Maendeleo ya Mjini na Shambani: Development Challenges of Urban and Rural Africa 06/04/09

Relationships between Urban and rural African realms Rural to Urban connections within the family Rural homes Urban homes support rural homes with income and access to medicine and other social services Rural Homes integral to urban food security and acculturation of children Rural/Urban Development relationship HTAs Labor migration remittance strategies Rural Strategies in modern cities Urban Agriculture Swaziland’s cities empty on weekends 06/04/09

Rural to Urban connections within the family

Rural homes

Urban homes support rural homes with income and access to medicine and other social services

Rural Homes integral to urban food security and acculturation of children

Rural/Urban Development relationship

HTAs

Labor migration remittance strategies

Rural Strategies in modern cities

Urban Agriculture

Swaziland’s cities empty on weekends

Origins of Africa’s cities Indigenous Origins Palace towns of west Africa (Timbuktu, Great Zimbabwe) Trade Towns ie Swahili City States (Mombassa) Islamic influenced “quartered” cities (P243) Colonial Cities Sometimes built on Indigenous city with city left intact Kano, Nigeria and Mombasa, Kenya Others rebuilt with European style (French) Cities built from Scratch in British/Boer settler colonies, (Nairobi, and “Outcast Capetown”, J.Westren 1981) Post-colonial Origin: Abuja, Nigeria 06/04/09

Indigenous Origins

Palace towns of west Africa (Timbuktu, Great Zimbabwe)

Trade Towns ie Swahili City States (Mombassa)

Islamic influenced “quartered” cities (P243)

Colonial Cities

Sometimes built on Indigenous city with city left intact Kano, Nigeria and Mombasa, Kenya

Others rebuilt with European style (French)

Cities built from Scratch in British/Boer settler colonies, (Nairobi, and “Outcast Capetown”, J.Westren 1981)

Post-colonial Origin: Abuja, Nigeria

Origins of Africa’s Cities 06/04/09

Rapid urban growth in post-colonial period Restrictions on movement to the colonial and Apartheid city Kipande (labor registration system in east Africa) and pass laws in Apartheid S.A. and southern Africa Enforced segregation along ethnic African, Asian and European lines By 1960 only 1 city of < 1million Johannesburg Today 30 cities <1M Today Africa is fastest urbanizing region in world 06/04/09

Restrictions on movement to the colonial and Apartheid city

Kipande (labor registration system in east Africa) and pass laws in Apartheid S.A. and southern Africa

Enforced segregation along ethnic African, Asian and European lines

By 1960 only 1 city of < 1million

Johannesburg

Today 30 cities <1M

Today Africa is fastest urbanizing region in world

Africa’s rapid urban growth Although it has the world’s fastest urban growth rates, the majority of Africans remain rural At independence only Lagos, Ibadan, Kinshasa, and Dakar had more than 300,000 Now 30 “million plus” cities South of Sahara Despite growth rates Africa’s cities are not among the world’s largest Africa has the least number of urban dwellers globally http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/spl/hi/world/06/urbanisation/html/urbanisation.stm 06/04/09

Although it has the world’s fastest urban growth rates, the majority of Africans remain rural

At independence only Lagos, Ibadan, Kinshasa, and Dakar had more than 300,000

Now 30 “million plus” cities South of Sahara

Despite growth rates Africa’s cities are not among the world’s largest

Africa has the least number of urban dwellers globally

http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/spl/hi/world/06/urbanisation/html/urbanisation.stm

Characteristics of urban Africa Primate cities-Dominant population, and political and economic power Nairobi Kampala Khartoum Kinshasa Presence of Shock cities Lagos Sometimes Cities grow in population rather than development with push factors greater than pull factors 06/04/09

Primate cities-Dominant population, and political and economic power

Nairobi

Kampala

Khartoum

Kinshasa

Presence of Shock cities

Lagos

Sometimes Cities grow in population rather than development with push factors greater than pull factors

Economic vitality of urban Africa varies Stagnating Cities Freetown, Mogadishu, Luanda Declined yet making comeback Kampala, Accra Biashara Beehives Nairobi, Abidjan, Lagos, and Douala Disparities exist within Africa’s cities Muthiaga and Mathare 06/04/09

