Early version of autistogenesis presentation -

Autistogenesis: The systems theory with an evolutionary perspective J. Patrick Malone, M.Ed. Walden University

Autism …
Generally defined as a pervasive developmental disorder with signs detectable as early as 6 months of age and includes;
qualitative and quantitative impairments of social interaction,
cyclic CNS activity producing repetitive behaviours, and
deficits in the use and production of communicative means.

Focusing in …
Environmental stressors
Potential hazards from
(a) DHA deficient breast milk ,
(b) infant formula over-supplemented with DHA and AA
Toxic inflammatory DHA and AA metabolites.
Identification of a gene that explains;
(a) male over-representation
(b) environmental triggers , and
(c) the link between testosterone , estradiol , and DHA metabolism .
The evolutionary tenacity of this system .

Method Areas reviewed include: Clinical nutrition Pediatric neurology Lipid metabolism Cognitive neuroscience Molecular biology Clinical psychology Evolutionary psychology Neurophysiology Developmental psychology Endocrinology Archaeology Biological anthropology Brain morphology Immunology Genetics Toxicology Cell biology Biochemistry Evolutionary Biology Pharmacology

Inclusion-Exclusion Criteria Journal articles Books and chapters Conference papers Dissertations All were considered eligible for inclusion . Resources not addressing associated genetic or metabolic processes, pervasive developmental disorders, autistic behaviours, or the evolutionary significance of such processes were typically excluded.

Literature Search Studies considered contained permutations of the words ; autism , developmental disorder , infant , genetic linkage , mirror neuron , docosahexaenoic acid / DHA , foetal , arachidonic acid / AA , inflammation , sensitive period , environment , androgen , testosterone , estrogen , estradiol , fish oil , milk formula , stress , breast milk , and gender . Library Holdings Medline PsychINFO ProQuest Academic Search Complete Eric Sage Online Journals Google Scholar eBray and PsychBooks

Results
Sensitive periods exist due to :
Massive nonlinear synaptic pruning sculpts and
remodels cortex-wide connections
Myelination that induces so-called “hard wiring”
Loss of neuronal plasticity during brain maturation.
What are the consequences to autistogenesis?

Von Economo Neurons (VEN)
Found in great apes – most abundant in humans
4.6 times larger than pyramidal cells
(more susceptible to damage than many cells within the cortex)
1 st appear at 35 th week of gestation
15% at birth – full development by age 4
~ 30% more in frontoinsular cortex of right hemisphere
linked to social bonding & reward / punishment response

The Mirror Neuron System
The mirror neuron system (MNS):
well-rooted in the ventral premotor cortex , and the
anterior, inferior fronto- and temperoparietal regions
permeates the cerebral cortex, including the primary
somatosensory cortex
is intensely interconnected with limbic system, orbital
frontal lobes , and insula .

Stressors and sensitive periods
Faulty neurite formation and corrupt
neural migration in autism produces :
- cortical dysgenesis including thickening of the cortex,
fewer interconnections ,
intermingling of grey and white matter with high neuronal
density
protruding grey matter beyond outer cortical margins.

Environmental STRESS
Social isolation
- Gross lack of social stimulus during sensitive periods
and known to induce neuroinflammation
Abusive rejection
- Inappropriate/inadequate stimulus of limbic system
Physical abuse / environment of fear
- Chronically on “high alert”

What are the consequences? anterior, inferior fronto- and temperoparietal regions somatosensory cortex, ventral premotor cortex, limbic system, orbital frontal lobes insula All of these and more will experience growth and myelination at different rates during different developmental periods … Sensitive periods !

Long Chain Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids (LC-PUFAs) and STRESS : Part I
Arachidonic acid (AA) metabolism:
N eurite outgrowth is suppressed by AA through
the inhibition of ethanolamine glycerophospholipids.
All inflammatory response mechanism begins with
AA metabolism .
Metabolites of AA sustain or promote a runaway
inflammatory response .

Long Chain Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids (LC-PUFAs) and STRESS : Part II
Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) metabolism:
phosphatidylserine (PS) synthesis increases
diminished capase-3 activity (an apoptosis mediator) at the level of transcription.
is converted into resolvins and protectins to
self-limit the AA fueled inflammatory cascade.

DHA  neuroprotectin D1 (NPD1) ⊢ = inhibits  = promotes

Long Chain Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids (LC-PUFAs) and STRESS : Part III
Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) metabolism:
DHA reduces apoptosis at the level of the gene :
Translocation of Akt and Raf-1 genes enhances cell survival when PIP3 activation is reduced or neuronal differentiation is required.
Up-regulates antiapoptotic Bcl-x1, Bcl-2, and Bfl-1(A1) expression.
Down-regulates proapoptotic Bax and Bik expression.

Primary role for DHA without STRESS - Neurite formation is promoted while inhibiting apoptosis. - Improved neuronal differentiation . - Stimulation of neurite growth factors . - Enhanced production of phospholipids required for neurite elongation .

The precursors and the products:

DHA and too much STRESS:
Chronic neuroinflammation may lead to :
Neurotoxic metabolites
Induction of apoptosis
Disruption of mitochondrial t ransmembrane
Activation of peroxisome proliferator-activated
receptors (PPARs) via the p38 signalling pathway.

The confounds between breast feeding and tests of development:
cultural food preferences and availability
formally tested intelligence and traditional schooling
of the parents
age and experience of the mother
sex and birth order of the infant
power and duration of the test
lack of rigorous dietary control of the mother
socioeconomic status and purchasing power required
for supplemented milk formula.

LC-PUFAs and Breast Milk
Uptake of DHA is highest during the final trimester
- the greatest phase of neurogenesis , neurite formation ,
and arborisation .
- the placenta demonstrates a preference for DHA in the
basal membrane.
- inadequate supply to the foetus may lead to irreversible
neurological damage
Mothers with gestational diabetes often possess lower
breast milk DHA when compared to those without

Negative effects on health were detected in vivo with DHA/AA ratios of .56 or less.

Infant milk formula: Cause for concern?

Too much DHA … ?
Transient visual evoked potential latency and amplitude
were lower in children receiving DHA only supplemented
breast milk at 8 months of age compared to control.
At 12 months of age , children receiving DHA supplemented
only breast milk scored lower on CAT DQ and CLAMS DQ
than control.
In two studies of DHA only supplementation of ADHD
children , results were significantly lower on most
measures than placebo.

Some infant foods contain DHA only …

What do we know?

Clues to male over-representation: High-dose DHA supplementation of preterm milk formula did improve Bayley Mental Development (MDI) scores at 18 months corrected age in female infants only .

The pre-pubertal surge: It works Estradiol Aromatase Testosterone   Neuroprotection Estradiol

The pre-pubertal surge: It doesn’t Estradiol Aromatase Testosterone   Neuroprotection Neurotoxicity

Estradiol:
modulates oxytocin receptors (OXTR) known deficient in autism and are linked to social cognition
regulates conversion of precursors to DHA
Enhances:
 long-term potentiation  object recognition
 spatial memory  face recognition
 interpretation of facial affect

So, how do we find a gene in the human genome that can account for these factors? Genome-wide linkage analysis

Introducing the CYP19 gene: P450arom

The P450arom gene at 15q21.2

Evolutionary biology MUST inform biological psychology … A maturing infant brain susceptible to change due to stress provides a powerful selective advantage. The point is to not play well with others.

For every step in the genetic, metabolic, and environmental pathway to autistogenesis, there is an opportunity for early detection, treatment, and intervention.

However, the earlier that socially engaging and “neurologically age appropriate” the intervention is to those specific brain regions, the greater chance for improvement.

