-adventure tours based on hunting the local wildlife. For a fee, a person could go on an interactive hunting safari where tourists were allowed or rather, without being punished for, hunting elephants for ivory (and sport) in addition to a wide array of other species like leopards, black rhinos and lions. These species could not withstand thinning populations’ overtime. In the 1970s it became clear that if these animal populations were not protected and poaching not put to a stop, certain animals would surely become extinct. This realization and the subsequent transformation in how Safaris and hunting trips were conducted in Eastern Africa was a huge landmark in the history of how ecotourism came to be. That, and by making poaching and hunting ivory illegal, was a huge step for environmentalists and animal activists. By trying to protect those animals and the environment from the unnecessary pressure tourists were bringing to the area, a large number of the ideals within ecotourism were born. While environmentalists all over the world were aware that this type of reckless hunting and tourism was having a negative effect on ecosystems and animal populations, making the hunting of certain species illegal and the mindful effort to rebuild populations through laws and government policies was an integral step. 3.2 Growth of Ecotourism & sustainable tourism in Kenya The history of tourism in Kenya dates back to pre-independence days. It can be traced way back in 1898 when the earliest legislation on wildlife establishing game reserves was enacted and published in the Gazette for the east African protective of 1898.Other ordinances followed are the east Africa Bird protection ordinances of 1903. In 1907, Game department was established to manage wildlife and hunting throughout the protectorate the area that teemed with wildlife had already started attracting a considerable number of professional and not so professional hunters. This marked the beginning of tourism activities in Kenya. By 1930’S overseas visitors had started coming to Kenya on big-game hunting expeditions as
  • 12. 12 well as in search of relaxation and solitude. These expeditions were famously referred to in Local Swahili word as Safari, which later became a buzzword in travel and tourism literature worldwide. As early as 1957, available statistics indicate that Kenya had welcomed 38,000 visitors rising to 42,000 in 1961.In 1967, Kenya played host to a total of 127,667 visitors bringing in K$ 12.5 Million (Ksh 250 million, that reflected an annual growth rate of 20% since 1961) Figure 3. International Arrivals Trend in Kenya 0 20,000 40,000 60,000 80,000 100,000 120,000 J a n F e b M a r A p r M a y J u n J u l A u g S e p t O c t N o v D e c 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 i. 2003 – 2004: TMRP (Sept 03-Mar 04) spurred the recovery phase of arrivals numbers. ii. 2004 – 2005: Marketing programmes sustained through FAMs & marketing partnerships. iii. 2005 – present: 100% of Kenya’s destination marketing carried out with only GoK funding. iv. 2005 – 2006: Recovery achieved; realigned focus to increasing yield alongside arrivals growth maintenance. v. 2006 – 2007: Inadequate funding: Leveraged industry contacts, MDR relationships for “discounted” marketing. The curve differential indicates that sustained marketing activities were more effective than TMRP.Figure 3 shows the international tourist arrivals in Kenya from year 2002 to 2007 and also monthly fluctuations of the tourists. 80% of tourism in the country is nature based or ecotourism. Source: Kenya Tourist Board 2007
  • 13. 13 Figure 4. Tourist Arrivals and percentage share growth USA 16% Germany 1% Italy 3% Nordic 3% Other 23% India 1% France 1% Canada 5% E. Europe 1% China 3% South Africa 4% Spain 1% Netherlands 1% Australia 3% UK 34% i. Of the 91,703 incremental arrivals by September 2007, the share is split as above. ii. The danger of an over-reliance on the UK and the USA is clear! iii. Coincidentally, UK & USA were the only markets with substantive mktg. budgets. iv. However Australia, South Africa, China, Canada and Nordic show potential, despite their low bases. The above figure shows international tourist arrivals by source market to Kenya, United Kingdom leads as a generating market with 34%, USA 16%, China3% among others. Source: Kenya Tourist Board 2007
  • 14. 14 3.3 Tourism Trends in Kenya Tourism in Kenya has been on upward trend making the tourism industry the leading foreign exchange earner in the economy. In year 2006, the tourism sector maintained an upward growth despite many challenges facing the global economy. The consolidated tourism earnings rose from Ksh 48.9 billion in 2005 to 56.2 billion in 2006 reflecting an increase of 14.9% International tourist arrivals grew by 8.2% form 1,479,000 in 2005 to 1,600,600 in 2006. The number of hotels bed-nights occupied recorded a remarkable growth of 32.3% from 4,476, 600 in 2005 to 5,922,100 in 2006.Bed availability grew by 19.9% form 10,845,600 in 2005 to 13,003,500 in 2006. The number of tourists who visited Parks and Reserves grew by 10.8%, from 2,132,900 in 2005 to 2,363,700 in 2006(UNWTO, 2007. Declaration of Maasai Mara as one of the Seven Wonders of the World by an American Travel magazine in November 2006 boasted the number of tourist arrivals in the country. The number of local and international conference went up by 36.5% and 12.4% respectively in year 2006 due to increased sensitization programmes, seminars, meetings, conferences, congresses and policy & Strategies launches. The growth can also be attributed to growing positive perception towards Kenya as preferred tourist destination. The number of holiday makers stood at 1,087,500, business travellers 226,200, transit travellers 137,200 and others at 149,800 in year 2006. The number of days spent by visitors on holidays increased from 13.4million in 2005 to 14.2million in 2006, representing 6% growth. The number of visitors on business increased by 11% while on transit doubled. Overall, the visitors length of stay expanded by 7.5% form 16million to 17.2 %.(GoK, 2007) Tourism was exclusively centred on three geographical areas namely coastal area for beach tourism, Nairobi for business or conferences and Maasailand for game viewing and Safaris. The Kenyan coast recorded 54.5 % of the total bed-nights in 2006 from 50.8% in 2005. (GoK, 2007) Kenya is one of the global leaders in community-based ecotourism, working with the many local tribes to develop innovative ways to protect the environment and local culture. A leader in innovative eco-lodges, Kenya has won many international eco- lodge awards. Il N’gwesi and Tortillis Camp both won the British Airways Tourism for Tomorrow award in recent years. Ol Donyo Wuas has also been a finalist for the
