Carbohydrates

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REVIEW of CARBOHYDRATES

CARBOHYDRATES <ul><li>Hydrates of carbon [ C n ( H 2 O ) m ] </li></ul><ul><li>Poly hydroxyaldehyde or poly hydroxyketone...

FUNCTIONS of CARBOHYDRATES <ul><li>Storehouses of chemical energy </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Glucose,starch, glycogen </li></...

SPECIFIC CARBOHYDRATES <ul><li>Monosaccharides </li></ul><ul><li>Glucose ( dextrose, grape sugar, blood sugar ) </li></ul...

<ul><li>Disaccharides </li></ul><ul><li>Sucrose ( table sugar, cane sugar , saccharose ) </li></ul><ul><li>glucose & f...

CLASSES OF CARBOHYDRATES <ul><li>Number of C </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Triose, tetroses, pentose, hexose, heptulose </li></ul>...

STRUCTURAL PROJECTIONS OF MONOSACCHARIDES <ul><li>FISCHER by Emil Fischer </li></ul><ul><li>( Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1...

<ul><li>HAWORTH by Walter Haworth </li></ul><ul><li>( Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1937 ) </li></ul><ul><ul><li>A way to vi...

ANOMERIC CARBON

CHAIR & BOAT CONFORMATIONS

AMINO SUGARS

REDUCING PROPERTY <ul><li>Ketose </li></ul><ul><li> Enediol </li></ul><ul><li> Aldose </li></ul><ul><li> Aldonate </li>...

A B O ANTIGENS <ul><ul><li>N-acetyl- D-galactose N-acetyl- </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>D-galactosamine D-glucosamine ...

POLYSACCHARIDES <ul><li>STARCH </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Storage carbohydrate in plants </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Two princip...

<ul><li>GLYCOGEN </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Energy-reserve carbohydrate in animals </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Highly branched c...

CELLULOSE <ul><li>Plant skeletal polysaccharide </li></ul><ul><li>Linear chain of 2200 glucose units linked via β 1-4 bo...

ACIDIC POLYSACCHARIDES <ul><li>Also called mucopolysaccharides (MPS) or glycosaminoglycans (GAG) </li></ul><ul><li>Polymer...

ACIDIC POLYSACCHARIDES <ul><li>HYALURONIC ACID </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Simplest GAG </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>Contains 300-...

<ul><ul><li>HEPARAN SULFATE </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><li>CHONDROITIN SULFATE </li></ul></ul><ul><ul><ul><li>Most abundant in...

GLYCOLYSIS <ul><li>The specific pathway by which the body gets energy from monosaccharides </li></ul><ul><li>First stage i...

<ul><li>Step # 3 </li></ul><ul><li>Second phosphate group is attached to yield fructose-1,6-bisphosphate </li></ul><ul><li...

ATP-YIELDING Third stage <ul><li>Step # 5 </li></ul><ul><li>Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate is oxidized to 1,3-bisphosphoglyc...

<ul><li>Step # 8 </li></ul><ul><li>Dehydration of 2-phosphoglycerate to phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) </li></ul><ul><li>Step ...

REACTIONS OF GLYCOLYSIS STEP REACTION ENZYME REACTION TYPE Δ G in kJ/mol 1 Glucose + ATP  G-6-P + ADP + H + Hexok...

STEP REACTION ENZYME REACTION TYPE Δ G in kJ/ mol 4 F-1,6-BP  DHAP + GAP Aldolase Aldol cleavage -1.3 5 DHAP  G...

CITRIC ACID CYCLE STEP REACTION ENZYME PROSTHETIC GROUP REACTION TYPE Δ G o in kJ/ mol 1 acetylCoA + oxaloacetate + HO...

CITRIC ACID CYCLE STEP REACTION ENZYME PROSTHETIC GROUP REACTION TYPE Δ G o in kJ/ mol 3 Isocitrate + NAD+  α -keto...