References:
Abbott Laboratories. (2002). Mothers survey, Ross Products Division. Abbott Laboratories.
Abramovich, D. R., & Rowe, P. (1973). Foetal plasma testosterone levels at mid-pregnancy and at term: Relationship to foetal sex. Journal of Endocrinology, 56 , 621-622. doi: 10.1677/joe.0.0560621
Agostoni C, Zuccotti GV, Radaelli G. Besama R, Podestà A, Sterpa A, … Giovannini M. 2009. Docosahexaenoic acid supplementatin and time at achievement of gross motor milestones in healthy infants: A randomized, prospective, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 89 (1), 64-70. doi:10.3945/ajcn.2008.26590
Ahmad, A., Moriguchi, I., & Salem, N. (2002). Decrease in neuron size in Docosahexaenoic acid-deficient brain. Pediatric Neurology, 26 (3), 210-218. doi: 10.1016/S0887-8994(01)00383-6

Ahmad, A., Murthy, M., Greiner, R.S., Moriguchi, I., & Salem, N. (2002). A decrease in cell size accompanies a loss of docosahexanoate in the rat hippocampus. Nutritional Neuroscience, 5 (2), 103-113. doi: 10.1080/10284150290018973
Ahmad, Z., Balsamo, L.M., Sachs, B.C., Xu, B., & Gaillard, W.D. (2003). Auditory comprehension of language in young children: Neural networks identified with fMRI. Neurology, 60 (10), 1598–1605.
Ainsworth, M., Blehar, M., Waters, E. & Wall, S. (1978). Patterns of attachment . Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Akbar, M., Calderon, F., Wen, Z., & Kim, H.Y. (2005). Docosahexaenoic acid: A positive modulator of Akt signaling in neuronal survival. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA, 102 (31), 10858-10863. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0502903102

Albuquerque, E.X., Pereira, E.F., Eisenberg, H.M., Maelicke, A. & Alkodon, M. (2000). Neuronal nicotinic receptors in synaptic functions in humans and rats: Physiological and clinical relevance. Behavioural Brain Research, 113 (1-2), 131-141. doi:10.1016/S0166-4328(00)00208-4
Alessandri, J.-M., Langelier, B., Perruchot, M.-H., Extier, A., Pifferi, F., Jouin, M., … Guesnet, P. (2007). Conversion of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) and incorporation of Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) in cultured neural cells. Oléagineux, Corps Gras, Lipides, 14 (3), 148-54. doi: 10.1684/ocl.2007.0113
Allman, J.M., Watson, K.K., Tetreault, N.A., & Hakeem, A.Y., (2005). Intuition and autism: A possible role for Von Economo neurons. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 9 (8), 367-373. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2005.06.008
Arai, Y., Sekine, Y., & Murakami, S. (1996). Estrogen and apoptosis in the developing sexually dimorphic preoptic area in female area in female rats. Neuroscience Research, 25 (4), 403-407. doi: 10.1016/0168-0102(96)01070-X

Belayev, L, Khoutorova, L., Atkins, K.D. & Bazan, N.G. (2010). Robust Docosahexaenoic acid-mediated neuroprotection in a rat model of transient, focal cerebral ischemia. Stroke: Journal of the American Heart Association, 40 , 3121-3126. doi: 10.1161/STROKEAHA.109.555979
Bettelheim, B. (1967). The empty fortress: Infantile autism and the birth of the Self. The Free Press, New York.
Bijeljac-Babic, R., Nassurally, K., Havy, M., & Nazzi, T. (2009). Infants can rapidly learn words in a foreign language. Infant Behavior and Develoment, 32 , 476-480. doi:10.1016/j.infbeh.2009.06.003
Blaylock, R.L. (2009). A possible central mechanism in autism spectrum disorders, part 2: Immunoexcitotoxicity. Alternative Therapies, 15 (1). 60-67. Retrieved from http://www.mpwhi.com/autism_part_2.pdf

Block, M. L., & Hong, J.-S. (2005). Microglia and inflammation-mediated neurodegeneration: Multiple triggers with a common mechanism. Progress in Neurobiology, 76 (2), 77-98. doi: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2005.06.004
Bölte, S., Hubl, D., Feineis-Matthews, S., Pruvulovic, D., Dierks, T. & Poustka, F. (2006). Facial affect recognition training in autism: Can we animate the fusiform gyrus? Behavioral Neuroscience, 120 (1), 211-216. doi:10.1037/0735-7044.120.1.211
Boure, J.M. (2004). Roles of unsaturated fatty acids (especially omega-3 fatty acids) in the brain at various ages and during ageing. Journal of Nutrition, Health, and Ageing, 8 (3), 163-174. Retrieved from http://www.bourre.fr/pdf/publications_scientifiques/251.pdf
Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and loss: Vol 1 . Attachment. New York: Basic Books.
Bowlby, J. (1988). A secure base: Clinical applications of attachment theory . London: Routledge.

Bremner, J.D., Randall, P.K., Southwick, S.M., Krysta,l .JH., Innis, R.B., & Chamey, D.S. (1995). Stress-induced changes in memory and development. American Psychiatric Association Syllabus and Proceedings Summary, 148, 112.
Brenna, J.T., Varamini, B., Jensen, R.G., Diersen-Schade, D.A., Boettcher, J.A., & Arterburn, LM. (2007). Docosahexaenoic and arachidonic acid concentrations in human breast milk worldwide. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 85 (6), 1457-1464. Retrieved from http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/reprint/85/6/1457
Brenna, J.T., Varamini, B., Jensen, R.G., Diersen-Schade, D.A., Boettcher, J.A., & Arterburn, LM. (2007). Docosahexaenoic and arachidonic acid concentrations in human breast milk worldwide [Figure 2]. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 85 (6), 1457-1464. Retrieved from http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/reprint/85/6/1457

Brooks, R., & Meltzoff, A.N. (2007). Eyes wide shut: The importance of eyes in infant gaze following and understanding other minds. In R. Flom, K. Lee, & D. Muir (Eds.), Gaze following: Its development and significance (pp. 217-241). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Brooks, R., & Meltzoff, A.N. (2008). Infant gaze following and pointing predict accelerated vocabulary growth through two years of age: A longitudinal, growth curve modeling study. Journal of Child Language, 35 (1), 207-220. doi:10.1017/S030500090700829X
Bufalari, I., Aprile, T., Avenanti, A., Di Russo, F. & Aglioti, S.M. (2007). Empathy for pain and touch in the somatosensory cortex. Cerebral Cortex, 17 (11), 2553-2561.
Burd, L., Fisher, W., Kerbeshian, J., Vesely, B., Durgin, B., & Reep, P. (1988). A comparison of breastfeeding rates among children with pervasive developmental disorder, and controls. Journal of Developmental & Behavioural Pediatrics, 9 (5) , 247-251.