  • 15. 15 same award. Kenya is ahead of the ecotourism pack in other areas as well, planning to be Africa’s first country to develop and use international criteria to rate eco-lodges and tour operators. Started in October 1999 by Dr. David Western and Neel Inamdar, Ecotourism Society of Kenya (ESOK) has completed the 'eco-ratings', giving Kenya’s tourists an opportunity to choose a 3 star or a 4 star eco-lodge, based on internationally accepted criteria. These criteria also provide Kenya’s eco-lodges and tour operators the tools they need to compete in the global market as one of the world’ top ecotourism destinations. Kenya also received an international ecotourism coup when The International Ecotourism Society (TIES), representing an international membership network that includes tour operators, academics, and government officials in 110 countries, recognised East Africa’s reputation for strong ecotourism practices and chose Nairobi as the venue for the International Year of Ecotourism (IYE) Africa ecotourism conference. The United Nations declared 2002 as the International Year of Ecotourism (IYE), providing a forum for the world to understand the synergy between conservation, cultural awareness and community benefits through tourism. In Kenya, the environment and tourism have always been inextricably linked, and this is a truly symbiotic relationship. Wildlife in particular has always served as one of Kenya major tourist draw cards, and the resultant revenue has played a major role in the great priority placed on wildlife preservation in Kenya. This is not just for the benefit of foreign visitors- Eco-tourism means more than just preserving wildlife for visitors; it also means protecting the world and its resources for the future benefit of Kenya. Kenya’s dedication to eco-values sets it apart from many other African destinations. Community based tourism and ecotourism is a growing sector, globally. It currently accounts for 5% of the global tourism market and is growing at a rate of 20-30% annually (WTO, 2008). Increasing numbers of tourists want to interact with local communities and they want to stay in places that positively impact on both the environment and the local population. Throughout Kenya there is growing awareness of the benefits of community based tourism projects. Communities that have allowed access to their land have seen their lifestyles improved through increased revenue through wages, land leases and development funds. Many projects have built boreholes, schools and clinics for the local community. There are a growing number
  • 16. 16 of community tourism projects in Kenya, ranging from Il Ngwesi and Tassia in the Laikipia area, Sarara in Namunyak, Shompole in the Magadi region and Losikitok in Amboseli. (ESOK, 2008). The projects range in scale from complete community management to a partnership with an investor or trust who provides the capital to build the guest accommodation and related tourist facilities. The community provides the use of the land, through a lease and helps to ensure the protection of the local wildlife. Community members are often employed and trained in the tourism projects and benefit from wages, community development funds and involvement in spin off enterprises. In Kenya, the community based tourism concept is just taking root and there is a need to harness this product and direct it towards the market in a more cohesive and systematic manner. 3.4 Institution structure of Tourism in Kenya Figure 5. Organisation structure of Ministry of Tourism and Wildlife in Kenya Minister for Tourism Assistant Ministers Administration Department •Administration •Public Relations •CPU •Personnel •Accounts •Finance •Procurement Department of Tourism •Licensing •Product & Market Development •Research Desk •Wildlife Desk Parastatals •Kenya Tourism Development Corporation •Kenya Tourist Board •Kenya Utalii College •Catering Training and Development Levy Trustee •Kenyatta International Conferences Centre •Kenya Wildlife Services •Tourism Trust Fund •Bomas of Kenya Personal Secretary Adopted: Ministry of Tourism in Kenya
  • 17. 17 3.5 Ecotourism related organisations in Kenya 3.5.1 National Environment Management Authority (NEMA) The National Environment Management Authority (NEMA) was established under the Environmental Management and Coordination Act (EMCA) No. 8 of 1999, as the principal instrument of government in the implementation of all policies relating to the environment. Environmental Management and Coordination Act (EMCA), 1999 The enactment of EMCA, 1999 was a milestone in promoting sustainable environmental management in the country. The Act provides for the harmonization of about 77 sectoral statutes, which address aspects of the environment. Some sectoral statutes have inadequate provisions for prosecution of environmental offenders, while in some penalties are not sufficiently punitive to deter offenders. EMCA, 1999 provides an institutional framework and procedures for management of the environment, including provisions for conflict resolution. environment, including provisions for conflict resolution. Section 3 of EMCA, 1999 states that “Every person in Kenya is entitled to a clean and healthy environment and has the duty to safeguard and enhance the environment.” The Act is intended to ensure that our activities do not compromise the capacity of the resource base to meet the needs of the present generation as well as those of future generations (WCED, 1987) 3.5.2 Ecotourism Kenya Ecotourism Kenya is a civil society organization that was founded in 1996 to promote ecotourism and sustainable tourism practices in Kenya. Founded with enormous industry support, the society was charged with the responsibility of providing the required support for the development of ecotourism and sustainable tourism in the country. Today, the society continues to pursue the vision of making Kenya’s tourism sustainable, in terms of concern for the environment and the welfare of local populations. As a membership organization, Ecotourism Kenya brings together individuals, community based organizations (CBOs) and corporate organizations in a forum where they can discuss the concept of ecotourism and use this knowledge to improve practices in their respective fields.
