Carbohydrate Metabolism

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Principles of Energy Harvest <ul><li>Endothermic </li></ul><ul><ul><li>Photosynthesis </li></ul></ul><ul><li>Exothermic </...

6CO 2 + 6H 2 O 2840 kJ Energy As Heat Combustion of glucose in a bomb calorimeter Glucose

Aerobic Respiration <ul><li>Products would be the same if the glucose were burned in a bomb calorimeter with oxygen </li><...

Redox reactions <ul><li>Oxidation-reduction </li></ul><ul><li>OIL RIG (adding e- reduces + charge) </li></ul><ul><li>Oxid...

Redox Reactions <ul><li>Reaction in which one substance transfers one or more electrons to another substance is called ox...

Cellular respiration <ul><li>Glycolysis: cytosol; degrades glucose into pyruvate </li></ul><ul><li>Kreb’s Cycle: mitoc...

Overview of Glycolysis <ul><li>The Embden-Meyerhof (Warburg) Pathway </li></ul><ul><li>Discovered by Hans Buchner and Ed...

Glycolysis <ul><li>1 Glucose  2 pyruvate molecules </li></ul><ul><li>Energy investment phase : cell uses ATP to phosp...

Kreb’s Cycle <ul><li>If molecular oxygen is present……. </li></ul><ul><li>Each pyruvate is converted into acetyl CoA (begi...

Electron transport chain <ul><li>Cytochromes carry electron carrier molecules (NADH & FADH2) down to oxygen </li></ul><ul>...

Review: Cellular Respiration <ul><li>Glycolysis: 2 ATP (substrate-level phosphorylation) </li></ul><ul><li>Kreb’s Cycle...

4 stages of aerobic respiration Stage 1: Glycolysis Stage 2: Formation of Acetyl coenzyme A Stage 3: The Citric Acid Cyc...

A Road Map for Cellular Respiration Cytosol Mitochondrion High-energy electrons carried by NADH High-energy electrons carr...

Glycolysis and Fermentation

Glycolysis: Embden Meyerhof pathway <ul><li>The pathway for lactate fermentation in muscle is the same pathway as alcoho...

Related metabolic processes

Fate of Pyruvate

2 Pyruvic acid Overview of Glycolysis

GLYCOLYSIS Glucose ATP hexokinase ADP Glucose 6-phosphate p hosphogluco- i somerase Fructose 6-phosphate ATP phosph...

Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate glyceraldehyde NAD + + P i 3-phosphate NADH + H + dehydrogenase 1,3- Bis phosphoglycerate ...

Glycolysis: 1

Glycolysis: stage 1 The three steps of stage 1 begin with the phosphorylation of glucose by hexokinase Energy used, none...

ATP ADP glucose glucose 6-phosphate ∆ G o = -16.7 kJ/mole Step 1: Adding a phosphate Enzyme: hexokinase

Phosphoryl transfer reaction. Kinases transfer phosphate from ATP to an acceptor. Hexokinase has a more general specifi...

Glucose phosphorylation: step 1 Glucose is a relatively stable molecule and is not easily broken down. The phosphoylated...

Induced fit in hexokinase Conformation Changes on binding glucose, the two lobes of the enzyme come together and Surro...

Step 2: Isomerization glucose 6-phosphate fructose 6-phophate aldose to ketose isomerization reversible,  G°´= 1.7...

The conversion of an aldose to a ketose . Phosphoglucose Isomerase Δ G°’= .40 kcal mol-1

Formation of fructose-6-phosphate: step 2 by phosphoglucose isomerase The enzyme opens the ring, catalyzes the isomeriza...

Step 3: Second phosphorylation <ul><li>second ATP investment </li></ul><ul><li>highly exergonic, essentially irreversible...

Phosphofructokinase-1 PFK Δ G°’= -3.4 kcal mol -1 The 2 nd investment of an ATP in glycolysis. Bis means two phosphate ...

Formation of fructose 1,6-bisphosphate: step 3 by phosphofructokinase (PFK): an allosteric enzyme that regulates the p...

Allosteric Enzymes <ul><li>Part II. Allosteric Regulation </li></ul><ul><li>Control of Enzyme Activity by Non-Covalent M...