Burdge, G. C., Jones, A. E., & Wootton, S.A. (2002). Eicosapentaenoic and docosapentaenoic acids are the principal products of α-linolenic acid metabolism in young men. British Journal of Nutrition, 88, 355-363. doi: 10.1079/BJN2002662
Butterworth, G.E., & Morisette, P. (1996). Onset of pointing and the acquisition of language in infancy. Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology, 14 (3), 219-231. doi: 10.1080/02646839608404519
Calderon, F., & Kim, H.-Y. (2004). Docosahexaenoic acid promotes neurite growth in hippocampal neurons. Journal of Neurochemistry, 90 (4), 979-988. doi: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2004.02520.x
Camaioni, L., Castelli, M.C., Longobardi, E., & Volterra, V. (1991). A parent report instrument for early language assessment. First Language, 11 (33), 345-358. doi: 10.1177/014272379101103303

Campbell, F.M., Gordon, M.J., & Dutta-Roy, A.K. (1996). Preferential uptake of long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids by isolated human placental membranes. Molecular and Cell Biochemistry, 155 (1), 77-83. doi: 10.1007/BF00714336
Casagrande,V.A., & Joseph, R. ( 1980). Morphological effects of monocular deprivation and recovery on the dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus in galago. Journal of Comparative Neurology, 194 (2), 413-426. doi: 10.1002/cne.901940208
Chan, P.H., & Fishman, R.A. (1978). Brain edema: Induction in cortical slices by polyunsaturated fatty acids. Science, 201 (4353), 358-360. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/1746875
Chen, J.-K., Capdevila, J., & Harris, R.C. (2001). Cytochrome P450 Epoxygenase metabolism of arachidonic acid inhibits apoptosis. Molecular and Cellular Biology, 21 (18), 6322-6331. doi: 10.1128/MCB.21.18.6322–6331.2001

Chen, S.A., Besman, M.J., Sparkes, R.S., Zollman, S., Klisak, I., Mohandas, T., … Shively, J.E. (1988). Human aromatase: cDNA cloning, Southern blot analysis, and assignment of the gene to chromosome 15. DNA, 7 (1), 27-38.
Cheng, Y., Meltzoff, A.N., & Decety, J. (2007). Motivation modulates the activity of the human mirror-neuron system. Cerebral Cortex, 17 (8), 1979-1986. doi:10.1093/cercor/bhl107
Cherrier, M.M., Matsumoto, A.M., Amory, J.K., Ahmed, S., Bremner, W., Peskind, E.R. … Craft, S. (2005). The role of aromatization in testosterone supplementation: Effects on cognition in older men. Neurology, 64 , 290-296.
Courchesne, E., Pierce, K., Schumann, C.M., Redcay, E., Buckwalter, J.A., & Kennedy, D.P. (2007). Mapping early brain development in autism. Neuron, 56 (2), 399-413. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2007.10.016

Creswell, J. (2009). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (3rd ed.). London: Sage Publications, Inc.
Curtiss, S. (1977). Genie: A psycholinguistic study of a modern-day “wild child.” New York: Academic Press.
Curtiss, S. (1987). The independence and task-specificity of language. In M.H. Bornstein & J.S. Bruner (Eds.), Interaction in human development (pp. 105-137). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
de Quervain, D. J.-F., Roozendaal, B., & McGaugh, J. L. (1998). Stress and glucocorticoids impair retrieval of long-term spatial memory. Nature, 394 , 787-790. doi:10.1038/29542
de Quervain, D. J.-F., Roozendaal, B., Nitsch, R. M., McGaugh, J. L., & Hock, C. (2000). Acute cortisone administration impairs retrieval of long-term declarative memory in humans. Nature Neuroscience, 3, 313-314. doi: 10.1038/73873

Deacon, H.J., & Geleisjsne, V.B. (1988). The stratigraphy and sedimentology of the main site sequence, Klasies River, South Africa. The South African Archaeological Bulletin 43, 5-14. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/3887608
Deroo, B.J., & Korach, K.S. (2006). Estrogen receptors and human disease. The Journal of Clinical Investigation, 116 (3), 561-570. doi: 10.1172/JCI27987
Diamond, M.C. (1985). Rat forebrain morphology: Right-left; male-female; young-old, enriched-impoverished. In S.D. Glick (Ed.) Cerebral Lateralization in Nonhuman Primates (pp. 73-86) . Orlando, Academic Press.
Diamond, M.C. (1991). Environmental influences on the young brain. In K.R. Gibson and A.C. Peterson (Eds.), Brain Maturation and Cognitive Development (pp. 107-124). New York: Aldine De Gruyter.

Diep, Q.N., Touyz, R.M., Schiffrin, E.L. (2000). Proliferator–activated aeceptor-α ligand, induces apoptosis in vascular smooth muscle cells by stimulation of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase. Hypertension, 36 (5), 851-855. Retrieved from http://hyper.ahajournals.org/cgi/reprint/36/5/851.pdf
Dusart, I, Airaksinen, M.S., & Sotelo, C. (1977). Purkinje cell survival and axonal regeneration are age dependent: An in vitro study. The Journal of Neuroscience, 17(10), 3710-3726. Retrieved from http://www.jneurosci.org/cgi/content/full/17/10/3710
Dutta-Roy, A.K. (2000). Transport mechanisms for long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in the human placenta. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 71 (1), 315-322.
Estrada, M., Varshney, A., & Ehrlich, B. E. (2006). Elevated testosterone induces apoptosis in neuronal cells. The Journal of Biological Chemistry, 281 , 25492-25501. doi: 10.1074/jbc.M603193200

Farooqui, A. A., Horrocks, L. A., & Farooqui, T. (2007). Modulation of inflammation in brain: A matter of fat. Journal of Neurochemistry, 101 (3), 577-99. doi: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2006.04371.x
Fatemi, S.H., Reutiman, T.J., Folsom, T.D., & Sidwell, R.W. (2008). The role of cerebellar genes in pathology of autism and schizophrenia. The Cerebellum, 7(3), 270-294. 10.1007/s12311-0017-0
Finlay, B., & Slattery, M. (1983). Local differences in the amount of early cell death in neocortex predict local specialization. Science, 219 (4590), 1349-1351. doi: 10.1126/science.6828866
Fitch, R. H., & Denenberg, V. H. (1998). A role for ovarian hormones in sexual differentiation of the brain. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 21 (3), 311-352. doi:10.1017/S0140525X98001216

Floyd, R. A., (1999). Neuroinflammatory processes are important in neurodegenerative diseases: An hypothesis to explain the increased formation of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species as major factors involved in neurodegenerative disease development. Free Radical Biology and Medicine, 26 (9-10), 1346-1355. doi: 10.1016/S0891-5849(98)002937
Fogassi, L., & Ferrari, P. F. (2007). Mirror neurons and the evolution of embodied language. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16 (3), 136-141. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8721.2007.00491.x
Forest, M. G., Sizonenko, P. C., Cathiard, A. M., & Bertrand, J. (1974). Hypophyso-Gonadal function in humans during the first year of life. I. Evidence for testicular activity in early infancy. Journal of Clinical Investigation, 53 (3), 819-828. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC333063/pdf/jcinvest00640-0162.pdf

Freedman, R., Coon, H., Myles-Worsley, M., Orr-Urtreger, A., Olincy, A., & Davis, A. (1997). Linkage of a neurophysiological deficit in schizophrenia to a chromosome 15 locus. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA. 94 (2), 587-592. Retrieved from http://www.pnas.org/content/94/2/587.full
Gähwiler, B.H. (1983). The action of neuropeptides on the bioelectric activity of hippocampal neurons. In W. Seifert (Ed.), Neurobiology of the Hippocampus (pp. 157-1730. San Diego, Academic Press.
Gaillard, W.D., Balsamo, L., Ibrahim, Z., & Xu, B. (2003). fMRI identifies regional specialization of neural networks for reading in young children. Neurology, 60 (1), 94-99.
Gao, F., Levine, S.C., & Huttenlocher, J. (2000). What do infants know about continuous quantity? Journal of Experimental Child Psychology , 77 (1), 20-29. doi: 10.1006/jecp.1999.2556

Garcia, M., Ward, G., Ma, Y.C., Salem, N. Jr., Kim, H.-Y. (1998). Effect of docosahexaenoic acid on the synthesis of phosphatidylserine in rat brain microsomes and C6 glioma cells. Journal of Neurochemistry, 70 (1), 24-30.
Gervasini, G., Carrillo, J.A., & Benitez, J. (2004). Potential role of cerebral cytochrome P450 in clinical pharmacokinetics: Modulation by endogenous compounds. Clinical Pharmacokinetics, 43(11), 693-706. Retrieved from http://pdfs.journals.adisonline.com/pharmacokinetics/2004/43110/Potential_Role_of_Cerebral_Cytochrome_P450_in.1.pdf
Geyer, M.A., Wilkinson, L.S., Humby, T., & Robbins, T.W. (1993). Isolation rearing of rats produces a deficit in prepulse inhibition of acoustic startle similar to that in schizophrenia. Biological Psychiatry, 34 (6), 361-372.