  • 18. 18 3.5.3 Wildlife Clubs of Kenya (WCK) Wildlife Clubs of Kenya (WCK) is a charitable, non-governmental organisation formed in 1968 by Kenyan students. It was the first conservation education programme of its kind on the continent of Africa. According to Dr. George Schaller: ”WCK is the most effective grass-roots programme of its kind in all of Africa.” WCK was elected to the UNEP’s Global 500 Honour Roll in 1986. WCK is run by a 20-member council of Civil Servants, members of NGOs private citizens and teachers. A national secretariat handles daily activities with the advice of an executive committee of specialists in conservation education, business and public administration. The National secretariat co-ordinates WCK’s numerous activities, sends out mobile field units and education and education officers to schools, runs training workshops, organises rallies and prepares club publications. Through Africa wide workshops, WCK has stimulated a continental wildlife clubs movement. It has also helped spawn clubs in Asia, Latin America and elsewhere in the third world. WCK is now actively lobbying for conservation action. This has helped to bring about a hunting and wildlife trophy ban in Kenya; increased tree planting and soil erosion control activities; and vigorous conservation of natural resources. After more than quarter century of service, WCK proudly looks back on one fundamental achievement. It has helped educate over 1,000,000 young Kenyans and placed many of them in positions of influence. The clubs’ intention now is to ensure that this enormous membership and awareness leads to tangible conservation successes. 4.0 Protected areas (Appendix 1) Kenya’s tourism sector thrives on the natural resources and the scenic landscape. According to the Ministry of Tourism and Wildlife, the country has 52 national parks and 28 national reserves and 3 game sanctuaries that spread from the coast to Lake Victoria in the western region. The game parks and reserves occupy about 9.5 percent of the land surface. In particular the country is famed for its wild game and beautiful scenery. It has been estimated that approximately 80 percent of the tourists who visit Kenya are primarily interested in viewing wildlife (Filion et al. 1994). Other tourist
  • 19. 19 attractions include marine parks, mountains, the rift valley and lakes. Each of these is unique and offers varied attractions. Marine parks are renowned for the coral reefs, gardens and sea animals. The beaches and lagoons offer opportunities for sunbathing, boat riding, and big game fishing. Similarly, the inland lakes offer a variety of attractions. Lake Nakuru in the rift valley is famed for flamingos; while Lake Victoria offers opportunity to see fresh water fish, unique bird species, crocodiles and hippos. Other inland water attractions are available in Lake Turkana, Bogoria and Naivasha. The Mountains are scenic and host numerous species of wild game. In themselves the mountains such as Mt Kenya and Mt Kilimanjaro offer excellent opportunities for climbing adventures, photography, trekking and camping. Besides these, the country has some of the indigenous and highly valued forests such as the Arabuko sokoke and kakamega, which are rich in wildlife, including birds and insects that are beautiful to watch. (GoK 1995a). The trend of visits to the national parks and game reserves are captured in the Table 3. Table 3. Number of visitors to National parks and game reserves (000) Park 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 Nairobi 149.6 122.3 139.2 130.3 101.6 90.4 71.3 92.5 Nairobi Safari Walk - - - - 113.5 114.4 66.3 88.0 Animal orphanage 193.7 164.8 235.1 266.1 151.1 254.5 205.3 239.4 Amboseli 117.2 62.9 77.0 93.5 91.5 92.0 54.7 101.6 Tsavo West 88.6 54.9 61.0 78.6 78.7 76.3 62.6 92.7 Tsavo East 123.2 66.9 111.6 124.9 132.7 152.8 119.2 158.5 Aberdare 59.0 47.9 44.2 44.9 40.5 41.5 30.3 44.0 Lake Nakuru 132.1 111.0 189.1 193.3 209.4 229.8 193.6 257.0 Masai Mara 118.3 100.4 171.0 193.5 207.2 231.1 233.0 240.0 Hailer’s Park 86.8 77.9 96.4 92.6 87.2 87.0 99.9 101.2 Malindi Marine 27.0 13.7 23.9 35.7 26.5 29.8 22.8 27.5 Lake Bogoria 24.5 20.6 53.0 56.1 59.6 18.7 64.7 64.7 Meru 4.1 1.8 3.5 6.0 7.8 8.2 5.7 6.4 Shimba Hills 22.5 16.8 17.7 20.5 18.3 14.4 16.2 18.7 Mt. Kenya 14.8 10.2 22.7 11.5 26.3 27.9 25.5 27.7 Samburu 8.3 7.0 7.0 8.2 6.3 6.0 6.0 6.2 Kisite/Mpunguti 35.1 16.2 36.1 38.4 29.1 47.1 35.9 51.7 Watamu Marine 19.4 18.3 40.8 28.4 30.0 29.3 21.1 28.4 Hell’s Gate 47.2 57.1 72.7 74.0 73.0 60.9 75.1 38.9 Impala Sanctuary/ Kisumu 62.4 65.6 77.4 90.4 96.9 117.7 69.6 63.3 Others 15.5 13.9 19.8 20.1 17.4 11.0 30.5 30.3 TOTAL 1,364.5 1,079.4 1,533.4 1,644.4 1,650.3 1740.8 1509.3 1778.7 Source: Economic Survey 2005
  • 20. 20 Others parks include Mt.Elgon, Ol-Donyo Sabuk, Marsabit, Saiwa Swamp, Sibiloi, Ruma, Mwea, Central Island, Nasolot and Kakamega The numbers of tourist who visit the protected areas have been on increase. The Table 3. shows the number of visitors both domestic and international who entered various protected zone in Kenya varying from National parks, reserves, marine parks, sanctuaries in thousands from 1997 to 2004. The animal orphanage, Maasai Mara and Lake Nakuru National parks are the most visited protected areas in Kenya. The opening of Nairobi Safari walk has increased the number of visitors in Nairobi protected area. This is a new concept of a modern Non-captive zoo where animals’ area almost in the jungle but visitors can view them while walking on the bridge. Figure 6 Number of people visiting parks from year 1997 to 2004 1997, 1,364.50 1998, 1,079.40 1999, 1,533.40 2000, 1,644.40 2001, 1,650.30 2002, 1740.8 2003, 1509.3 2004, 1778.7 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 Figure 6 show the total number of people visiting some of the National Parks and Reserves in Kenya for a period ranging from 1997 to 2004. There is clear evidence that the number of people visiting the parks in Kenya has been increasing annually from 1,079,400 in 1999 to 1,778,700 in year 2004. This can be associated with more awareness and promotion of eco based tourism in Kenya
  • 21. 21 Figure 7. Map National Parks, National Reserves, Marine Parks and Marine Reserves in Kenya Source: Google Maps The Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS) manages the national parks, while the game reserves are under local councils. The KWS is a state corporation that is responsible for conserving the natural resources and ensuring that they commercially benefit the country.
