1. Critically Evaluating Scientific Sources
Separating Fact From Fiction in 21st Century Society

2. 21st Century: The Information Age
We live a culture of infinite access. We can
literally access millions of sources of
information, in seconds, with the click of a
mouse....

3. But where does that information
come from...

4. “With great power comes great responsibility”
In this technology driven age being able to
critically evaluate sources of information is an
essential life skill.

6. “The Most Heart Breaking and
Inspirational Story of the Football
Season”
....Was a Hoax?

8. Major News Outlets Who Ran Manti Te’o Story
• Sports Illustrated
• ESPN
• The New York Times
• The South Bend Tribune
• Bleacher Report
• Chicago Tribune
• Chicago Sun-Times
• Sporting News
• USA Today
• Boston Globe
• CBS Sports
• New York Post
• NBC Sports
• Notre Dame
• Yahoo
• Associated Press
• Palm Beach Post
• Miami Herald
• Tampa Bay Times
• Grantland
• Los Angeles Times
Over a 5 Month Period... Without Doing Any Fact Checking.

9. Scholarly Sources vs. Popular Media
• Author: Experts in the field (i.e.,
professors, researchers)
– Articles are signed, often including
author's credentials and affiliation
• Target Audience: Other experts.
– Assumes a level of knowledge in the
field (specialized vocabulary).
– Articles are often lengthy and narrow in
focus.
– Primarily print with few pictures. Tables,
graphs, and diagrams are often included
– Usually few or no advertisement
• Includes a bibliography, references,
notes and/or works cited
• Peer Reviewed
• Published in technical journals.
– Look for “Journal” “Review” or
“Quarterly” in the name.
• Often cite original research and data.
– Explain procedure used.
• Author: Journalists or Freelance
– Usually don’t include credentials
• Target Audience: General public
– Easy to read - aimed at the layperson
– Articles are usually short, and often
entertain as they inform.
– Contain lots of pictures and ads.
• Rarely include footnotes or
bibliography.
• Not held to peer review standard.
• Published in “for profit” media.
– Magazines and Newspapers.
– Often readily available.
• Rarely cite original research.
– Can pick and choose.

11. Authority
• Questions to Ask:
– Who is the author?
– What are his or her academic credentials?
– What else has this author written?
• Have they published other papers on the topic?
• Do others frequently cite them?
– Primary vs. Secondary Research?
• The authors credentials, or lack thereof,
tells a great deal about the pieces
reliability.

12. Validity
• Is the author transparent?
– Experimental procedure outlined.
– Data included.
– Be very cautious of “secret” methods.
• Is the experiment well designed?
– Appropriate Sample Sizes
– Use Controls and Mitigates Sources of Error.
• Are experiments repeatable? Have they been repeated?
– Experimental procedures are reported so that others may repeat them.
– Valid results can be reproduced by others.
– Check to see that there has been more than one study, and that the studies support past
research.
• One single study may produce results that other studies can’t repeat.
• The more independent studies that exist which can support a claim, the more likely it is to be
true.
• Are specific, well-defined conclusions made?
– Scientists use careful, precise language and make quantitative predictions if possible.
– Pseudoscientists use vague and imprecise terms that can be interpreted in many
different ways.
• Was the work conducted at an established facility, which could provide the
support necessary to conduct thorough research?

13. Bias
• Who published the piece?
– Biased organizations often choose names that appear non-
biased
• Who funded the research?
• Are they trying to sell you something?
• Is it an opinion piece?
– Editorial
– Letter to Editor
• Do they acknowledge other points of view?
• Inflammatory language?

14. Types of Persuasive Devices
1. Straw Man
An argument directed not at someone’s actual position, but at a weaker version (the ‘straw man’) created
by the opponent. This weaker version would seem, for example, illogical or irrelevant.
2. Ad Hominem (‘to the man’)
An argument directed at an individual, rather than the individual’s position. The person themselves is
attacked, rather than the evidence or the logic of their argument.
3. False Dilemma
Two choices are proposed, and one of these is more easily attacked. This leaves the other choice as the
only obvious possibility. However, in reality there may be many other alternatives or complexities which
are not addressed.
4. Begging the Question
This type of argument (also called ‘circular reasoning’) assumes the truth of its conclusions as part of the
reasoning leading up to the conclusion.
5. Slippery Slope
An argument in which the position argued against is depicted to result in something terrible. The terrible
result is then argued against, rather than the position itself.
6. Bandwagon
‘Everyone else is doing it.’ This technique takes advantage of the desire of many people to feel as though
they belong to a group. The argument is that if most people believe a certain way, then the reader should
also feel that way.
7. Slanted Words or Phrases
In this technique, emotionally charged or biased words are used to convince the reader of a certain
position (contrast ‘mature citizen’ with ‘old fogy’).
8. Scare Tactics
This technique tries to scare the reader into siding with a particular position. The argument is evaluated on
the basis of emotion (fear) rather than logic and reason.

15. Currency
• When was it published? Look for a publication or copyright date on the
– Title page (books, journals)
– Reverse of the title page (books)
– Cover (journals, magazines, newspapers)
– Table of contents (journals, magazines)
– Bottom of the page (web sites)
– Dates on web pages may indicate:
• When the page was created
• When the page was published on the web
• When the page was last revised
• Is your topic one that requires current information?
– Topic areas requiring the most up-to-date information include:
• Science
• Medicine
• Current events
• Has this source been updated in a subsequent edition?

16. Quick Note: Blogs
• Use with Extreme Caution.
– Typically no editorial oversight.
– Often serve as a soap box. Prone to
Bias.
– Anyone start a blog.
• There is however a culture shift
occurring in how news is reported.
– Blogs are becoming an important tool
in 21st century society.
– Typically these “good” blogs are still
associated with a reputable parent
publication.
• Be aware that they are still more prone
to bias.