Giedd, J.N., Snell, J.W., Lange, N., Rajapakse, J.C., Casey, B.J., … Rapoport, J.L. (1996). Quantitative magnetic resonance imaging of human brain development:Ages 4-18. Cerebral cortex, 6 (4), 551-560. doi:10.1093/cercor/6.4.551
Gill, M. (2010). Evidence that genetic variation in the oxytocin receptor (OXTR) gene influences social cognition in ADHD. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry, 34 (4), 697-702. doi:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2010.03.029
Giltay, E.J., Gooren, L.J.G., Toorians, A.W.F.T., Katan, M.B., & Zock, P.L. (2004). Docosahexaenoic acid concentrations are higher in women than in men because of estrogenic effects. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 80 (5), 1167-1174. Retrieved from http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/reprint/80/5/1167
Gogtay, N., Giedd, J.N., Lusk, L., Hayashi, K.M., Greenstein, D., Vaituzis, A.C., … Thompson, P.M. (2004). Dynamic mapping of human cortical development during childhood through early adulthood. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA, 101 (21), 8174-8179. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0402680101

Goldstein, J.M., Jerram, M., Abbs, B., Whitfield-Gabrieli, S., Makris, N. (2010). Sex differences in stress response circuitry activation dependent on female hormone cycle. Journal of Neuroscience, 30 (2), 431-438. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3021-09.2010
Green, P., & Yavin, E. (1998). Mechanisms of arachidonic acid and Docosahexaenoic acid accretion in the fetal brain. Journal of Neuroscience Research, 52 (2), 129-136. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1097-4547(19980415)52:2<129::AID-JNR1>3.0.CO;2-C
Greenfield, P., Maynard, A., Boehm, C., & Yut, E. (2000). Cultural apprenticeship and cultural change: Tool learning and imitation in chimpanzees and humans. In S.T. Parker, J. Langer, & M.L. McKinney (Eds.), Biology, brains, and behaviour (pp. 237–770). Santa Fe: SAR Press.

Greenough, W., & Chang, F.-L.F. (1988). Plasticity of synapse structure and pattern in the cerebral cortex. In A. Peters and E. Jones (Eds.), Cerebral Cortex. Vol. 7. (pp. 231-277). New York: Plenum.
Greenough, W.T., & Volkmar, F.R. (1973). Pattern of dendrite branching in occipital cortex of rats reared in complex environments. Experimental Neurology, 40 (2), 491-504. doi: 10.1016/0014-4886(73)90090-3
Gregory, S. G., Connelly, J. J., Towers, A. J., Johnson, J., Biscocho, D., Markunas, C. A., … Pericak-Vance, M. A. (2009). Genomic and epigenetic evidence for oxytocin receptor deficiency in autism. BMC Medicine, 7 (62), 1-13. doi:10.1186/1741-7015-7-62
Gyllenstein, L., Malmfors, T., & Norrlin, M.-L. (1966). Growth alteration in the auditory cortex of visually deprived mice. Journal of Comparative Neurology, 126 (3), 463-470. doi: 10.1002/cne.901260308

Haag, M. (2003). Essential fatty acids and their role in the treatment of impulsivity disorders. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes, and Essential Fatty Acids, 71 (4), 195-203. doi:10.1016/j.plefa.2004.03.006
Hall, G.B.C., Szechtman, H., & Nahmias, C. (2003). Enhanced salience and emotion recognition in autism: A PET study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 160 (8) , 1439-1441. http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/reprint/160/8/1439
Hall,S., & Binneman, J. (1987). Later stone age burial variability in the Cape: A social interpretation. The South African Archaeological Bulletin 42 (146), 140-152. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3888740
Hamilton, A.F., & Grafton, S.T. (2008). Action outcomes are represented in human inferior frontoparietal cortex. Cerebral Cortex, 18 (5), 1160-1168. doi: 10.1093/cercor/bhm150

Hamilton, J., Greiner, R., Salem, N., Jr., and Kim, H.-Y. (2000). n-3 Fatty acid deficiency decreases phosphatidylserine accumulation selectively in neuronal tissues. Lipids, 35 (8), 863–869. doi: 10.1007/S11745-000-0595-x
Harlow, H. (1974). Induction and alleviation of depressive states in monkeys. In N.F. White (Ed.), Ethology and Psychiatry (pp. 197-204). Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
Harlow, H., & Harlow, M.K. (1965). Effects of various mother-infant relationships on rhesus monkey behaviors. In B.M Foss (Ed.), Determinants of Infant Behaviour, Vol. 4. (pp. 15-36). London: Methuen.
Harrison, P. M., Zheng, D., Zhang, Z., Carriero, N., & Gerstein, M. (2005). Transcribed processed pseudogenes in the human genome: An intermediate form of expressed retrosequence lacking protein-coding ability. Nucleic Acids Research, 33 (8), 2374-2383. http://nar.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/33/8/2374

Hashimoto, M., Tanabe, Y., Fujii, Y., Kikuta, T., Shibata, H., & Shido, O. (2005). Chronic administration of docosahexaenoic acid ameliorates the impairment of spatial cognition learning ability in amyloid ß–infused rats. Journal of Nutrition, 135 (3), 549-555. Retrieved from http://jn.nutrition.org/cgi/content/full/135/3/549
Henshilwood, C. S., & Marean, C. W. (2006). Remodelling the origins of modern human behaviour . In H. Soodyall (Ed.), The Prehistory of Africa: Tracing the lineage of modern man (pp. 31-46). Cape Town, South Africa: Jonathan Ball.
Henshilwood, C.S., & d’Errico, F. (2005). Being modern in the Middle Stone Age: Individuals and innovation. In C. Gamble & M. Porr (Eds.), The Individual hominid in context: Archaeological investigations of Lower and Middle Palaeolithic landscapes, locales and artefacts (pp. 244-264). London: Routledge.
Hirayama, S., Hamazaki, T., & Terasawa, K. (2004). The effect of docosahexaenoic acid-containing food administration on symptoms of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder – a placebo-controlled double-blind study. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 58, 467–473. doi:10.1038/sj.ejcn.1601830

Horrocks, L. A., & Yeo, Y. K. (1999). Health benefits of Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). Pharmacologic Research, 40 (3), 211-225. doi: 10.1006/phrs.1999.0495
Horrocks, L.A., & Farooqui, A.A. (2004). Docosahexaenoic acid in the diet: Its importance in maintenance and restoration of neural membrane function. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes and Essential Fatty Acids, 70 (4), 361-372. doi: 10.1016/j.plefa.2003.12.011
Hubel, D.H., & Wiesel, T.N. (1968). Receptive fields and functional architecture of monkey striate cortex. Journal of Physiolog y, 795 , 215-243. Retrieved from http://jp.physoc.org/content/195/1/215.full.pdf+html
Humphrey, L.T. (1998). Growth patterns in the modern human skeleton. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 105 (1), 57-72. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1096-8644(199801)105:1<57::AID-AJPA6>3.0.CO;2-A

Huttenlocher, P.R. (1990). Morphometric study of human cerebral cortex development. Neuropsychologia, 28 (6), 517-27. doi: 10.1016/0028-3932(90)90031-1
Iacoboni, M. & Dapretto, M. (2006). The mirror neuron system and the consequences of dysfunction. Nature Reviews Neuroscience. 7 , 942-951. doi:10.1038/nrn2024
Iacoboni, M. (2007). Face to Face: The neural basis of social mirroring and empathy. Psychiatric Annals, 37 (4), 236-241.
Iacoboni, M. (2009). Imitation, empathy, and mirror neurons. Annual Review of Psychology, 60 , 653-670. doi: 10.1146/annurev.psych.60.110707.163604
Ikemoto, A., Kobayashi, T., Watanabe, S., & Okuyama, H. (1997). Membrane fatty acid modifications of PC12 cells by arachidonate or docosahexanoate affect neurite outgrowth by not norepinephrine release. Neurochemical Research, 22 , 671-678.