  • 22. 22 4.1 Proportions of wildlife according to conservation status The significance of the various categories of protected and non-protected areas to conservation can also be assessed by comparing the proportions of wildlife in each category (Table 4). Table 4. Percentages of wildlife found in areas of differing conservation status averaged for the 1990s Conservation Status Wildlife totals Percent of all wildlife National Parks 83,633 10 Maasai Mara National Reserve 214,045 25 All Nationally Protected Areas 297,678 35 Privately Protected Areas 334,263 40 Nationally and Privately Protected Areas 631,941 75 Remaining populations (non- protected areas) 214,711 25 Total National Population 846,652 100 Source: African Conservation Centre,2006 National parks account for approximately 10% of all Kenya’s wildlife and national parks and reserves for 35% of the total. Maasai Mara alone accounts for 25% of the national total, underscoring its singular importance to Kenya’s protected area system. The privately protected areas account for 40% of all wildlife, four times the figure of the national parks and more than all nationally protected areas combined. Taken together, all protected areas (national parks, national reserves and privately protected areas) account for75% of all wildlife. David Western, Samantha Russell, and Kamweti Mutu(2006) 5.0 Impacts and challenges 5.1 Economic Tourism as part of country’s economic growth strategy, has potential to contribute significantly to the socioeconomic aspirations of people living in the tourist destinations ( Alavi and Yasin, 2000). Wunder(2000) argues that economic incentives for the nature conservation are imperative, and without local communities’ cooperation, conservation programs cannot succeed. Thus, balancing the social, ecological and economic aspects of tourism is a prerequisite for sustainability. By some accounts, ecotourism has created only meagre economic benefits for communities (Kinnaird and O’Brien, 1996). Leakage of profits from local to outside
  • 23. 23 operators has been a major problem( Honey, 1999; Lindberg, 1994). Ideally ecotourism encourages natural resource conservation in return for local and national economic benefits, in addition to offering local, national and international tourists an opportunity to enjoy and learn about nature while respecting local culture (Brandon, 1996; Davenport et al., 2002; Emmons, 1991; Honey, 1999). Furthermore, training local guides to lead visitor education programmes can provide income for local residents and increase visitor environmental awareness (Paaby & Clark, 1995; Weiler & Ham, 2002). Ecotourism, while promoting the conservation of natural areas that are tourist destinations, can provide economic revenues through entrance fees, employment of local residents of the park area, and tourist expenditures. Projects can generate foreign exchange and provide economic benefits to remote areas (Fennell, 1999). Ecotourism initiatives can attract investment capital for community infrastructure development, often including improved local social and educational services (Barnes et al., 1992). Initially, ecotourism does not require large capital investments, since ecotourists typically are willing to tolerate basic conditions and facilities. Park-based ecotourism often affects local community residents. Several attitudinal studies have been conducted to assess local opinions about conservation and tourism efforts in places such as South Africa (Infield, 1988), Tanzania (Newmark et al., 1993), Malawi (Mkanda & Munthali, 1994), Belize (Hartup, 1994), Ecuador (Fiallo & Jacobson, 1995), Nepal (Mehta & Kellert, 1998), and Madagascar (Peters, 1999). In Kenya most of the local communities are directly and indirectly benefiting from tourism earnings although many locals are employed at lower cadres in the lodges. The biggest challenge of economic benefits of tourism in Kenya is financial leakage because most of the lodges are owned by foreign investors. 5.2 Sociocultural Ecotourism, in general can contribute to the disintegration of local communities social and cultural structure (Stem et al.,; Boo, 1999). The cultural and socio ethos must be well understood in order for ecotourism to be sustainable. Ecotourism thrives upon the support of the local communities. Culture can be incorporated into planning and
  • 24. 24 marketing of ecotourism destinations and products (Wearing, 2001). According to Boo (1990), ecotourists are more likely to appreciate local tradition, customs and cuisine than other market segment. One serious impact of ecotourism is that it can lead to the ‘commodification’ of culture. When people and their customs become marketable commodities, this can lead to erosion of culture and community cohesion (Stem et al, 2003). Another problem associated with tourist is involution of culture (WTO, 2003) where local people do not want to change their ways of life so as to attract tourist, thus contributing to underdevelopment. Another problem associated with tourism is breaking up of social cohesive forces, disappearance of traditions and culture, artefacts, songs, ceremonies, norms, taboos in a tourist destination. Kenya has been equally adversely affected by the impacts of tourism. The Maasai culture has been commoditised, disintegration of some cultures, overcrowding in some attractions thus causing resentment by the local people. Due to the fact that tourism pays more, many people have abandoned the other industries to reap the benefits of the tourism boom thus causing social imbalance. Another major problem is increase in crime, prostitution, use of drugs and other negative things that are associated with tourism. Divorce cases are on increase, lesbianism; homo sexual trends are also on rise. 5.3 Environmental The global tourism industry depends heavily on the conservation sector to establish and maintain the protected areas that provide many of the world’s prime tourist attractions, including publicly funded access, infrastructure, and facilities (Fennell, 1999; Weaver, 2001; Eagles and McCool, 2002, Newsome et al., 2002). In making use of these areas, tourism industry produces a number of negative environmental impacts, and these increase funds required for resources and visitor management (Liddle,1997; Weaver,2001; Buckly and King,2003.Tourism can sometimes make a positive contribution to conservation by: establishing private protected areas; lobbying for World Heritage, National parks and other public protected areas; improving protection of existing reserves; and replacing higher-impacts users by other industry sectors in areas of high conservation value, either public or privately owned, which are not protected (Newsome et al .,2002, Eagles and McCool;2002; Buckley,2003a.
  • 25. 25 5.4 Political Politics have a lot of influence on the destinations policy framework and implementation. As Weinberg et al (2002) have noted many problems associated with ecotourism development are fixable and knowable; the challenges remain political. Specifically, communities exist in larger political systems and often lack the capacity to control broader economic effects. Communities with stronger networks and social capital may be better prepared to overcome these political challenges. The Kenyan government has created an enabling environment for ecotourism to thrive. It works closer with NGOs, International organisation like UNEP which has its Head Quarters in Nairobi Kenya. The government has formed organisations like NEMA to conduct environmental impact assessment, environmental audit to the existing properties. Having said this, there are challenges that are associated with bad government policies like giving of water catchment areas and forests for farming activities to gain political mileage. At the moment there is a huge debate on future of Maasai Mara, one of the ‘seventh natural wonder of the world’ due to deforestation in Mau forests and distribution of land by politicians to their communities and political supporters. Maasai Mara carries about 75% of wildlife in protected areas in Kenya. Table 5. showing tourism direct and indirect impacts (Weaver 1998:21) Environmental impacts Direct benefits Direct costs • provides incentive to protect environment, both formally (protected areas)and informally • provides incentive for restoration and conversion of modified habitats • ecotourist actively assisting in habitat enhancement (donations, policing, • maintenance, etc.) danger that environmental carrying capacities will be unintentionally exceeded, due to: • .rapid growth rates • . difficulties in identifying, measuring and monitoring impacts over a long period • idea that all tourism induces stress Indirect benefits Indirect costs • Exposure to ecotourism fosters broader commitment to environmental well-being • Space protected because of ecotourism provide various environmental benefits • Fragile areas maybe exposed to less benign forms of tourism (pioneer function) • My foster tendencies to put financial value, depending upon attractiveness
  • 26. 26 Economic impacts Direct benefits Direct costs • Revenues obtained directly from ecotourist • Creation of direct employment opportunities • Strong potential for linkages with other sectors of the local economy • Stimulation of peripheral rural economies • Start-up expenses (acquisition of land, establishment of protected areas, superstructure, infrastructure) • Ongoing expenses (maintenance of infrastructure, wages) Indirect benefits Indirect costs • Indirect revenues from ecotourism(high multipliers effect) • Tendency of ecotourist to patronise culture and heritage attractions as add-ons • Economic benefits from sustainable use of protected areas and inherent existence • Revenue uncertainties to in situ nature if consumption • Revenue leakages due to imports, expatriate or non-local participation, etc • Opportunity cost • Damage to crops by wildlife Sociocultural impacts Direct benefits Direct costs • Ecotourism accessible to broad spectrum of the population • Aesthetic/ spiritual element of experience • Foster environmental awareness among ecotourist and the local people • Intrusion upon local and possibly isolated cultures • Displacement of local cultures by parks • Imposition of elite alien value system • Erosion of local control (foreign experts, in- migration of job seekers) Indirect benefits Indirect costs • Optional and existence benefits • Potential resentment and antagonism of locals • Tourist opposition to aspects of local culture( e.g. hunting, slash-burn, agriculture). Source: Weaver (1998:21) 5.5 Kenya SWOT Analysis SWOT analysis is a tool for auditing an organization or a country and its environment. SWOT stands for strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats. Strengths and weaknesses are internal factors. Opportunities and threats are external factors.