Stagnating Cities

Freetown, Mogadishu, Luanda

Declined yet making comeback

Kampala, Accra

Biashara Beehives

Nairobi, Abidjan, Lagos, and Douala

Disparities exist within Africa’s cities

Muthiaga and Mathare

06/04/09

Structure of African urban economies Primary industries (extraction) Secondary Production (Processing) Tertiary Activities (services and sales) Quaternary activities (Govt and admin services) The “fifth sector”: Jua Kali Sector 06/04/09

Primary industries (extraction)

Secondary Production (Processing)

Tertiary Activities (services and sales)

Quaternary activities (Govt and admin services)

The “fifth sector”: Jua Kali Sector

The “fifth sector”: Jua Kali Sector Up to 90% in Jua Kali Sector Often overlooked by social scientists in development studies Small scale yet labor intensive manufacturing Petty trading Kumi Kumi brewing Matatus, Daladalas, Mammy Wagons Day laborers in construction House girls Prostitution Mitumba (Second Hand clothes selling) 06/04/09

Up to 90% in Jua Kali Sector

Often overlooked by social scientists in development studies

Small scale yet labor intensive manufacturing

Petty trading

Kumi Kumi brewing

Matatus, Daladalas, Mammy Wagons

Day laborers in construction

House girls

Prostitution

Mitumba (Second Hand clothes selling)

Expansion of both Jua Kali and “job seeker” sector Informal economy grows after being “SAP”ed by IMF/WB Problems of informal economy No social benefits No tax collected Links to organized crime Expansion of poverty Health issues Urban planning issues Threat to formal small businesses Hawker evictions 06/04/09

Informal economy grows after being “SAP”ed by IMF/WB

Problems of informal economy

No social benefits

No tax collected

Links to organized crime

Expansion of poverty

Health issues

Urban planning issues

Threat to formal small businesses

Hawker evictions

Access to Services If you are poor you actually pay more Water Richer get relatively affordable piped water Poor walk to public pump with a Jeri Can and still pay more Poor women responsible for getting water 06/04/09

If you are poor you actually pay more

Water

Richer get relatively affordable piped water

Poor walk to public pump with a Jeri Can and still pay more

Poor women responsible for getting water

Access to Services Cooking and household energy needs Rich have electricity or piped gas Poor have to use expensive charcoal and pay to have batteries charged Garbage and waste removal services Rich often given municipal waste removal with flush toilets Urban poor improvise yet still pay fines and fees 06/04/09

Cooking and household energy needs

Rich have electricity or piped gas

Poor have to use expensive charcoal and pay to have batteries charged

Garbage and waste removal services

Rich often given municipal waste removal with flush toilets

Urban poor improvise yet still pay fines and fees

Access to Services Opportunity more expensive for poor Security Rich pay dearly for security Poor at constant risk Health Rich often have connections and access to health schemes Poor pay out of pocket Are mobile phones becoming an equalizing technology? 06/04/09

Opportunity more expensive for poor

Security

Rich pay dearly for security

Poor at constant risk

Health

Rich often have connections and access to health schemes

Poor pay out of pocket

Are mobile phones becoming an equalizing technology?

Housing Urban Africa’s Dual Face Elite Housing Colonial then governing elite with some privately made wealth Middle Class Housing Some still govt provided Public housing schemes “ SAP”ed away Low Income housing Barracks housing for workers Family slums (Kiberia, Mathare) 06/04/09

Urban Africa’s Dual Face

Elite Housing

Colonial then governing elite with some privately made wealth

Middle Class Housing

Some still govt provided

Public housing schemes

“ SAP”ed away

Low Income housing

Barracks housing for workers

Family slums (Kiberia, Mathare)

Squatting, renting or owning Poor squat or rent or both at the same time in the slums Rich tend to own, but often rent in the city Most purchase in cash although housing finance schemes becoming more common especially for rich Poor don’t benefit from past housing subsidies 06/04/09

Poor squat or rent or both at the same time in the slums

Rich tend to own, but often rent in the city

Most purchase in cash although housing finance schemes becoming more common especially for rich