Ingudomnukul, E., Baron-Cohen, S., Wheelwright, S., & Knickmeyer, R. (2007). Elevated rates of testosterone-related disorders in women with autism spectrum conditions. Hormones and Behaviour, 51(5), 597-604. doi: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2007.02.001
Innis, S.M. (2003). Perinatal biochemistry and physiology of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids [Figure 1]. Journal of Pediatrics, 143 (4), 51-58. doi: 10.1067/S0022-3476(03)00396-2
Itokazu, N., Ikegaya, Y., Nishikawa, M., & Matsuki, N. (2000). Bidirectional actions of docosahexaenoic acid on hippocampal neurotransmissions in vivo. Brain Research, 862 (1-2), 211–216. doi: 10.1016/S0006-8993(00)02129-6
Jain, A., Concato, J., & Leventhal, J.M. (2002). How good is the evidence linking breastfeeding and intelligence? Pediatrics, 9 (6), 1044-1053.

Jeffery, B.G., Waisinger, H.S., Nauringer, M. & Mitchell, D.C. (2001). The role of docosahexaenoic acid in retinal function. Lipids, 36 (9), 859-871.
Jensen, C.L, Voigt, R.G., Prager, T.C., Zou, Y.L., Fraley, J.K., Rozelle, J.C., … Heird, W.C. (2005). Effects of maternal Docosahexaenoic acid intake on visual function and neurodevelopment in breastfed term infants. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 82 (1), 125-132. Retrieved from http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/content/full/82/1/125
Jensen, C.L., Maude, M., Anderson, R.E. & Heird, W.C. (2000) Effects of docosahexaenoic acid supplementation of lactating women on the fatty acid composition of breast milk lipids and maternal and infant plasma phospholipids. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 71 (1), 292S-299S. Retrieved from http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/content/full/71/1/292S
Joseph, R. (1982). The Neuropsychology of Development: Hemispheric Laterality, Limbic Language, and the Origin of Thought. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 38 (1), 4-33. doi: 10.1002/1097-4679(198201)38:1<4::AID-JCLP2270380102>3.0.CO;2-J

Joseph, R. (1992). The Limbic System: Emotion, Laterality, and Unconscious Mind. Psychoanalytic Review, 79 (3), 405-456.
Joseph, R. (1996). Limbic language, social-emotional intelligence, development and attachment. In R. Joseph, Neuropsychiatry, Neuropsychology, Clinical Neuroscience: Emotion, Evolution, Cognition, Language, Memory, Brain Damage, and Abnormal Behaviour (pp. 235-267) . Baltimore, MD: Williams & Wilkins.
Judge, M.P., Harel, O., & Lamni-Keefe, C.J. (2007). Maternal consumption of a Docosahexaenoic acid-containing functional food during pregnancy: Benefit for infant performance on problem-solving but not on recognition memory tasks at age 9 mo. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 85 (6), 1572-1577. http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/reprint/85/6/1572

Kalia, A.A., Legge, G.E., & Giudice, N.A. (2008). Learning building layouts with non-geometric visual information: The effects of visual impairment and age. Perception , 37 (11), 1677-1699. http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/reprint/85/6/1572
Kan, I., Melamed, E., Offen, D., & Green, P. (2007). Docosahexaenoic acid and arachidonic acid are fundamental supplements for the induction of neuronal differentiation. Journal of Lipid Research, 48 (3), 513-517. doi: 10.1194/jlr.C600022-JLR200
Kane, P.C., & Kane, E. (1997), Journal of Orthomolecular Medicine, 12(4),
Kanner, L. (1943). Autistic disturbances of affective contact. Nervous Child, 2 , 217-50. Retrieved from http://www.neurodiversity.com/library_kanner_1943.html
Kanner, L. (1949). Problems of nosology and psychodynamics in early childhood autism. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 19 (3), 416–426.
Kawakita, E., Hashimoto, M., & Shido O. (2006). Docosahexaenoic acid promotes neurogenesis in vitro and in vivo. Neuroscience. 139 (3), 991–997. doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2006.01.021

Keller, F., Panteri, R., & Biamonte, F. (2010). Interaction between genetic vulnerability and neurosteriods in Purkinje cells as a possible neurological mechanism in autism spectrum disorders. In A.W. Zimmerman (Ed.), Autism: Current theories and evidence (pp. 209-231). Totowa, NJ: Humana Press.
Kern, J.K., & Jones, A.M. (2006). Evidence of toxicity, oxidative stress, and neuronal insult in autism. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, Part B, 9 , 485-499. doi: 10.1080/10937400600882079
Kim, H. Y., Akbar, M., & Kim, K. (2001). Inhibition of neuronal apoptosis by polyunsaturated fatty acids. Journal of Molecular Neuroscience, 16 (2-3), 223-227. doi: 10.1385/JMN:16:2-3:223
Kim, H. Y., Akbar, M., Lau, A., & Edsall, L. (2000). Inhibition of neuronal apoptosis by docosahexaenoic acid (22:6n-3). Role of phosphatidylserine in antiapoptotic effect. Journal of Biological Chemistry, 275 , 35215-35223. doi: 10.1074/jbc.M004446200

Kim, H.-Y. (2007). Novel metabolism of Docosahexaenoic acid in neural cells. Journal of Biological Chemistry, 282 (26), 18661-18665. doi:10.1074/jbc.R700015200
Klein, K.O., Baron, J., Colli, M.J., McDonnell, D.P., & Cutler, G.B. (1994). Estrogen levels in childhood determined by ultrasensitive recombinant cell bioassay. The Journal of Clinical Investigation, (94) 6, 2475-2480. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC330080/pdf/jcinvest00490-0305.pdf
Kling, A. (1972). Effects of amygdalectomy on social-affective behavior in non-human primates. In B.E. Eleftherious (Ed.), The Neurobiology of the Amygdala (pp.511-536). New York: Plenum Press.
Koechlin, E., Dehaene, S., & Mehler, J. (1997). Numerical transformations in five-month old human infants. Mathematical Cognition, 3 (2), 89-104. Retrieved from http://www.unicog.org/publications/KoechlinDehaene_InfantNumericalTransformations_MathCognition1997.pdf

Koo, W.W.K. (2003). Efficacy and safety of docosahexaenoic acid and arachidonic acid addition to infant formulas: Can one buy better vision and intelligence? Journal of the American College of Nutrition, 22 (2), 101-107. Retrieved from http://www.jacn.org/cgi/content/full/22/2/101
Kritzer, M.F. (2006). Regional, laminar and cellular distribution of immunoreactivity for ERβ in the cerebral cortex of hormonally intact, postnatally developing male and female rats. Cerebral Cortex, 16 (8), 1181-1192. doi: 10.1093/cercor/bhj059
Lammi-Keefe, C.J., Rozowski, J., Parodi, C.G, Sobrevia, L., & Foncea, R. (2008). Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) supplementation benefits pregnancy complicated with gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM). The FASEB Journal, 22, 702-731.
Lee, J.T. (2003). Molecular biology: Complicity of gene and pseudogene. Nature , 423 , 26-28. doi: 10.1038/423026a