  • 27. 27 Figure 9. SWOT Analysis symbiotic relationships Table 6. Kenya’s SWOT analysis Strengths Weaknesses • Abundant wildlife • Lack of clear guidelines on ecotourism • Haven for birds • Lack of policy framework and implementation • Good climate all year around • Poor private- public relationship • Excellent location • High percentage of Foreign investors in ecotourism • Hospitable people • Lack of funds for local people • Maasai Mara • Poor marketing of eco products • Rich culture and history • Lack of government incentives • Head quarters for UNEP • Poor infrastructure and super structures • Sun, sea, surf and sand • Only 10% of wildlife live protected area • Quality beaches • Only 9.5% of land is protected area • Coral reef and corals • • Abundant marine life • Quality local cuisine • Panoramic scenery • Eco rating of lodges in Kenya Opportunities Threats • East Africa cooperation • Green washing • Take advantage of UNEP, WWF • Poaching & Hunting • Use international media house who have Africa HQ in Kenya • Community resentment • Promote ‘Green Movement’ • Commodification of culture • Use Athletes to promote Eco ventures • Involution of culture • Take advantage of CITES on Kenyan • Propensity to loose cultural ethos and
  • 28. 28 elephants socio milieu • Use of Queen visit in Treetops for promoting ecotourism • Un coordinated development in eco destinations • Take advantage of Americas President Kenya roots for creating global ecotourism awareness • Overcrowding in some parks and reserves • Promote UNESCO protected sites • Illegal fishing • Use of Indigenous Knowledge for ecotourism • Competition from other eco destinations • Use of Dolphins in South Coast for promotion • • Internet and website information • • Eco labelling and International Certification of Eco products • 6.0 Eco rating programme in Kenya The Community Outreach Program is one among the key program areas of Ecotourism Kenya. The aim of the program is threefold: • to integrate communities and community-based tourism into mainstream tourism in Kenya; • to build capacity for local people to more effectively engage with tourism issues; • to explore ideas for tourism involvements in their areas. The ultimate goal is for an equitable distribution of the benefits that accrue from community-based tourism enterprises involving • Community mobilization; participatory trainings, seminars, workshops and sharing of information through the quarterly newsletter and monthly e- letter; • Community advisory services on product development, packaging, fundraising, etc; • Promotion of community based, owned and/ or managed tourism enterprises. Ecotourism Kenya has realized that many community-based tourism enterprises exist in the country, and are at various stages of development. Database of the field visits, surveys and contacts with other organizations engaged in community development work in Kenya. There are 101 communities in ecotourism based activities in Kenya.
  • 29. 29 6.1 Case Study of Eco rated Lodge Base Camp Eco-rating Scheme Award Gold Facilities The main camp has 16 tents (consisting of 32 beds). Activities Day game drives, nature walks, tree-planting Sustainable tourism measures Outstanding & Replicable Tourism Practices i. The Maasai Brand, an initiative that seeks to improve and promote traditional handicrafts made by women’s groups in the Talek region of Maasai mara. It is an initiative that promotes cultural conservation, gender sensitivity, capacity building and local income generation. It recorded an income of about Ksh. 2 million in 2006 for these women. ii. Evidence of high investment in conservation and community support. The director noted that for the first five years, Basecamp did not make a profit as all monies went into these efforts. iii. Use of “Maasai grammar” to explain culture. In guest rooms for instance, coat hangers, beds, linen, furniture and other furnishings have made use of Maasai designs or parts, as a way of encouraging visitors to learn more about the Maasai culture iv. Winning international recognition in sustainable tourism, including 2005 First Choice Responsible Tourism Award for Best Practice in Protected Areas. Responsible/ Best Tourism Practices i. Extensive use of local material, including deadwood, and labor for construction. Most structures are constructed in a way that they can be dismantled and taken away safely, leaving no footprint. ii. Environmental conservation: Use of a tree-top wildlife viewing post has reduced the need for game drives iii. Extensive use of solar energy and use of energy saving LED bulbs. The solar water heaters are ISO-certified and have been chosen because of their energy
  • 30. 30 efficiency character. Even the communication system is powered by solar energy. iv. Uses an efficient kuni booster from Botto Solar at the staff quarters v. Have a solar cooker at the kitchen area, as a demonstration to the local community on efficient technologies available vi. Practices garbage separation and composting. Has clean and well-fenced garbage disposal and composting areas. vii. Grey water from every tent is collected and re-used to water plants in the compound viii. Use of dry toilets ix. Has supported the planting of an estimated 25,000 trees since 2000, as part of restoring vegetation along the river near Basecamp. This has been done jointly with the local community. x. A percentage of bed night goes to an education fund that mainly supports girl- child education; estimated to have given Ksh 140,000 in 2006. Basecamp is also supporting a masters student at Moi University. xi. Of the 43 staff, 95% are local, including 10 women. Source:http://www.ecotourismkenya.org
  • 31. 31 Table 7. Eco rated lodges in Kenya Amboseli Porini Camp 6 tents, each with a double and a single bed, solar lights, ensuite shower and flush toilets. Baobab Beach Resort Basecamp Masai Mara The main camp has 16 tents (consisting of 32 beds) Bateleur Camp 9 twin bed tents with shingle roofs, wooden doors, hard wood doors and a private verandah Campi ya Kanzi 14 guests are accommodated in six luxury tented cottages and the Hemingway and Simba suites. Chada Katavi Elephant Pepper Camp Elsa’s Kopje 9 stone/thatch en suite cottages and an open bar, lounge, dining room & swimming pool. Fundu Lagoon Resort Greystoke Mahale Il Ng'wesi Lodge Joy's Camp Keekorok Lodge Kicheche Mara Camp The camp is a classic, intimate, luxury bush camp, completely unfenced. Kichwa Tembo 40 Hemmingway-style safari tents, all with en suite bathrooms and private verandah. Kilima Camp Kizingo Lodge 6 bandas built from local mangrove poles and palms. Koija Starbeds 4 tents with eight beds. Has two doubles and one family room with flush loo & shower Loisaba Kiboko Starbeds