Poor don’t benefit from past housing subsidies

Africa’s Dual face Rural vs. Urban Rich vs. Poor Western vs. Indigenous 06/04/09

Rural vs. Urban

Rich vs. Poor

Western vs. Indigenous

An urban bias to development? Education pushes people toward “white collar” non-Agrarian life Best services e.g. health care in cities Govt, Supranational orgs, and NGOs base themselves in primate cities Access to electricity, internet, and other modern amenities Brody’s Swaziland exception 06/04/09

Education pushes people toward “white collar” non-Agrarian life

Best services e.g. health care in cities

Govt, Supranational orgs, and NGOs base themselves in primate cities

Access to electricity, internet, and other modern amenities

Brody’s Swaziland exception

Rural Development Rural life serves not only for food production but as a way of life and acculturation Indigenous Food Production Development and Agriculture Food Security/insecurity in both urban and rural settings 06/04/09

Rural life serves not only for food production but as a way of life and acculturation

Indigenous Food Production

Development and Agriculture

Food Security/insecurity in both urban and rural settings

Indigenous Food Production: Fishing, Hunting, and Gathering At most basic level Fishing, Hunting and Gathering done by few societies in Africa !Kung San of Kalahari Mbuti (Pygmies) But these practices conducted to supplement diet Fishing: Fante (Ghana) and Luo (E.A) Bush meat: Throughout W.A. and Wazungu and others Supplemental herbs and medicine 06/04/09

At most basic level Fishing, Hunting and Gathering done by few societies in Africa

!Kung San of Kalahari

Mbuti (Pygmies)

But these practices conducted to supplement diet

Fishing: Fante (Ghana) and Luo (E.A)

Bush meat: Throughout W.A. and Wazungu and others

Supplemental herbs and medicine

Indigenous Food Production: Crop Farming Most common form of labor and food production Often gendered Remember soil types and Bionomes from physical Geography P86 Shifting Cultivation on Forest edge Bush fallow with intercropping and today alley cropping Permanent cultivation Rich volcanic soil of east/central Africa Use of fertilizer 06/04/09

Most common form of labor and food production

Often gendered

Remember soil types and Bionomes from physical Geography P86

Shifting Cultivation on Forest edge

Bush fallow with intercropping and today alley cropping

Permanent cultivation

Rich volcanic soil of east/central Africa

Use of fertilizer

Livestock Production Nomadic Pastorlism most common form Somali, Masaai, Dinka, Nuer Cattle seen as consumable capital Nuer use cattle as currency lifeblood that connects families (Hutchinson, 1996) Mixed farming Common in most areas In true form in Amhara region of Ethiopia 06/04/09

Nomadic Pastorlism most common form

Somali, Masaai, Dinka, Nuer

Cattle seen as consumable capital

Nuer use cattle as currency lifeblood that connects families (Hutchinson, 1996)

Mixed farming

Common in most areas

In true form in Amhara region of Ethiopia

Conflicts in Food production Pastoralist Vs. Permanent Cultivation Darfur: “Arab” Pastoralists vs. “African” Farmers Pastoralist vs. Pastoralist Cattle raiding among Turkana, Dinka, Nuer, Karamojong in northern Uganda, Kenya, and southern Sudan Agriculture vs. wildlife conservation Nyandarua District, Kenya White Settler vs. Indigenous land user Kenya, Zimbabwe, S.A., Namibia, and others 06/04/09

Pastoralist Vs. Permanent Cultivation

Darfur: “Arab” Pastoralists vs. “African” Farmers

Pastoralist vs. Pastoralist

Cattle raiding among Turkana, Dinka, Nuer, Karamojong in northern Uganda, Kenya, and southern Sudan

Agriculture vs. wildlife conservation

Nyandarua District, Kenya

White Settler vs. Indigenous land user

Kenya, Zimbabwe, S.A., Namibia, and others

Conflicts and Human Rights between indigenous food production groups While these conflicts are not new the scale of these conflicts is at new heights. Climate change? Change in group structure due to processes of colonialism, neo/post-colonialism Presence of Guns and small arms from current conflicts and cold war proxy wars? 06/04/09

While these conflicts are not new the scale of these conflicts is at new heights.

Climate change?

Change in group structure due to processes of colonialism, neo/post-colonialism

Presence of Guns and small arms from current conflicts and cold war proxy wars?