Lennenberg, E.H. (1984). Biological foundations of language . New York: Krieger. (Original publication 1967)
Licastro, F., Candore, G., Lio, D., Porcellini, E., Colona-Romano, G., Franceschi, C., Caruso, C. (2005). Innate immunity and inflammation in ageing: A key for understanding age-related diseases. Immunity & Ageing, 2(8), 1-14. doi:10.1186/1742-4933-2-8
Lin, C.-S., & Haas, J.H. (1980). Effects of monocular deprivation on geniculocoritcal pathways in the owl monkey, Aotus trivirgatus . Neuroscience Letters, 18 (3), 267-273. doi:10.1016/0304-3940(80)90296-7
Liu, X-Q., Paterson, A.D., Szatman, P., & The Autistic Genome Project Consortium. (2008). Genome-wide linkage analyses of quantitative and categorical autism subphenotypes [Figure 3]. Biological Psychiatry, 64 (7), 561-570. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2008.05.023

Luine V.N., Jacome L.F., & Maclusky, N.J. (2003). Rapid enhancement of visual and place memory by estrogens in rats. Endocrinology, 144 (7), 2836–2844. doi:10.1210/en.2003-0004
Lukiw, W.J., Cui, J.-G., Marcheselli, V.L., Bodker, M., Botkjaer, A., Gotlinger, K., … Bazan, N.G. (2005). A role for Docosahexaenoic acid-derived neuroprotectin D1 in neural cell survival and Alzheimer’s disease. Journal of Clinical Investigation, 115 (10), 2774-2783. doi:10.1172/JCI25420
Ma, Z.Q., Spreafico, E., Polio, G., Santagati, S., Conti, E., Cattaneo, E. & Maggi, A. (1993). Activated estrogen receptor mediates growth arrest and differentiation of a neuroblastoma cell line. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA, 90(8), 3740-3744. Retrieved from http://www.pnas.org/content/90/8/3740.full.pdf+html

MacLusky, N.J. Walters, M.J., Clark, A.S., & Toran-Allerand, C.D. (1994). Aromatase in the cerebral cortex, hippocampus, mid-brain: Ontogeny and developmental implications. Molecular and Cellular Neuroscience, 5 (6), 691-698. doi: 10.1006/mcne.1994.1083
Main, K.M., Schmidt, I.M., & Skakkebæk, N.E. (2000). A Possible role for reproductive hormones in newborn boys: Progressive hypogonadism without the postnatal testosterone peak. The Journal of Endocrinology and Metabolism, 85 (12), 4905-4907. Retrieved from http://jcem.endojournals.org/cgi/reprint/85/12/4905
Makrides, M., Gibson, R.A., McPhee, A.J., Collins, C.T., Davis, P.G., Doyle, L.W., … Ryan P. (2009). Neurodevelopmental outcomes of preterm infants fed high-dose docosahexaenoic acid. Journal of the American Medical Association, 301 (2), 175-182. Retrieved from http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/reprint/301/2/175
McCarthy, M.M. (2008). Estradiol and the developing brain. Physiological Reviews, 88 (1), 91-124. doi: 10.1152/physrev.00010.2007

Meltzoff, A.N. & Brooks, R. (2007). Intersubjectivity before language: Three windows on preverbal sharing. In S. Bråten (Ed.), One being moved: From mirror neurons to empathy (pp. 149-174). Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamins.
Meltzoff, A.N. (2008). Roots of social cognition: The like-me framework. In D. Cicchetti & M.R. Gunnar (Eds.), Minnesota symposia on child psychology: Meeting the challenge of translational research in child psychology, Volume 35 (pp. 30-58). New York: Willey.
Mitchell, D.C., Niu, S.L., & Litman, B.J. (2003). Enhancement of G protein-coupled signaling by DHA phospholipids. Lipids, 38 (4), 437-443.
Montuschi, P., Barnes, P.J., & Roberts, L.J., II. (2004). Isoprostanes: Markers and mediators of oxidative stress. The FASEB Journal, 18 , 1791-1800.
Moore, S.A. (2001). Polyunsaturated fatty acid synthesis and release by brain-derived cells in vitro. Journal of Molecular Neuroscience, 16 (2-3), 195-200. doi: 10.1385/JMN:16:2-3:195

Morris, M.C., Evans, D.A., Bienias, J.L., Tangney, C.C., Bennett, D.A., Wilson, R.S. … Schneider, J. (2003). Consumption of fish and n-3 fatty acids and risk of incident Alzheimer disease. A rchives of Neurology, 60 (7), 940-946. Retrieved from http://www.uvm.edu/~rsingle/stat380/F04/papers/Morris+ArchNeurol-2003_Fish-APOE+Alzheimers.pdf
Mukai, H., Tsurugizawa, T., Murakami, G., Kominami, S., Ishii, H., Ogiue-Ikeda, M., … Kawato, S. (2007). Rapid modulation of long-term depression and spinogenesis via synaptic estrogen receptors in hippocampal principal neurons. Journal of Neurochemistry, 100 (4), 950-967. doi: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2006.04264.x
Mukamel, R., Ekstrom, A.D., Kaplan, J., Iacoboni, M., & Fried, I. (2010). Single-neuron responses in humans during execution and observation of actions. Current Biology, 20 (8), 750–756. doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2010.02.045

Mukherjee, P.K., Marcheselli, V.L., Serhan, C.N., & Bazan, N.G. (2004). Neuroprotecin D1: A docosahexaenoic acid-derived docosatriene protects human retinal pigment epithelial cells from oxidative stress. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA, 101 (22), 8491-8496. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0402531101
Nissenson, R., Flouret, G., & Hechter, O. (1978). Opposing effects of Estradiol and progesterone on oxytocin receptors in rabbit uterus. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA, 75 (4), 2044-2048. http://www.pnas.org/content/75/4/2044.full.pdf+html
Novak, E.M., Dyer, R.A., & Innis, S.M. (2008). High dietary n-6 fatty acids contribute to reduced Docosahexaenoic acid in the developing brain and inhibit secondary neurite growth. Brain Research, 1237 (27), 136-145. doi: 10.1016/j.brainres.2008.07.107

Okada, M., Amamoto, T., Tomonaga, M., Kawachi, A, Yazawa, K., Mine, K. & Fujiwara, M. (1996). The chronic administration of Docosahexaenoic acid reduces the spatial cognitive deficit following transient forebrain ischemia in rats. Neuroscience, 71 (1), 17-25. doi: 10.1016/0306-4522(95)00427-0
Okkelova, J., Hodosy, J., Celec, P., Gazi, A., Caganova, M., Beder, I., & Ostatnikova, D. (2003). Testosterone effect on spatial memory in experiment. Homeostasis, 42 (5), 245-254. Retrieved from http://biomed.wz.cz/pdf/publ/Testosterone%20effect%20on%20spatial%20memory%20in%20experiment.pdf
Penfield, W. & Roberts, L. (1959). Speech and brain mechanisms . New York: Atheneum.
Phillis, J.W., Horrocks, L.A., & Farooqui, A.A. (2006). Cyclooxygenases, lipoxygenases, and epoxygenases in CNS: Their role and involvement in neurological disorders. Brain Research Reviews, 52 (2), 201–243. doi: 10.1016/j.brainresrev.2006.02.002