  • 32. 32 4 double rooms with 8 beds Loisaba Lodge 6 rooms Mara Porini Camp 6 tents (or 12 beds) of a mobile style camp with no permanent construction above the ground. Ol Seki Mara Camp 6 double tents elected on platforms (to minimize their impact on the enviroment). Ol Tukai Lodge 80 chalet style twin rooms with private bathrooms and verandahs, a three bedroomed exclusive private. Olonana Camp 12 luxury bush pavilions with private bathrooms and terraces, swimming pool, gourmet cuisine. Porini Lion Camp 6 tents of a mobile style camp. Sand Rivers Selous Sarova Shaba 85 charlet rooms, 4 junior suites and 1 honeymoon suite. The rooms are made of local wood & grass Saruni Safari Camp 6 cottages for 12 guests, grass thatched and made from local wood Siana Springs Tassia Lodge 7 bandas consisting of five double bedrooms and one twin bedroom. There is a children’s bunk. Source:http://www.ecotourismkenya.org
  • 33. 33 7.0 Conclusions and discussions Kenya is moving in the right direction towards sustainability although much has to be done to achieve this goal of tourism that can benefit the local communities, protect the environment and be economically viable. Although the government is aware of the potentiality of tourism to alleviate poverty and propel economic growth, there has been a laxity in many fields leading to unsustainability of tourism in Kenya. The government has not come up with policy framework which would act as guiding policy for enactment of principles for ecotourism. There is overlapping of responsibilities due to lack of harmonised ecotourism ventures and government departs. According to Wearing, 2001, neglect of conservation and quality of life issues threatens the very basis of local populations and the viable and sustainable tourism industry) Wearing, 2001,p 407). There has to be a balance between the protected area and non protected areas. In Kenya only 10% of the wildlife lives in protected area thus exposing them to poachers and hunters (David Western, Samantha Russell and Kamweti Mutu, 2006). Further more according to the Ministry of Tourism and Wildlife, only 9.5% of Kenya land is demarcated for protection of flora and fauna. There is need to increase this percentage either way through the establishment of community ranches, private parks like in Costa Rica which have been very successful (Bernardo Duha,2004). Nairobi, Kenya is the head office of United Nations Environmental Programmes UNEP, thus the country can use the resources availed by UNEP to promote sustainable tourism. At the coastal region, where Kenya has high quality beaches, ‘soft ‘ecotourism can be encouraged so as to reap economic benefits while protecting the environment. Kenya is also world renowned for its ‘Greenbelt Movement’ which its proponent Professor Wangari Mathai won a Nobel Prize in conservation of environment. Kenya has too a good footing on CITES having pioneered for banning of sale on ivory task from elephants and rhino horns. A positive outcome of ecotourism is by no means assured and depends on how development is planned and implemented (Place, 1998). Finding solutions for ecotourism in Kenya is unique. Ecotourism plans should be
  • 34. 34 innovative, flexible, adaptive, strategic and implementable so as to address the diversity of the Kenyan ecotourism products. Another area that needs a lot of attention is use of Indigenous knowledge where it is argued that centuries of co-existence between indigenous people and their surrounding have profoundly blurred the boundaries between natural environment and culture (Hinch, 1998, 2001; Nepal, 2004; Zeppel, 2006). Kenya has rich cultural heritages which in some area have been for centuries used to protect the flora and fauna. There sacred trees and forest in Kenya which have for centuries been under the management of the local communities through their local traditions and taboos. Some trees like ‘mugumo tree’ is a sacred tree which is highly protected. Kenya has ‘Kaya forests’ along the Coastal region which are protected by the local people through customs and beliefs. The Kenya government has recognised the conservation of indigenous forests by the local people and have allowed them to manage and protect some of these forests. The United Nations Cultural Agency Unesco’s World Heritage Committee, meeting for its 32nd session in Canada’s Eastern City of Quebec, has added 12 new World heritage sites covering a swath of civilization from 10,000-year- old agriculture in Papua New Guinea to 20th-century social housing in Berlin. Most important for the African heritage scene, the Committee approved and added to the UNESCO World Heritage List two new sites on the continent - Mauritius’ Le Morne cultural landscape and Kenya’s Mijikenda Kaya Forests.(2008 UNESCO) Kenya Ecotourism Kenya has also come up with the rating of eco lodges in Kenya but its important also to link those ratings with internationally acceptable Certification and getting the right eco labels based on Australian mode. There should be deliberate effort to adhere to the principles of sustainable tourism and for ecotourism so as to move in the right direction. Tour Operators are also taking advantage of ecotourism and there has been increase in Greenwashing campaigns. The government must crack the whip so as to standardize the eco products by working hand in hand with International organisations and NGOs. The political elite must also deter from using public land for political gain, a case where water catchment areas are distributed to political supporters. Private and public
  • 35. 35 partnership would be the right direction for Kenya so as to ensure equitable distribution of resources from tourism industry. On commodification of culture, assimilation locals in management of tourism enterprises would create pride in upholding their cultural values and hence reduce commodification. Although tourism should not try to change the ways of life of the people in a destination, locals should also learn from the tourist so as to develop without abandoning their cultural heritage. (Todaro,1997:16 ) emphasized that development is a’ multi-dimensional process involving major changes in social structure, popular attitudes, and national institutions, as well as the acceleration of economic growth, reduction of inequality and eradication of poverty’ . Tourism, through its face-to-face contact between the host and visitors and the ‘demonstration effect’, often introduces new ideas, values and lifestyles and new stimuli for both economic and social progress (Liu. Z, 2003). There are no clear guidelines on how the local benefit from tourism earning, so its important for government to come up with a guiding policy and have percentages of foreign investors versus locals, earnings, employment. The government should also make funds available for the local communities to invest more in tourism industry. Although Kenya is moving in the right direction to sustainable tourism more research is vital so as to provide data which can be used for planning and policy formulation.