Colonial Changes to food production Introduction of cash crop mono-cropping that robbed nutrients from soil, although it was initially seen as positive (cotton) Loss of Pastures for Pastoralists to ranching Introduction of mechanized farming Loss of farm labor due to urban migration and work on white farms to pay taxes Loss of land due to colonial practices 06/04/09

Introduction of cash crop mono-cropping that robbed nutrients from soil, although it was initially seen as positive (cotton)

Loss of Pastures for Pastoralists to ranching

Introduction of mechanized farming

Loss of farm labor due to urban migration and work on white farms to pay taxes

Loss of land due to colonial practices

Post-Colonial Ag development Neglect of AG sector after colonialism Urban bias of services Urban food subsidies Imports and “Rendile” situations Hidden curriculum State Farms (Ujamaa) Land reform Kenya (root of rift valley clashes) Zimbabwe (slow reform then today) 06/04/09

Neglect of AG sector after colonialism

Urban bias of services

Urban food subsidies

Imports and “Rendile” situations

Hidden curriculum

State Farms (Ujamaa)

Land reform

Kenya (root of rift valley clashes)

Zimbabwe (slow reform then today)

World Bank’s Integrated Agricultural Development Projects IADP Focused on innovation Hybrid seeds, “green revolution”, chemical fertilizers Supposed to bring higher yields Also improved local services and infrastructure Built on diffusion model from “progressive” farmer Rich benefited and bought up land of poor Brought debt because of loan finance 06/04/09

Focused on innovation

Hybrid seeds, “green revolution”, chemical fertilizers

Supposed to bring higher yields

Also improved local services and infrastructure

Built on diffusion model from “progressive” farmer

Rich benefited and bought up land of poor

Brought debt because of loan finance

Food in/security: challenges of farm and city Abnormal food shortage (famine) Chronic under-nutrition Geographical or social problem Hunger in the land of plenty Urban insecurity sometimes alleviated by rural family sources of food. Food Aid displacing impact Kenyan horticulture masked by aid 06/04/09

Abnormal food shortage (famine)

Chronic under-nutrition

Geographical or social problem

Hunger in the land of plenty

Urban insecurity sometimes alleviated by rural family sources of food.

Food Aid displacing impact

Kenyan horticulture masked by aid

Famine Crop failures Drought (Zambia and Swaziland) Civil wars Border closures Famine becomes more deadly as indigenous systems erode Ethiopia and Malawi established grain reserves Forced to sell because of SAPs 06/04/09

Crop failures

Drought (Zambia and Swaziland)

Civil wars

Border closures

Famine becomes more deadly as indigenous systems erode

Ethiopia and Malawi established grain reserves

Forced to sell because of SAPs

Chronic undernutrition Found even in food exporters Kenya and S.A. Affects differ by class and gender “ trapped” without fertilizer and seed Crops that give poor yeilds Crops that give poor nutrition Affects both rural and urban because of interdependence of rural and urban household 06/04/09

Found even in food exporters

Kenya and S.A.

Affects differ by class and gender

“ trapped” without fertilizer and seed

Crops that give poor yeilds

Crops that give poor nutrition

Affects both rural and urban because of interdependence of rural and urban household

Why food insecurity? Population growth and environment yet Machokos example shows environment more carefully managed with more people Failure of small farmer to adapt? Wrong policies As Ag commodities dependency increases and no longer a crop problem but money problem 06/04/09

Population growth and environment yet Machokos example shows environment more carefully managed with more people

Failure of small farmer to adapt?

Wrong policies

As Ag commodities dependency increases and no longer a crop problem but money problem

Vicious Cycle and Food for urban and rural households Remember the urban/rural inter-dependence on food Urban rural exchange of services for food security Urban rural exchange of western culture for indigenous acculturation All these are effected by vicious cycle (AIDS, POVERTY, INSECURITY) 06/04/09

Remember the urban/rural inter-dependence on food

Urban rural exchange of services for food security

Urban rural exchange of western culture for indigenous acculturation

All these are effected by vicious cycle (AIDS, POVERTY, INSECURITY)

New HIV infections AIDS illness and deaths Family impoverishment Family stress/collapse Hunger School drop-out Child Vulnerability Abuse/ exploitation Trans-generational Transmission of Poverty