Poling, J.S., Vicini, S., Rogawski, M.A., & Salem, N., Jr. (1996). Docosahexaenoic acid block of neuronal voltage-gated K+ channels: Subunit selective antagonism by zinc. Neuropharmacology, 35 (7) , 969–982. doi: 10.1016/0028-3908(96)00127-x
Poliseno, L., Salmena, L., Zhang, J., Carver, B., Haveman, W.J., & Pandolfi, P.P. (2010). A coding-independent function of gene and pseudogene mRNAs regulates tumour biology. Nature, 465 , 1033–1038. doi: 10.1038/nature09144
Protopopescu, X., Tuescher, O., Pan, H., Epstein, J., Root, J., Chang, L. … Silbersweig, D. (2007). Toward a functional neuroanatomy of premenstrual dysphoric disorder. Journal of Affective Disorders, 108 (1), 87-94. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2007.09.015
Qin, Y., Carter, C.S., Silk, E.M., Stenger, V.A., Fissell, K., Goode, A., & Anderson, J.R. (2004). The change of the brain activation patterns as children learn algebra equation solving. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA, 10 (15), 5686-91. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0401227101

Quesada, A., Lee, B.Y., & Micevych, P.E. (2009). PI3 kinase/Akt activation mediates estrogen and IGF-1 nigral DA neuronal neuroprotection against a unilateral rat model of Parkinson’s disease. Developmental Neurobiology, 65 (8), 632-644. doi: 10.1002/dneu.20609
Rasumussen, J., Torres-Aleman, I., McLusky, N., Naftolin, F., & Robbins, R. (1990). The effects of estradiol on the growth patterns of estrogen receptor-positive hypothalamic cell line. Endocrinology, 126 (1), 235-240. doi: 10.1210/endo-126-1-235
Richardson, A.J. (2006). Omega-3 fatty acids in ADHA and related neurodevelopmental disorders. International Review of Psychiatry, 18 (2), 155-172. doi: 10.1080/09540260600583031
Rizzolatti, G., & Destro, M.F. (2007). Understanding actions and the intention of others: The basic neural mechanism. European Review, 15 (2), 209-227. doi: 10.1017/S1062798707000221

Roos, E.M., McDuffie, A.S., Weismer, S.E., & Gernsbacher, M.A. (2008). A comparison of contexts for assessing joint attention in toddlers on the autism spectrum. Autism, 12 (3), 275-291. doi:10.1177/1362361307089521
Rubinow, D.R., Smith, M.J., Schenkel, LA., Schmidt, P.J., & Dancer, K. (2007). Facial emotion discrimination across the menstrual cycle in women with premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD) and controls. Journal of Affective Disorders, 104 (1), 37-44. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2007.01.031
Rutter, M., Andersen-Wood, L., Beckett, C., Bredenkamp, D., Castle, J., Groothues, C. … O’Connor, T.G. and English and Romanian Adoptees (ERA) Study Team. (1999). Quasi-autistic patterns following severe early global privation. English and Romanian Adoptees (ERA) Study Team. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 40 (4), 537–549. doi:10.1017/S0021963099003935

Sachs, B.C., & Gaillard, W.D. (2003). Organization of language networks in children: Functional magnetic resonance imaging studies. Current Neurology and Neuroscience Reports, 3 (2), 157-162. doi:10.1007/s11910-003-0068-z
Salem, N., Jr., Litman, B., Kim, H.-Y., & Gawrisch, K. (2001). Mechanisms of action of Docosahexaenoic acid in the nervous system. Lipids, 6 (9), 945-959. doi:10.1007/s11745-001-0805-6
Sapolsky, R. M. (1992). Stress, the aging brain, and the mechanisms of neuron death. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Schevon, C.A., Carlson, C., Zaroff, C.M., Weiner, H.J., Doyle, W.K., Miles, D., … Devinsky, O. (2007). Pediatric language mapping: Sensitivity of neurostimulation and Wada testing in epilepsy surgery. Epilepsia, 48 (3), 539–545. doi:10.1111/j.1528-1167.2006.00962.x

Schmitz, C., & Rezaie, P. (2008). The neuropathology of autism: Where do we stand? Neuropathology and Applied Neurobiology, 34 (1), 4–11. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2990.2007.00872.x
Schultz, S.T., Klonoff-Cohen, H.S., Wingard, D.I., Akshoomoff, N.A., Macera, C.A., Ming, J., & Bacher, C. (2006). Breastfeeding, infant formula supplementation, and autistic disorder: The results of a parent survey. International Breastfeeding Journal, 1 (16), 1-7. doi:10.1186/1746-4358-1-16
Sebastian, S., & Bulun, S. (2001). Genetics of endocrine disease: A highly complex organization of the regulatory region of the human CYP19 (aromatase) gene revealed by the Human Genome Project. The Journal of Endocrinology & Metabolism, 86 (10), 4600-4602. Retrieved from http://jcem.endojournals.org/cgi/reprint/86/10/4600

Shmuelof, L., & Zohary, E. (2007). Watching others’ actions: Mirror representation in the parietal cortex. The Neuroscientist, 13 (6), 667-672. doi:10.1177/1073858407302457
Simpson, E.R., Mahendroo, M.S., Means, G.D., Kilgore, M.W., Hinshelwood, M.M., Graham-Lorence, S., … Bulun, S.E. (1994). Aromatase cytochrome P450, the enzyme responsible for estrogen biosynthesis. Endocrine Reviews, 15 (3), 342-355. doi: 10.1210/erdv-15-3-342
Sinopoli, K.J., Floresco, S.B., & Galea, L.A. (2006). Systemic and local administration of estradiol into the prefrontal cortex or hippocampus differentially alters working memory. Neurobiology Learning and Memory, 86 (3), 293–304. doi:10.1016/j.nlm.2006.04.003
Smith, L.E., Greenberg, J.S., Seltzer, M.M., & Hong, J. (2008). Symptoms and behavior problems of adolescents and adults with autism: effects of mother-child relationship quality, warmth, and praise. American Journal of Mental Retardation, 113 (5), 387-402. doi:10.1352/2008.113:387-402

Smith, T.M., Toussaint, M., Reid, D.J., Olejniczak, A.J., & Hublin, J.J. (2007). Rapid dental development in a Middle Paleolithic Belgian Neanderthal. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA, 104 (51), 20220–20225. doi:10.1073/pnas.0707051104
Sohr-Preston, S.L., & Scaramella, L.V. (2006). Implications of timing of maternal depression for early cognitive and language development. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 9 (1), 65-83. doi: 10.1007/s10567-006-0004-2
Sowell, E.R., Thompson, P.M., Holmes, C.J., Batth, R., Jernigan, T.L., & Toga, A.W. (1999). Localizing age-related changes in brain structure between childhood and adolescence using statistical parametric mapping. NeuroImage, 9 (6), 587-597. doi:10.1006/nimg.1999.0436
Starkey, P. (1992). The early development of numerical reasoning. Cognition, 43 (2), 93-126. doi: 10.1016/0010-0277(92)90034-F

Stein, M.B., Hannah, C., Koverloa, C., & McClarty, B. (1995). Neuroanatomic and cognitive correlates of early abuse. American Psychiatric Association Syllabus and Proceedings Summary, 148, 113.
Szajewska, H., Hovarth, A., & Koletzko, B. (2006). Effect of n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation of women with low-risk pregnancies on pregnancy outcomes and growth measures at birth: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 83 (6), 1337-1344. Retrieved from http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/reprint/83/6/1337.pdf
Takahashi, M., Fukutake, M., Isoi, T., Fukuda, K., Sato, H., Yazawa, K., … Wakabayashi, K. (1997). Suppression of azoxymethane-induced rat colon carcinoma development by a fish oil component, docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). Carcinogenesis, 18 (7), 1337-1342. Retrieved from http://carcin.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/18/7/1337