  • 36. 36
  • 37. 37 References Amanda Strongza and Javier Gordillo 2008, Community Views of Ecotourism, Annals of Tourism Research Vol. 35:No. 2 448-468 Blamey, R.K 2001, Principles of Ecotourism. In David B. Weaver(Ed), Encyclopaedia of Ecotourism (447-461). New York: CABI Publishing Boo, E 1990, Ecotourism- The Potentials and Pitfalls (Vol.1). Lancaster: Wickersham printing company Brandon, K 1996, Ecotourism and Conservation: A Review of Key Issues. Washington, DC: The World Bank Buckley, R 2001, Environmental Impacts. In David Weaver(Ed) The Encyclopaedia of Ecotourism ( 379-394). ). New York: CABI Publishing Central Bureau of Statistics, Kenya Ministry of Planning and National Development, 2006. Economic Survey. Government Printer David B. Weaver, Laura J. Lawton 2007, Twenty years on: The state of contemporary ecotourism research. Tourism Management 28 David Western, Samantha Russell and Samuel Mutu 2006, The Status of Wildlife in Kenya’s Protected and Non-protected areas Dimitrios Diamantis 1999, The Concept of Ecotourism: Evolution and trends, Current Issues in Tourism. Vol. 2 No. 2&3 Ecotourism Society of Kenya website www.esok.org accessed on 2009 December, 03. Honey, M 1999, Ecotourism and Sustainable Development. Who owns the Paradise? Island Press, Washington DC Lindberg, K 2001, Economic Impacts, In D.B Weaver Encyclopaedia of Ecotourism (363-378), New York: CABI Publishing
  • 38. 38 Liu, Z 2003, Sustainable Tourism development: a critic. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 11(6), 459-475 Ministry of Tourism in Kenya 2008, Accessed 2009, December 04 http://www.tourism.go.ke/ National Environmental Management Authority Website Accessed in 2009, December 03 .http://www.nema.go.ke/ Nature World of Kenya, Website Accessed in 2009 December, 07. 2009 http://www.nationalparks-worldwide.info/kenya.htm Our Common Future (1987). World Commission on Environment and Development. Oxford: Oxford University Press Ralf Buckley 2004, Partnerships in Ecotourism: Australian Political Frameworks. International Journals of Tourism Research 6, 75-83 Sirakaya,et al 2001. Developing indicators for Destination Sustainability. In D.B Weaver Encyclopaedia of Ecotourism (411-432), New York: CABI Publishing Stem, et al 2003. How “Eco” is sustainable? A comparative Case Study of Ecotourism in Costa Rica. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 11(4). UNWTO 2009, World Tourism Highlight, UNWTO Publication UNTWO 2008, World Tourism Barometer, UNWTO Publication WIKIPEDIA Free Encyclopaedia Accessed on 2009, December, 03 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SWOT_analysis Wunder, S. 2000. Ecotourism and economic incentives-an empirical approach. Ecological Economics, 32, 465-479
  • 39. 39 Appendix 1 Protected area in Kenya by management and hectareage Area Management type Size in hectares IUCN Category Arabuko Sokoke Nature Reserve 4,332 South-Western Mau Nature Reserve 43,032 III Loita Hills Cloud Forest Site 20,000 Ndoto Mountains Cloud Forest Site 10,000 Karisia Hills Cloud Forest Site 29,000 Mathews Range Cloud Forest Site 24,000 Mount Nyiro Cloud Forest Site 18,000 Namuluku Forest Reserve 10 IV Imbirikani Group Ranch Private Reserve 128,485 Nanyungu Forest Reserve 22 Ururu Forest Reserve 438 Ol Jogi Rhinoceros S Private Reserve 7,284 Utunene Forest Reserve 174 Kalimani Forest Reserve 192 Sokta Hill Forest Reserve 170 III Nduluni-kalani Forest Reserve 106 Tumeya Forest Reserve 577 Tulimani Forest Reserve 328 Mbulia Group Ranch Private Reserve 15,783 Muringato Nursery Forest Reserve 24 II Kaptaroi Forest Reserve 318 II Kioo Forest Reserve 44 II Momandu Forest Reserve 144 II Mosegem Forest Reserve 205 II Kapchorua I Forest Reserve 141 II Mtarakwa Forest Reserve 110 II Nairobi Arboretum Forest Reserve 30 III Nyeri Hill Forest Reserve 200 ADC Mutura Ranch Private Reserve 25,637 Sekenwo Forest Reserve 863 Kabiok Forest Reserve 14 Tutwoin Forest Reserve 11
  • 40. 40 Kitumbuuni Forest Reserve 74 Tarda Emali Ranch Private Reserve 850 Kisima Farm Rumuruti Private Reserve 17,806 Kinyo Forest Reserve 339 III Kilala Forest Reserve 161 Kyai Forest Reserve 109 II Magumo North Forest Reserve 240 II Ntugi Forest Reserve 1,386 Kijabe Hill Forest Reserve 740 Lisa Ranch Private Reserve 2,233 West Molo Forest Reserve 277 Kilungu Forest Reserve 145 Galana Ranch Private Reserve 647,484 Leroghi Forest Reserve 91,794 VI Laikipia Ranching Private Wildlife Sanctuary 16,187 Colcheccio Ltd Private Reserve 26,305 II Wanga Forest Reserve 95 Braemar Farm Private Reserve 1,821 Western Mau Forest Reserve 22,748 Karura Forest Reserve 1,045 II Mount Londiani Forest Reserve 30,152 Ol-bolossat Forest Reserve 3,269 II Aberdare National Park 76,619 Kiunga Marine National Reserve 25,000 Bisanadi National Reserve 60,600 Kipkunurr Forest Reserve 15,892 Mutharanga Forest Reserve 293 Nyambeni Forest Reserve 5,454 Lake Bogoria National Reserve 10,705 Shaba National Reserve 23,910 Ngamba Forest Reserve 1,141 Katimok Forest Reserve 2,019 Diani-Chale Marine National Reserve 7,500 Kapolet Forest Reserve 1,625 Ia Kiambu Forest Reserve 149 II Kakamega Forest Reserve 17,838 Mutito Forest Reserve 1,975