Glycolysis: stage 2 Two 3-carbon fragments are produced from one 6-carbon sugar No energy used or extracted

Step 4: Cleavage to two triose phosphates Reverse aldol condensation ; converts a 6 carbon atom sugar to 2 molecules, eac...

Aldol Condensation <ul><li>An Aldol condensation is an organic reaction in which an enolate ion reacts with a carb...

Cleavage of six-carbon sugar: step 4

Glycolysis: 2

Step 5: Isomerization of dihydroxyacetone phosphate H 2 C-OH C=O CH 2 -O- P dihydroxyacetone glyceraldehyde phosphate...

Salvage of three-carbon fragment: step 5

Glycolysis: stage 3 The oxidation of three-carbon fragments yields ATP Energy extracted, 2x2 ATP

Glycolysis: 3

Step 6: Formation of 1,3-Bisphosphoglycerate Done in two steps glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate 1,3 bisphosphoglycerate Enzyme...

The fate of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate Stage 3: The energy yielding phase. Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate DH Δ G°’ = 1.5 kcal ...

Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase Active site configuration

Step 7: Transfer of phosphate to make ATP Formation of ATP from 1,3-Bisphosphoglycerate: Enzyme: phosphoglycerate kinas...

7: Phosphoglycerate Kinase Substrate-level phosphorylation Δ G°’ = -4.5 kcal mol -1 ATP is produced from P i and ADP at t...

Two-process reaction Aldehyde Acid

Step 8: Phosphate shift setup - shifts phosphate from position 3 to 2 - reversible , ΔG  = + 4.6 kJ/mole Enzyme: p...

Phosphate shift Phosphoglycerate mutase Δ G°’ = 1.1 kcal mol -1

Step 8: Rearrangement

Step 9: Removal of Water leadsto formation of double bond little energy change in this reaction, ΔG  = + 1.7 kJ/mole be...

Generation of second very high energy compound by a dehydration reaction Enolase Δ G°’ = .4 kcal mol -1 Dehydration reac...

An enol phosphate is formed: step 9 Dehydration elevates the transfer potential of the phosphoryl group, which traps th...

Step 10: Formation of Pyruvate & ATP Enzyme: pyruvate kinase phosphoenolpyruvate pyruvate second substrate level phosp...

<ul><li>Substrate level phosphorylation is the synthesis of ATP from ADP that is not linked to the electron transport syst...

Maintaining Redox Balance NAD + must be regenerated for glycolysis to proceed Glycolysis is similar in all cells, the fat...

Diverse fates of pyruvate To citric acid cycle

The Conversion of Glucose to Pyruvate Glucose + 2 P i + 2 ADP + 2 NAD + -> 2 pyruvate + 2 ATP + 2 NADH +2 H + The Energ...

Under anaerobic conditions pyruvate is converted to lactate. Exercising muscle is an example. The NAD + that is consumed...

ATP

In anaerobic yeast, pyruvate->ethanol Pyruvate is decarboxylated. Acetaldehyde is reduced.

Variations on a theme in alcoholic fermentation. Here also, there is no net oxidation reduction.

Enzyme Classification Dehydrogenase - oxidizes substrate using cofactors as electron acceptor or donor (pyruvate dehydroge...

Stage 2: The Krebs Cycle <ul><li>The Krebs cycle completes the breakdown of sugar </li></ul><ul><li>In the Krebs cycle, py...

input output ADP NAD+ FAD Figure 6.11 Input 3 NAD  FAD Krebs Cycle Output 2 CO 2 1 2 3 4 5 6

Figure 6.12 Protein complex Electron carrier Inner mitochondrial membrane Electron flow Electron transport chain ATP synth...

Stage 3: Electron Transport <ul><li>Electron transport releases the energy your cells need to make the most of their ATP <...

Adding Up the ATP from Cellular Respiration Figure 6.14 Cytosol Mitochondrion Glycolysis Glucose 2 Pyruvic acid 2 Acetyl- ...

Figure 6.13 Food Polysaccharides Fats Proteins Sugars Glycerol Fatty acids Amino acids Amino groups Glycolysis Acetyl- CoA...

ATP hydrolysis and synthesis

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