Tansey, K. E., Brookes, K. J., Hill, M. J., Cochrane, L. E., Gill, M., Skuse, D. … Anney, R. J. L. (2010). Oxytocin receptor (OXTR) does not play a major role in the aetiology of autism: Genetic and molecular studies. Neuroscience Letters, 474 (3), 163-167. doi: 10.1016/j.neulet.2010.03.035
The Autism Genome Project Consortium. (2007). Mapping autism risk loci using genetic linkage and chromosomal rearrangements. Nature Genetics, 39 (3), 319-328. doi: 10.1038/ng1985
Trainor, B.C., Lin, S., Finy, M.S., Rowland, M.R., & Nelson, R.J. (2007). Photoperiod reverses the effects of estrogens on male aggression via genomic and nongenomic pathways. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA, 104(23), 9840-9845. 10.1073/pnas.0701819104
Tustin, F. (1991). Revised understandings of psychogenic autism. International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 72 , 585-591. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1797714

Uz, T., Dwivedi, Y. Savani, P.D., Impagnatiello, F., Pandey, G., & Manev, H. (1999). Glucocorticoids stimulate inflammatory 5-lipoxygenase gene expression and protein translocation in the brain. Journal of Neurochemistry, 73 (2), 693-699. doi: 10.1046/j.1471-4159.1999.0730693.x
van der Zwaag, B., Franke, L., Poot, M., Hochstenbach, R., Spierenburg, H.A., Vorstman, J.A.S., … Staal, W.G. (2009). Gene-network identifies susceptibility genes related to glycobiology in autism. PLoS ONE, 4 (5), 1-10. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0005324
van Kooten, I.A.J., Palmen, S.J.M.C., von Cappeln, P., Steinbusch, H.W.M, Korr, H., Heinsen, H. … Schmitz, C. (2008). Neurons inthe fusiform gyrus are fewer and smaller in autism. Brain, 131 (4), 987-999. doi: 10.1093/brain/awn033.

Vargas, D.L., Nascimbene, C., Krisnan, C., Zimmerman, A.W., & Pardo, C.A. (2004). Neuroglial activation and neuroinflammation in the brain of patients with autism. Annals of Neurology, 57 (1), 67-81. Retrieved from http://www.edtasuppositories.com/studies/autism/vargas.pdf
Vermunt, S.H.F., Mensink, R.P., Simonis, A.M.G., & Hornstra, G. (1999). Effects of age and dietary n-3 fatty acids on the metabolism of [13C]-a-linolenic acid. Lipids 34 (1), S127. doi: 10.1007/BF02562259
Voigt, E. (1973). Stone Age molluscan utilization at Klasies river mouth caves. South African Journal of Science , 69 , 306-309.
Voigt, R.G., Llorente, A.M., Jensen, C.L., Fraley, J.K., Berretta, M.C., & Heird, W.C. (2001). A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of docosahexaenoic acid supplementation in children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Pediatrics, 139 (2), 189-196. Retrieved from http://www.tdah-andalucia.es/tdah/OMEGA32.pdf

Vrbíková, J. Tallová, J., Bicíková, M., Dvoraková, K., Hill, M., & Stárka, L. (2003). Plasma thiols and androgen levels in polycystic ovary syndrome. Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine, 41 (2), 216-221. doi: 10.1515/CCLM.2003.035
Vreugdenhil, M., Bruehl, C., Voskuyl, R.A., Kang, J.X., Leaf, A., & Wadman, W.J. (1996). Polyunsaturated fatty acids modulate sodium and calcium currents in CA1 neurons. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA, 93 (22), 12559–12563. Retrieved from http://www.pnas.org/content/93/22/12559.full.pdf+html
Walsh, R.N., Budtz-Olsen, O.E., Penny, J., & Cummins, R.A. (1969). The effects of environmental complexity on the histology of the rat hippocampus. Journal of Comparative Neurology, 137 (3), 261-266. doi: 10.1002/cne.901370309

Watson, J.B. (1976) Psychological care of the infant and child . New York: Norton. (Originally published 1928).
Weylandt, K.H., & Kang, J.X. (2005) Rethinking lipid mediators. Lancet, 366 (9486), 618-620.
Williams, J.H., Waiter, G.D., Gilchrist, A., Perrett, D.I., Murray, A.D., & Whiten, A. (2006). Neural mechanisms of imitation and ‘mirror neuron’ functioning in autistic spectrum disorder. Neuropsychologia, 44 (4), 610-621. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2005.06.010
Williams, J.H., Whiten, A., Suddendorf, T., & Perrett, D. (2001). Imitation, mirror neurons, and autism. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Review, 25 (4), 287-295. doi: 10.1016/S0149-7634(01)00014-8

Wissing, D., Mouritzen, H., Egeblad, M., Poirier, G.G., & Jaeaettelae, M. (1997). Involvement of caspase-dependent activation of cytosolic phospholipase A 2 in tumour necrosis factor-induced apoptosis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA, 94 (10), 5073-5077. http://www.pnas.org/content/94/10/5073.full
Wolf, M.M., Risley, T.R., Johnston, M. Harris, F., & Allen, E. (1967). Application of operant conditioning procedures to the behavior problems of an autistic child: A follow-up and extension. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 5 (2) , 103-111. doi: 10.1016/0005-7967(67)90004-6
Woolley, C.S. (2007). Acute effects of estrogen on neuronal physiology. Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology, 47 , 657-680.

Wright, B., Clarke, N., Jordan, J., Young, A.W., Clarke, P., Miles, J. … Williams, C. (2008). Emotion recognition in faces and the use of visual context in young people with high-functioning autism spectrum disorders. Autism, 12 (6), 607-626. doi: 10.1177/1362361308097118
Wynn, K. (1992). Addition and subtraction by human infants. Nature, 358 , 749-750. doi:10.1038/358749a0
Wynn, K. (1995). Origins of numerical knowledge. Mathematical Cognition, 1 (1), 35-60.
Yakovlev, P.I., & Lecours, A.-R. (1967). The myelogenetic cycles of regional maturation of the brain. In A. Minkowski (Ed.), Regional Development of the Brain in Early Life (pp. 3-70). Oxford, UK: Blackwell Scientific.

Yamada, N., Kobatake, Y., Ikegami, S., Takita, T., Wada, M., Shimizu, J. … Innami, S. (1997). Changes in blood coagulation, platelet aggregation, and lipid metabolism in rats given lipids containing docosahexaenoic acid. Bioscience, biotechnology, and biochemistry 61 (9), 1454-1458. doi:10.1271/bbb.61.1454
Young, C., Gean, P.-W., Chiou, L.-C., & Shen, Y.-Z. (2000). Docosahexaenoic acid inhibits synaptic transmission and epileptiform activity in the rat hippocampus, Synapse , 37 (2), 90–94. doi: 10.1002/1098-2396(200008)37:2<90::AID-SYN2>3.0.CO;2-Z
Young, C., Gean, P.-W., Wu, S-P., Lin, C.-H., & Shen, Y.-Z. (1998) Cancellation of low frequency stimulation-induced long-term depression by docosahexaenoic acid in the rat hippocampus, Neuroscience Letters, 247 (2-3), 198–200. doi:10.1016/S0304-3940(98)00272-9
Zhang, L., Nair, A., Krady, K., Corpe, C., Bonnear, R.H., Simpson, I., & Vannucci, S.J. (2004). Estrogen stimulates microglia and brain recovery from hypoxia-ischemia in normoglycemic but not diabetic female mice. Journal of Clinical Investigations, 113 (1), 85-95. doi:10.1172/JCI18336

Early version of autistogenesis presentation -

by J Patrick Malone

Accessibility

Categories

Upload Details

Usage Rights

Statistics