  • 41. 41 Maji Mazuri Forest Reserve 7,809 Losai National Reserve 180,680 Marmanet Forest Reserve 22,644 IV Dagoretti Forest Reserve 774 Masai Mara National Reserve 151,000 II Ngong Hills Forest Reserve 3,081 Njuguni Forest Reserve 1,987 Ngong Road Forest Reserve 1,039 Kiptaberr Forest Reserve 12,801 South Turkana National Reserve 109,100 Ndotos Range Forest Reserve 93,205 Saimo Forest Reserve 727 Southern Mau Forest Reserve 128 Loitokitok Forest Reserve 766 Kyemundu Forest Reserve 147 III Mpunguti Marine National Reserve 1,100 Mataa Forest Reserve 48 Ia Kaisungor Forest Reserve 1,089 Ia Tana River Primate National Reserve 16,900 UA Mailuganji Forest Reserve 1,685 UA Mwachi Forest Reserve 381 Kapkanyar Forest Reserve 5,764 Mukogodo Forest Reserve 29,931 Gonja Forest Reserve 861 South Laikipia Forest Reserve 3,500 Lelan Forest Reserve 14,516 UA Kikingo Forest Reserve 1,203 IV Tsavo East National Park 1,174,700 Tsavo West National Park 906,500 Samburu National Reserve 16,500 Kieiga Forest Reserve 573 Munguni Forest Reserve 189 Meru National Park 87,044 Kapchemutwa Forest Reserve 8,874 II Maralai Game Sanctuary 500 III Nuu Forest Reserve 25,32 III Metkei Forest Reserve 1958
  • 42. 42 Malindi Marine National Park 630 Kaptagat Forest Reserve 12,985 IV Maragoli Forest Reserve 470 IV Upper Imenti Forest Reserve 10,402 Ia Katende Forest Reserve 933 Kabarak Forest Reserve 1,395 Witu Forest Reserve 4,002 Embobut Forest Reserve 21689 IV Makuli-nguuta Forest Reserve 1676 IV Ngaia Forest Reserve 4314 Ia North Kitui National Reserve 74500 UA Londiani Forest Reserve 106 UA Transmara Forest Reserve 34457 IV Kasigau Forest Reserve 202 IV Mumbaka Forest Reserve 444 IV Kamiti Forest Reserve 171 IV Nyeri Forest Reserve 1214 Ia Marenji Forest Reserve 1519 IV Mrima Forest Reserve 390 V Kisite Marine National Park 2800 Kessop Forest Reserve 1971 Mount Elgon Forest Reserve 73089 Kipipiri Forest Reserve 5077 Molo Forest Reserve 915 III Mutejwa Forest Reserve 1318 III Makongo-kitui Forest Reserve 2447 III Mkongani West Forest Reserve 1408 III Longonot National Park 5200 III Ololua Forest Reserve 639 UA Uaso Narok Forest Reserve 1966 III Rahole National Reserve 127000 UA Mombasa Marine National Park 1000 Kikuyu Escarpment Forest Reserve 37619 Kapsaret Forest Reserve 1008 Taressia Forest Reserve 375 Kimojoch Forest Reserve 762 North Nandi Forest Reserve 11345
  • 43. 43 Sekhendu Forest Reserve 804 Namanga Hill Forest Reserve 11904 Mukobe Forest Reserve 747 UA Kijege Forest Reserve 3303 II Buffalo Springs National Reserve 13100 III Kitalale Forest Reserve 2070 III Buda Forest Reserve 670 III Sogotio Forest Reserve 3555 Kenze Forest Reserve 189 Bunyala Forest Reserve 808 IV Ndare Forest Reserve 5627 Ia Thuuri Forest Reserve 732 Thunguru Hill Forest Reserve 554 Matthews Range Forest Reserve 97392 II Mount Nyiru Forest Reserve 45496 Marsabit Forest Reserve 15778 Shimba Hills National Reserve 19251 Turbo Forest Reserve 10814 Muguga Forest Reserve 225 Jombo Forest Reserve 887 Malaba Forest Reserve 721 Ngai Ndethya National Reserve 21209 Kibwezi Forest Reserve 5850 Kiagu Forest Reserve 1361 Lusoi Forest Reserve 268 II Hell's Gate National Park 6800 Timau Forest Reserve 295 Mwea National Reserve 6803 Timboroa Forest Reserve 5813 II Kitondu Forest Reserve 1093 Central Island National Park 500 Mkongani North Forest Reserve 1165 IV Lugari Forest Reserve 2193 II Embakasi Forest Reserve 591 II Northern Tinderet Forest Reserve 26285 II Eastern Mau Forest Reserve 66067 Lariak Forest Reserve 4988
  • 44. 44 Perkerra Catchment Forest Reserve 4414 Bahati Forest Reserve 10101 Kerrer Forest Reserve 2241 Dodori National Reserve 87739 Ol Donyo Sabuk National Park 1842 III Mau Narok Forest Reserve 851 Ia Nairobi National Park 11721 Eburu Forest Reserve 8736 Kipkabus (Elg-Marak) Forest Reserve 6760 Kerio Valley National Reserve 6570 Nasolot National Reserve 19400 Chepalungu Forest Reserve 4977 Leshau Forest Reserve 198 II Kierera Forest Reserve 777 II Nakuru Forest Reserve 631 II Chemorogok Forest Reserve 1338 II Arawale National Reserve 53324 Chyulu National Park 47090 Nzaui Forest Reserve 1001 Ruma National Park 12000 III Aberdares Forest Reserve 103316 III Tinderet Forest Reserve 28167 V Kora National Park 178780 Ia Boni National Reserve 133900 IV Menengai Forest Reserve 5737 III South Island National Park 3880 III Watamu Marine National Park 12500 IV Chemurokoi Forest Reserve 3979 IV Ol-arabel Forest Reserve 9738 IV Mount Kenya Forest Reserve 199538 South Kitui National Reserve 183300 II Rumuruti Forest Reserve 6551 Ia Nthangu Forest Reserve 845 Lake Nakuru National Park 18800 Gogoni Forest Reserve 824 UA Sibiloi National Park 157085 II South Nandi Forest Reserve 19568 IV
  • 45. 45 Ol-pusimoru Forest Reserve 17258 II Amboseli National Park 39206 II Kilombe Hill Forest Reserve 1534 II Kipkabus (Uasin/Gishu) Forest Reserve 5827 Source: Nature Worldwide on Kenya.
  • 46. 46 Appendix 2 List of abbreviations IUCN, International Union for Conservation of Nature GoK, Government of Kenya UNWTO, United Nations World Tourism Organisation WTO, World Tourism Organisation IYE, International Year of Ecotourism TIES, International Ecotourism Society ESOK, Ecotourism Society of Kenya CPU, Computer Processing Unit NEMA, National Environmental Management Authority EMCA, Environmental Management and Coordination Act WCED, World Commission on Environment and Development CBO, Community Based Organisations KWS, Kenya Wildlife services UNEP, United Nations Environment Programme ISO, International Organization for Standardization LED light bulbs cost effective for lighting UNESCO, United Nations Scientific and Cultural Organisation