CITRIC ACID CYCLE STEP REACTION ENZYME PROSTHETIC GROUP REACTION TYPE Δ G o in kJ/ mol 6 Succinate + FAD (enzyme-bound) ...

REGULATION OF TCA CYCLE Pyruvate Acetyl CoA Citrate Isocitrate Α -Ketoglutarate Succinyl CoA Succinate Fumarate Malate Oxa...

BIOSYNTHETIC ROLES OF TCA CYCLE Pyruvate Acetyl CoA Citrate Isocitrate Α -Ketoglutarate Succinyl CoA Succinate Fumarate...

NOTES TO REMEMBER <ul><li>The unusual thing about the structure of N-acetylmuramic acid compared to other carbohydrates ...

<ul><li>Glycogen and starch differ mainly in the degree of chain branching . </li></ul><ul><li>Enantiomers are nonsuperi...

<ul><li>Sugar phosphate is an ester bond formed between a sugar hydroxyl and phosphoric acid . </li></ul><ul><li>A gl...

<ul><li>Major biochemical roles of glycoproteins are signal transduction as hormones, recognition sites for external ...

<ul><li>Two best precursors for glycogen are glucose and fructose . </li></ul><ul><li>Cellulose because of the β - b...

<ul><li>The enzyme β -amylase is an exoglycosidase degrading polysaccharides from the ends. The enzyme α -amylase is...

<ul><li>Cross-linking can be expected to play a role in the structures of cellulose and chitin where mechanical strengt...

<ul><li>Glycosidic bonds can be formed between the side chain hydroxyls of serine or threonine residues and the sugar hy...

<ul><li>In glycolysis , reactions that require NADH are: </li></ul><ul><li>1. reduction of pyruvate to lactate ( LDH ...

<ul><li>Aldolase catalyzes the reverse aldol condensation of fructose-1,6-bisphosphate to glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate and...

<ul><li>Pyruvate can be converted to lactate , ethanol or acetylCoA . </li></ul><ul><li>The free energy of hydrolysi...

<ul><li>Isozymes allow for subtle control of the enzyme to respond to different cellular needs. For example, in the liv...

<ul><li>Hexokinase is inhibited by glucose-6-phosphate . Phosphofructokinase is inhibited by ATP and citrate . Pyruv...

<ul><li>The glucokinase has a higher Km for glucose than hexokinase . Thus, under conditions of low glucose , the liver...

<ul><li>A reaction with a negative Δ G o is thermodynamically possible under standard conditions. </li></ul><ul><li>I...

<ul><li>ATP is an inhibitor of several steps of glycolysis as well as other catabolic pathways. The purpose of catabol...

<ul><li>PK is also inhibited by acetylCoA , the presence of which indicates that fatty acids are being used to generat...

<ul><li>TPP is a coenzyme required in the reaction catalyzed by pyruvate carboxylase . Because this reaction is a part o...

<ul><li>A positive Δ G o does not necessarily mean that the reaction has a positive Δ G . Substrate concentrations ...

<ul><li>In glycogen storage , the reactions that require ATP are: </li></ul><ul><li>1. formation of UDP-glucose from g...

<ul><li>In glycogen storage , there is no reaction that requires acetylCoA but biotin is required in the carboxylation...

<ul><li>In making equal amounts of NADPH and pentose phosphates , it only involves oxidative reactions . In making most...

<ul><li>UDPG , in glycogen biosynthesis, transfers glucose to the growing glycogen molecule . </li></ul><ul><li>Glycogen ...

<ul><li>In gluconeogenesis, glucose-6-phosphate is dephosphorylated to glucose (last step); in glycolysis, G-6-P isomerize...

<ul><li>Control mechanisms are important in metabolism. They are: </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Allosteric control (takes place in...

<ul><li>Increasing the level of ATP is favorable to both gluconeogenesis and glycogen synthesis. </li></ul><ul><li>Decrea...

<ul><li>In the PPP resshuffling reactions, without an isomerase, all the sugars involved are keto sugars that are not subs...

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